Sorghum; its culture and manufacture economically considered as a source of sugar, syrup

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HONDURAS SORGHUM.

SOmaeuM
Dah? IPO,
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pe hE ae

ITS CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE

ECONOMICALLY CONSIDER

3
NEW YORK
AS A SOURCE ON. SB QTAHECAL

SarpeX:

SUGAR, SYRUP, AND FODDER

BY
PETER COLLIER, Ph. D

Late Chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C,

CINCINNATI
ROBERT CLARKE & CO
1884

Cy *

Copryricut, 1884,
By ROBERT CLARKE & CO.

All rights reserved.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

CONFLICTING OPINIONS ON ESSENTIAL POINTS DURING THE INVESTIGATIONS AT THE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE........ ......-..- BS Pad! ay Ot eae Aa 1
HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE........... 12
NECESSITY FOR FURTHER RESEARCH........... Pee ok te), Se A Beene 0 eek eine 14
FUTURE PROSPECTS OF THE SORGHUM SUGAR INDUSTRY... ..-..-..ccc000--0ecccerceccees 19

CHAPTER IL
pETUARE INST EES AG) ID CE A Be Oo nt etree te ciao, Wis 5 See ROS See ee ae oS eee 22
PEUROCESIOM SUGANO ose. se nccacc so sec Meamenecssa ssc Cnottenadcaees Host peeve cena ace, wie
COPA TTI ORCHID SUGAR piscu cakes cc sce econ heoton + 66 cca Seen ob awenmcetcceeaes eee eee ak
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SORGHUM......... BN oe Sere St 4 eee WE Aer he ae ET oe + 42

CHAPTER III.

FRIST WOR, BORGHUM =~ o-,, cece sc 5 Saree ea <. - Ce Sateen eee oe eee es etc!)
EERE NYO SORE EES = oe ant oe on san eet ns SLC LA ion a cee. aeettay ote wee a4
INTRODUCTION OF SORGHUM INTO THE UNITED STATES..............0520-cccceccceccess ot
HYBRIDIZATION OF SORGHUM.......... eich Stine SES aco Gn ee ee Be DeCan e aee 69

CHAPTER IV.

VARIETIES OF SORGHUM CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.... ...........------2--- 73
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NAMES OF THE VARIETIES OF SORGHUM.................--2----- 79
PARLE: ROR IDENTIFICATION OF VABIETIBN, (22590. 2 Sos oy os co Leb cats back Saco note 98
COMPARISON OF SORGHUMS FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES...............-.eceeeeeeeceeeee 101
CHAPTER V.
SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF GROUND, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION.............. 108
SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF SEED ............ BEN EE eee Sie ie A Oe Se ee 114
TIME FROM PLANTING, TO REACH CERTAIN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT.................. 121
REMMI AR VESTENG CROP. S652 se nc tactitn coe an ogo 5 as Seon es see eee ena gate Seem 122
APOE ANGR Un A NOBVEN. OROD sn soso 6. oc hoe ae ot oom wae ee cere cie n aarnd par PT
HureeT OF REMOVING SEED. BPC sas.. ot. een = eke ome seemed a dls te naw ate cucceneweees 138
ISRREGT OF SEEEEPING GANE © S320 00 - 5. sccecsas Conve ss A Ncaaiewe'e ease AaB Sintec betes 140
CHAPTER VI.
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND RAIN-FALL ON SORGHUM....... 2-20-20 - cece eee eeeeee 145
MegrRerm GF EROSE- ON SORGHUMe. ort. olen shs as cle nace es Joes ta geen econ sendesscesbecs esas 154
VVECTSIOE FERTILIZERS(ON SORGHUM (00) = cuacuweesac (anne cebesencewcccesswecte dee ne 162
COMPOSITION OF SOIL AS AFFECTING SORGHUM.............-+- eR CRT LER O Octo 177

V1 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII.

DEVELOPMENT OF SUCROSE AND GLUCOSE IN SORGHUM..........---.eeeeeeeee ayes ee) vee LOD
AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF SORGHUM ............. 198
COMPARATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE STALK.............--202-0seceeceee 225
GENERAL ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES.........,.cccceccecccreceeces fees ces atc eee 238
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM,.........ccecseeeeesees coord Pn Lo RE 250:

CHAPTER VIII.

EEX BIA CULO ING ONG UL CE SLO O Mu CAINE fe ercrcvelepseaete sic ore axe ueletatetetiittels oie velelers ernie felelavesels/s's\ e/a. »/a\steletelevatars 2577
AIDPONACIOU Tee Seite electing Ban AEs Gano Nene Heo ao ROO enna s SSOeAMtn DOC. DOCOREB SOOO oC 0. 261
VARIOUS METHODS FOR THE EXTRACTION OF JUICE...... Bee eiseisis alo Weel ie SACO isc 280:

CHAPTER IX.

PGK H OMTLON SSE RINGUD IES OM eters ecctctete ns ort heie chee aie cole ke oainte et etete ole) elaola el eieilic erafe)eia'=ts =/vieteletete 22 28%
DEFECATION WITH TST TETNS oe hS s ee eeec ae a ne RES SADE 1 293.
ORE A GENES MLN HD EEE CATE ON 4 c2 coe acteetcinisls So sieeininaisie sieterclelstelelals sieteraraleisiart(e stctaeisleraeieisie 296.
SCaEPHUROUSSACID, AND: SUEPHITES, DN) DEBEGCATION® opr rcte<nintnicis o1elelaiavo's elas pbfalalnietetsioia(ale eo ae 305
EXPERIMENTS IN DEFECATION......-..---- Fo So SOR ASOT DO bo Jeno Combines c 308
CHAPTER X.
GONCENTRATION OR EVAPORATION OF JUICE... 25. cccies cede veces ces ce ence ccceccecinn 325
METHODS OF EVAPORATION.......- ae, «Sid ARIST aan Bea a PaS See seat ae oe larcta iohoroetore re sre el stecefels] ates 327
GANG UIT EDACN SY Sa etiasrs Srey cmetore elehstey aon aya) Sieseemiesieye talc ee(e in Mrnsta elelajavelatn’e aVe\o1ate?s ateruisielatavercietafeve tater 341
MOULD Di opIn A N Cly bepoo ee ome Hoked cote canecr, Sic cOOrt ont MODES COGALOHOOU AUPE OU EERAGSOn oo. .. 306:
GnPARATION OF SUGAR FROM MQGASSES. .....0...0s22cscceccecswsenceccceraas cores veces 362
SUCRATES OF LIME AND STRONTIA..........0-+-e-ssceeccee cfareteert pefeierets nee semapeoasis eaten 3870

CHAPTER XI.

WASTE PRODUCISUNROM SORGHUM... ... 2 cccschier stp ociecnccesiosis «ele ceclesisiaa sie tials nil 376
SEED, COMPOSITION, AND FEEDING VALUE..... ..-.--+-+eeee sec ee cece cree eees Sup ve sns 377
BAGASSE, LOSS OF SUGAR IN....- 2. eee eee eee eee ee teen eee eee eee Godedassgtgabccs20¢ B81
EXPERIMENTS IN SAVING SUGAR FROM BAGASSE. .........-0eseeeecee reece eee e ett e eee rees 387
Ta ACVARIS OOD V AMIE) 5 feinisleye wie. = clare wiesnrclels inlet oie = = flaioye «icine einjeieyeininls wialeinioiersivie ais p\siele sierctal= 390
BAGASSE AS FOOD, FUEL, AND AS MATERIAL FOR PAPER,.....-.-.-+eteeesseerereee cree 392°
SCUMS AND SEDIMENTS, VALUE.........-2-+:200- cecceececteecccees oie slerdaeee seieleee .- 401
SORGHUM AS A FORAGE PLANT 2222p ere cee ee cadences ebietsise enicietate sielacinis/eleeipeinerolenctiet 407

CHAPTER XII.

STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION OF SORGHUM IN THE UNITED STATES........ ..-----.-.-5-- 408.
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SORGHUM..... SA Se ae ere aS aeAerne OS aOUaso55~ 417
SoRGHUM COMPARED WITH OTHER LEADING CROPS OF UNITED STATES...........-+--: 419
MARKETING OF SYRUPS. .. 2... 02-0. e eee e cece cece eee n etter etter reese eceestecenseseenmesecs 424
GENTRAL HACTORIES.. (0... cecserew reer cries scisisnes sheer acing sess sin weve, oa sielotel rae aetcione etetereae 425

MAIZE SUGAR; HISTORY OF........... Di ee ane OR Fe oyun. ats oe eter ate OES hese nena
DETAILED ANALYSES OF THE JUICE OF SEVERAL VARIETIES OF MAIZE......- aes: o eleva eter 431

CONTENTS. . Vit

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF MANY VARIETIES OF MAIZE....... ..........-.... 435.
SUGAR ANDY RIPR GRATNSREOM MATZE sates’) | eeeeeeere 22 coe. i on loge kt elas 441
COMPARISON OF THE JUICES OF SORGHUM AND MAIZE......... ate ae a a Sie ee 443
Peat MEnEET HOGA ROM: 2! .: 2 foc gee ce os so oe see ae lens Penatcune tinsesee toneee 445

CHAPTER XIV.

PATA USTION: OF SOL BY. GROWING SORGHUM, ©: : setter seccca 2 «fee cc's cence ccs nae Oe Se 447
EXHAUSTION, HOW PREVENTED IN GROWING SORGHUM................... .2-+----- .. 449
AVERAGE YIELD OF PRINCIPAL CROPS IN EACH STATE OF UNITED STATES, FROM 1868-
1S(2 ANS PROM) Iss 2-1500, COMPARED 1. ds 2 Ree eee et on oo re tee ee eck we ee 452
VALUE OF ASH CONSTITUENTS OF PRINCIPAL CROPS OF UNITED STATES................ 463
How EXHAUSTION OF SOILS MAY BE PREVENTED BY USE OF FERTILIZERS.......... 466

CHAPTER XV.

METHOD OF ANALYSIS OF SORGHUM AND MAIZE JUICES USED BY THE AUTHOR IN HIS

TINA WROSE TOUT TONS: o08 vn hc oe eo) sige cee SS oan Se NC Ane are 469
COMPARISON OF ANALYSES WITH POLARIZATION OF JUICES .........-...--. ..-...2--e. 477
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF JUICES ....... ......--.- SPP) eS... SAL ee ee ed wse 4Be
TABLES OF AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM JUICES AT DIFFERENT SPECIFIC GRAV=

EALIOS cree pew Sata SN es 2 5 Se eNe cv, aes. 2 ee oe ee Re 489
TABLES OF AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF MAIZE JUICES AT DIFFERENT SPECIFIC GRAV-

EERE R I er PIS, Aa oo EC... cs Re a ee 497
PREPARATION OF RE-AGENTS FOR ANALYSES OF SORGHUM AND MAIZE JUICES......... 503

CHAPTER XVI.

METHODS OF MANUFACTURE OF DIFFERENT SORGHUM SUGAR, AND SYRUP MAKERS ... 504

EXPERIMENTS IN SORGHUM SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ON A LARGE SCALE, AT THE DE-
PARDMENT OFAAGRIGULIGERE, AT WASHINGTON: s222~->0 205000. < 30 boone nek 513

CAUSES OF FAILURE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR AT THE DEPARTMENT OF AG-
LGU RE, sR! WASTINGTON D8 0.090. rick eel es ca te ne Ee ee ee 537

APPENDIX.

STATISTICS, FURNISHED BY THE BUREAU OF STATISTICS OF THE TREASURY DEPART-

PREF ACH.

It is the purpose of this work to present, in a systematic
manner, all the most important facts relating to the econom-
ical production of sugar, syrup, and fodder from sorghum.
The attempt has been made to separate that which is demon-
strable from the vast accumulation of statements, true and
fanciful, which have been given publicity since the first in-
troduction of sorghum into the United States.

While chemist of the United States*Department of Agri-
culture, in the years 1878 to 1882 inclusive, the writer en-
joyed exceptional advantages for the scientific study of dif-
ferent varieties of sorghum during all stages of development.
The large amount of analytical work then accomplished, to-
gether with numerous laboratory experiments in various di-
rections, have served to demonstrate many important ques-
tions previously unsolved or in dispute, and have led the way
for larger practical experiments. All the material thus ac-
cumulated has been condensed and classified in this volume,
and it is hoped that it has been so presented as to render it
serviceable and comprehensible alike to farmers, sugar mak-
ers, and chemists.

In like manner, the actual working results of numerous
practical experiments in the production of sugar from sor-
ghum have been given in detail, together with illustrations
and descriptions of all necessary apparatus. Credit has been
given to other investigators, and, so far as is known to the
author, all important results obtained by others have been
included in this work. .

There is no longer any reason to doubt that, when mature,
(x)

x PREFACE.

most varieties of sorghum contain an amount of erystalliza-
ble sugar sufficient to yield a very substantial profit to those
who employ proper manufacturing methods. As in all new
and great industries, there are still many unsolved questions
relating to the perfection and cheapening of working proc-
esses. It must not be expected that all beginners will be
successful, for the neglect of necessary precautions is very
likely to be followed by failure; but, with proper conditions
and attention to the rules for practice here laid down, it is
believed that the successes will greatly outnumber the fail-
ures.

There was a time in the earlier years of the present cent-
ury, when sugar seems to have been considered a luxury,
chiefly to be enjoyed by the wealthy, and when the average
annual supply fell short of ten pounds per capita. Now,
sugar may safely be classed among the staple articles of food
which we term necessities, and the average consumption is
about forty pounds per year for each person in the United
States.

The sum annually paid to foreign nations for this great
amount of sugar exceeds one hundred million dollars, and
the first cost is further augmented by the tax of nearly fifty
million dollars which is levied by our government.

In the matter of supplying our own demands, this country
has never been able to make.much headway, our present ca-
pacity being equal only to about one-eighth of the total con-
sumption. Because'the tropical sugar-cane can only be suc-
cessfully grown in a very restricted area, and also owing to
the fact that early frosts endanger the crop and compel sugar
makers, in our southern states, to work up the canes while
immature and containing less than the maximum amount of
sugar, the production of all our sugar from the cane, within
our present boundaries, can not be considered probable.

PREFACE. xi

In sorghum, we have a plant botanically related to the
tropical sugar-cane, and resembling it in capacity for the pro-
duction of sugar, while it possesses the very important ad-
vantage that it is much more hardy, and, like Indian corn,
to which it is also related, may be easily and successfully cul-
tivated in nearly every state of the Union.

It is the author’s belief, based upon the actual experience
of four seasons’ constant experimentation, that the sorghum
plant is destined, sooner or later, to furnish not only all the
sugar needed in this country, but also a very considerable
proportion of that required by foreign nations. That these
are not the unwarranted opinions of an enthusiast, will ap-
pear from the report, upon this subject, by the special com-

mittee of the National Academy of Sciences, which is here
included.

It is the fortune of most investigators, who are so daring
as to show, in advance, the great possibilities of some new
industry, to meet ridicule, and even hostility from those who
fail to comprehend the full import of the discoveries which
have been announced. The writer has not been spared this
infliction ; but, as an offset, he has already had the satisfac-
tion of witnessing the actual production of good sugar from
sorghum on a large scale, and at moderate cost.

If, in part, as a result of his labors, the sorghum sugar in-
dustry shall ultimately be established in this country upon a
sound basis, any personal inconvenience will be amply com-
pensated by the great satisfaction attending the success of an
enterprise of such consequence. It is hoped that this book
may be of service to many who shall undertake the cultiva-
tion of sorghum and the manufacture of sugar, and that it
may also serve to extend an industry both promising and im-
portant, as a new source of national wealth.

W asuineton, D. C., March, 1884.

a 7
¥ t a, ay MM

i)

pos

SORGHUM:

ITS CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE.

CHAPTER

(a.) Conflicting opinions on essential points before the investigations at the
Department of Agriculture.

(b.) History of the development of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe.

(c.) Necessity for further research.

(d.) Future prospects of the Sorghum Sugar Industry.

PRELIMINARY.

In 1877, when the author was invited to take charge of the Chem-
ical Division of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, the
Commissioner of Agriculture, General Wm. G. Le Duc, directed him
to undertake the investigation of sorghum and maize as sugar pro-
ducing plants, since the results, recently secured in Minnesota, from
a variety of sorghum known as the “ Early Amber,” had again
aroused the public interest, which for some years had been dormant,
as to the possibility of producing our own supply of sugar. The in-
vestigation was begun during the season of 1878, and with results so
satisfactory and surprising, that it was the determination of the De-
partment to prosecute them to the end. From each of four varieties
of sorghum grown upon the grounds of the Department, there was
made a large quantity of excellent sugar by processes practically
identical with those used upon the sugar plantations of Cuba and
Louisiana; and the quantity of sugar obtained from the crop, was
fairly comparable with that obtained from the sugar-cane.

These investigations were continued by the author during the years
1879, 1880, 1881, and 1882, although without the facilities, during
the last two years, to make them fully successful. The result has been,
that the sorghum sugar industry, during the past three or four years,
has been developed to a degree that, while it has hardly reached the
proportions which its ardent advocates have anticipated, has at least
confounded and silenced those who have from the first predicted
failure.

It is hardly surprising, that the results obtained at the Department

* Tips, SORGHUM.

of Agriculture, in the investigations of sorghum and maize, and the
predictions based upon these results, should have met with much in-
credulity; since it is well known that, during the past thirty years,
these plants have been the subject of repeated, though incomplete,
investigations by many whose official position and professional stand-
ing weresuch as to entitle them to the confidence of the community. —

Naturally, results which have often been at variance with their own,
have met with a revision of unusual severity by other investigators ;
but, since the methods by which these results were obtained were the
best known, a cordial acceptance of them has been given, so far as I
know, without exception, among scientific men. ,

With another class the case has been quite different—those who,
Bourbon-like, neither learn nor forget. J°rom them there has been,
from first to last, only ungenerous criticism or actual hinderance ; which
has been so unjustifiable and so marked as to prompt one of our lead-
ing papers editorially to declare, of one of this class, that ‘‘ his entire
course in the matter has been unreasonable, obstructive, and, apparently,
malevolent.” One of the most effective and frequent methods of this
class in belittleing the work at the Department of Agriculture, and
opposing the acceptance of the important results obtained by means
of these investigations, has been to assert that, ‘‘after all, there was
nothing new in all this, for it had all been done twenty years ago.”
Such and similar statements have,been urged to cast doubt upon this
whole matter; to destroy public confidence in the truth of the results
obtained; to prevent their practical acceptance by the people: and
thus to prevent the realization of those practical results which have
been predicted and based upon the general acceptance of these results.
That such predictions have not been fulfilled, is the exact measure of
responsibility resting upon those who have thus, from whatever mo-
tive, misled the people.

It is needless here to enter into any discussion as to whether all
these facts were known and recognized twenty years ago—as to whether
or not, in all this work done at the Department of Agriculture, from
1878 to 1882 inclusive, there was any thing new. It is simply a mat-
ter of fact and of record’; and it may be best, before proceeding
further, to learn what was the state of our knowledge previous to
these investigations.

CONFLICTING OPINIONS ON ESSENTIAL POINTS.

The following citations are by no means an exhaustive: summary ;
but are, probably, sufficient to show the wide differences of opinion on

CONFLICTING OPINIONS. Bs

nearly every important point of the subject entertained by the several
- authorities quoted.
A few only of the more important points of this inquiry have been
selected as illustrations, and the conclusions reached are grouped under
each head and chronologically arranged.

Of the kind of Sugar present in the juice of Sorghum.

a. In a paper by D. Jay Brown (Annual Report, Department of
Agriculture, 1856, p. 310), he says: ‘

Mr. Hervey, of France, contends that there is no uncrystallizable sugar
pre-existing in the cane (sorghum), and that the formation of glucose (grape
sugar), or molasses, is only owing to the action of the salts contained in the
liquid during the manufacturing process.

_ 6. Dr. C. T. Jackson (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture

1857, p. 187), says:

There is no doubt that this plant (sorghum), when unripe, contains only
grape sugar.

e. Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, in a paper detailing the results of his in-
vestigations of sorghum (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture
1857, p. 192), says:

This result settles the question that the great bulk of the sugar contained in
the sorgho is crystallizable, or cane sugar proper.

And again, giving his final conclusions, he says:

1. The sorgho contains about 10 per cent of erystallizable sugar.

2. The sugar can be obtained by processes analogous to those employed for
extracting sugar from other plants.

In an article entitled ‘‘ Contributions to the knowledge of the nature
of the Chinese sugar-cane” (Transactions New York State Agricultural
Society, 1861, p. 785), by Dr. C. A. Goessmann, he says, p. 789:

The facts so far obtained prove, that, besides cane sugar, no other kind of
sugar exists in the juice of the ripe and sound sorghum-cane.

Again, in describing the general properties of the sorghum-cane
juice, he says, p. 798: .

I have already mentioned, that the results which I obtained entitled me to be-
lieve that cane sugar is the only kind of sugar that exists in that juice.

And on page 808, he says, of results in extracting sugar from sor-
ghum :

These results are very encouraging, as they show that more than half
the sugar, or 5 per cent out of 9 to 93 per cent, in the juice can be sepa-
rated. When Achard established the first beet sugar manufactory in Silesia, he
was able to separate only from 3 to 4 per cent of sugar, although 103 per cent

was present; and the French manufactories were quite contented, when they
succeeded in extracting from 4 to 5 per cent of sugar. The history of the de-

y: Bes SORGHUM.

velopment of the manufacture of beet sugar may be studied with great advan-
tage by those interested in the sorghum.

d. Dr. Thomas Antisell, chemist, Department of Agriculture (An-
nual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1866, p. 48), says:

The sorghum, while it contains some cane sugar in its early juice, loses it as
it advances in life; and, in all cases, by the usual methods of defecation and
classification, its existing sugar is almost wholly converted into uncrystallizable
sugar.

Again, Dr. Antisell say (Annual Report, Department of Agricul-
ture, 1867, p. 33):

The attempt to separate and crystallize the cane sugar of sorghum on a large
scale, has been wholly unsuccessful, and, as a sacchariferous plant, it is only
valuable for molasses.

e. Dr. C. A. Goessmann, chemist of Massachusetts State Agri-
cultural College, under date January 25th, 1881, says:

The sorghum juice furnishes, when properly treated, a good syrup; yet itis of
little importance for the production of sugar.

f. President Stockbridge, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College,
in his Aunual Report, December, 1881, p. 19, says:

The experiments with sorghum, as a sugar producing plant, forever settled
the fact that no known variety of it can be profitably employed for the purpose,

unless chemical science can discover a law by which glucose can be changed
for cane sugar.

The Best varieties of Sorghum for the production of Sugar.
In the Sorgho Journal for February, 1869, p. 9, the editor, William
Clough, says:
The Oomseeana is altogether the best, Neeazana is next, for making sugar.

It is not worth while to try to make sugar of any other variety which we now
possess.
Again, p. 26, he says: ;

It [the Oomseeana] is the only cane upon which the operation for sugar can
be conducted with any certainty.

Again, he says:

Spend no time in attempting to make sugar from any but the Oomseeana or
Neeazana varieties.

Again, same page, he says:

Its syrup does not tend to granulate.

Time for harvesting and working the Sorghum, and when the maximum of
Sugar is present in the juice. ;
a. In the Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1854, p. 222,
M. Vilmorin, of Paris, is quoted as concluding that

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: na

CONFLICTING OPINIONS. 5

The proportion of sugar in the stalks continued to increase until the seeds
were in the milky state. * * * The ripeness of the seeds does not appear
much to lessen the production of sugar, at least in the climate near Paris; but
in other countries, where it matures when the weather is still warm, the effect
may be different.

b. J. H. Hammond, Silverton, S. C. (Annual Report, Department
of Agriculture, 1855, p. 282), found, by his experiment (he records
one only) with sorghum, taken before the seed was in the milk, when
it was in the milk, and when it was mature, that

The youngest canes had rather the most, and the oldest rather the least, sac-
charine matter. * * * Beginning to cut the cane as soon as the head is
fully developed, it may be secured fora month before it will all ripen: how long
after that, I do not know.

e. Dr. C. T. Jackson (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture,
1856, p. 307) found that

The juice from stalks with quite ripe seeds was by far the sweetest, while the
green ones, which were just in flower, contained but very little saccharine
matter.

Upon page 312, Louis Vilmorin is quoted as saying:

The crystallization of the sugar of the sorgho, it seems, should be easily ob-
tained in all cases where the cane can be sufficiently ripened; and, as the pro-
portion of the sugar is an unfailing index of ripeness, it follows, that we could
always be sure of obtaining a good crystallization of juices, the density of
which exceeds 1.075, while weaker ones could not yield satisfactory results after
concentration.

Again, he says, same page:

This difficulty [of purging, through presence of gum] only presents itself in
the employment of unripe canes; for, as soon as the juices attain the density
of 1.080 and more, they contain little else than crystallizable sugar, and their
treatment presents no difficulty.

d. Dr. C. T. Jackson, in his report (Annual Report, Department of
Agriculture, 1857, p. 187), says:

A ripe plant yielded a juice of 1.062 sp. gr., which yielded 16.6 per cent of
thick syrup, which crystallized almost wholly into cane sugar, the whole mass
becoming solid with crystals.

And he concludes:

From these researches, I am fully satisfied that both the Chinese and the
African varieties of sorghum will produce sugar of the cane type, perfectly and
abundantly, whenever the canes will ripen their seeds.

Again, he says:

The unripe canes can be employed for making molasses and alcohol, but, as
before stated, will not yield true cane sugar.

e. The committee of the United States Agricultural Society, ap-

6 SORGHUM.

pointed to investigate the subject of sorghum, in their report (Annual
Report, Department of Agriculture, 1857), say:

Where the plant was well matured, the juice yielded from 13 to 16 per cent
of dry saccharine matter, from 9 to 11 per cent of which was well-defined ecrys-
tallized cane sugar. * * * A palatable bread was made from the flour
ground from the seeds. * * * Paper of various qualities has been manu-
factured from the fibrous parts of the stalks.

f. J. N. Smith, of Quincey, Tl. (Annual Report, Department of Ag-
riculture, 1862, p. 134), says:

The syrup [from sorghum] will not make sugar if the cane is cut before the
seed isin the dough. * *™ *™ The crop should be allowed to stand in the
‘field as long as possible, without being in danger of frost.

g. L. Bollman, Bloomington, Iowa, upon page 147, loc. cit., says:

To me it is obvious, that the chief requisite for sugar making from the sor-
ghum canes is their perfect maturity, and such maturity is dependent on correct
cultivation and late cutting.

“h. J. Stanton Gould, in a report on ‘‘ Sorghum Culture,” made to
the New York State Agricultural Society, 1863 (Transactions New
York State Agricultural Society, p. 752), says:

The seed of the cane [sorghum] continues in the dough for about a week. It
is the general impression that the cane should be cut during this period, as it is
then supposed to have the greatest amount of saccharine matter; at least, this
is thought to be true of all the varieties except the white imphee, which is usu-
ally cut just as it is going out of the milk, or just entering the dough.

i. William Clough, editor Sorgho Journal, Cincinnati, Ohio (Annual
Report, Department of Agriculture, 1864, p. 59), says:

The precise period most appropriate for harvesting the cane, is when the sac-
charine properties are fully developed, and before any supplementary
action sets in. This will be found to be at the time when the seed at the
middle of the panicle is just beginning to harden, or to pass from the fluid or
milky state.

Again, he says (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1865,
p: e123):

Until recently, the opinion has prevailed, that cane for making sugar should
be thoroughly ripe; that it could not remain standing in the field too long, pro-
vided it escaped the frost: but, lately, this notion has been somewhat modified,
* * * Something like a case for early or premature harvesting has been
made out. The matter can not, however, be considered as definitely settled,
until the results of the season of 1866 shall have been determined. After the
next year, it will be fully understood. The precise stage of maturity most
favorable for the production of crystallizable sugar, according to the new the-
ory, is just after the seeds are formed, and before they begin to harden.

j. Prof. Henry Erni, chemist, Department of Agriculture, 1865, p.-
48, says:

CONFLICTING OPINIONS. vi

Contrary to my expectations, I found that the expressed sorgho juice of ripe
cane, whether neutralized by lime or not, refused to crystallize; for what solidified
or granulated after long standing of the syrup, was grape sugar.

And, in a foot-note, he says:

The juice from unripe cane readily crystallized.

k. In a pamphlet entitled ‘‘ The Sorgho Manufacturer’s Manual,” by
Jacobs Brothers, Columbus, Ohio, 1866, p. 4, it is stated that

The cane is in the best state for harvesting when part of the seed is beginning
to turn black; or, in other words, when the seed is in the doughy state.

1. A correspondent of the Department of Agriculture (Annual Re-
port, 1867, p. 3859) says:

I take the sorghum (Otaheitana) when just fairly in bloom. In no case de I

allow the seed to mature when I wish to make sugar; but, for No. 1 syrup, I let
the cane mature.

m. The Sorgho Journal, William Clough, editor, February, 1869,
p- 26, speaking of Neeazana, says:

Do not mind the panicle; if the juice has a clear, sweet taste, even if the
panicle is only in bloom, cut and work the cane.

Again, p. 92, under an article entitled ‘‘ Immature Cane best for
Sugar,” it says: ,

The theory that cane should be harvested before fully ripe, when designed for

sugar, has been further confirmed by the experience of this year. The other
idea, that the cane should be fully ripe, was never confirmed by facts.

Page 58, it says:

The weight of evidence, just now, is in favor of cutting as the seed is passing
from the milk to the dough state.

Again, p. 73: ,

Cut the cane as soon as the seeds are formed. * * * Cut the cane as
soon as they acquire a clear, sweet taste. This may occur, in some seasons,

when the cane is in the flower; and, in other seasons, not till the seed is fully
formed.

n. E. W. Skinner, of Sioux City, Iowa, says (Annual Report, De-
partment of Agriculture, 1875, p. 393) :

The best syrup is made from cane not fully ripened.

o. In his report on ‘‘ Early Amber Cane,” by Dr. G. A. Goessmann,
of Amherst, Mass., 1879, he says, p. 9:

The safest way to secure the full benefit of the Early Amber cane Crop, for

syrup and sugar manufacture, is to begin cutting the canes when the seed is
full grown, yet still soft.

p. In the Sorgho Hand-Book, published by the Blymyer Manufac-
turing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1880, it is directed, upon p. 8:
The cane should be cut when the seed is in the dough.

8 SORGHUM.

q. Ina ‘Report on the manufacture of sugar, syrup, and glucose,
from sorghum,” by Professors Weber and Scovell, of the Illinois Indus-
trial University, 1881, p. 22, they say:

The proper time to begin cutting the cane, is when the sea is in the harden-
ing dough.

r. Vilmorin, of Paris, in the Journal d’ Agriculture Pratique, February
17th, 1881, p. 230, says:

The period during the development of the plant (sorghum) when the juice is
purest and richest in sugar, is that which ‘precedes the maturity of the seed.
It is at that point when the interior of the seed has the consistence of soft
dough, easily crushed under the finger-nail, that the plant should be cut and

pressed.
Prompt working of the Sorghum after cutting.

a. Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, in his report (Annual Report, Depart-
ment of Agriculture,1857, p. 192), says:

The uncrystallizable sugar forms papillae after the cane is fully ripe and re-
cently cut.

And again, as the result of his examinations, he says:

Hence, it is evident that no time is to be lost, after cutting, in expressing the
juice.

b. D. M. Cook, Mansfield, Ohio (Annual Report, Department of
Agriculture, 1861, p. 311), says:

Let the cane fully ripen, if possible. If the cane is fully ripe, it may be
worked into syrup and sugar with advantage, as fast as it is cut up; but if the
juice is not perfectly matured, it should be allowed to “season” a few days
(by having the cane cut up, bound in bundles, and shocked under a barn or
shed for a few days).

c. In an article on ‘‘ Sorghum culture and Sugar making,” by I. A.
Hedges (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1861, p. 297),
he says:

After the canes have been topped, stripped, cut up, and tied in bundles, they
may be set up in the open air, or, more preferably, under shelter, and kept for
some weeks. Such keeping improves the juice, not only in flavor, but also in
saccharine richness, from 1 to 3 degrees B. This improvement takes place
upon the same principle, and from similar causes, which determine the sweet-
ening of acid fruit after pulling, viz., the change of gum and starch into sugar.

d. J. H. Smith, Quincy, Il. (Mestad Report, Department of Agri-
culture, 1862, p. 154), says:

The cane should be cut and brought to the mill and crushed on the same
day; and the topping of the cane, and the stripping of the leaves from the
stalks, should proceed no faster than it is cut and brought to the mill, if the very
best results are desired, and all danger of souring is to be avoided. * * *
It is much better, therefore, not to give the cane any rest, after being stripped
and topped, till the juice is expressed and run into syrup. * * * When the

CONFLICTING OPINIONS. 9

cane is ripe, it should be immediately cut; for, if suffered to remain, after it is
ripe, in connection with the roots, a deteriorating effect upon the quality and
flavor of the syrup will be the result, and, at the same time, the quantity will
be greatly diminished.

e. William Clough, editor of the Sorgho Journal, says (Annual Re-
port, Department of Agriculture, 1865, p. 312):

It would be best to allow but little time between harvesting and working the
cane, and on no account shonld it be stored and allowed to remain long in large
shocks. It is almost demonstrable, that no cane sugar is developed under any
circumstances after the cane is harvested. The changes that occur after the
cane is cut, if any, must be in their nature depreciative, consisting in the trans-
formation of crystallizable to uncrystallizable sugar.

f. The Sorgho Manufacturer’s Manual, Jacobs Brothers, Columbus,
Ohio, 1866, p. 4, directs that

The cane should be cut and shocked in the field, with tops on, and in this
condition it may remain several months before being worked up, for the cane
matures and forms more saccharine matter.

g. A correspondent (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture,
1867, p. 359) gives his method of working:

I strip, cut, and work up the cane the same day, if possible.

h. KE. W. Skinner, Sioux City, Iowa (Annual Report, Department
of Agriculture, 1873, p. 395), says:

As soon as matured, cut, pile, and cover with leaves; never allow it to stand,
after maturity, in connection with the roots.

t. The Sorgho Hand-Book (Blymyer Manufacturing Company,
Cincinnati, Ohio, 1880, p. 8) directs, that

The cane should be cut several days before grinding, as it will be more free
from impurities if cured for a few days before going to the mill.

j. Professors Scovell and Weber, in their report, 1881 (Illinois In-
dustrial University), say: .

The cane (sorghum) should be worked up as soon as possible after cutting.

The necessity of further investigation of Sorghum.

a. D. J. Brown (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1856,
p- 315) says:

Let the same skill, directed by science, be applied to the making of sugar
from the sorgho sucré, and we may reasonably expect the happiest results.

b. Dr. J. Lawrence Smith (Annual Report, Department of Agri-
culture, 1857 p. 192) further says:

On investigating the sugar bearing capacity of the Chinese sugar-cane, the
first step required was to ascertain the true chemical constitution of the juice

extracted from the plant. From various conflicting statements on the subject
nothing satisfactory could be gleaned; some of the best authorities insisting

10 SORGHUM.

that there was not any crystallizable sugar in the juice, or but a very small
portion, while others, equally as strong, held the contrary opinion.

ce. Dr. J. Lawrence Smith (Annual Report, Department of Agri-
culture, 1857, p. 192) further says:

It is not to be forgotten that sugar making is an art, and can not be prac-
ticed by every one with a mill and a set of kettles. * * What was neces-
sary for the beet root is doubtlessly required for the sorgho, namely, a thorough
‘study of its nature. with a process of extracting the sugar especially adapted
to it.

d. J. Stanton Gould, “‘ Report on Sorghum Culture” (Transactions
New York State Agricultural Society, 1863, p. 740), says, in view
of the discordant testimony concerning the sorghum question:

These conflicting opinions might easily be reconciled by a few well-directed
experiments.

Again he says, same page:

After the most careful inquiry, orally and by letter, I am unable to find that
any such experiments have ever been made.

Again, he says (p. 747): ;

These experiments are not conclusive, and the whole question needs a care-
ful and accurate investigation.

e. Dr. J. M. Shaffer, Secretary Iowa State Agricultural Society,
says (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1868, p. 515):

The production of sugar (from sorghum) is rather the result of accident
than of any well-digested system for its extraction.

From the foregoing discordant statements upon some of the more
important points selected for comparison, viz. (1) the kind of sugar
found in the sorghum; (2) the best variety of sorghum for the pro-
duction of sugar; (3) the time for harvesting, and when the maxi-
mum of sugar is present in the juice; (4) the prompt working of the
canes after cutting, etc., it is not a matter of wonder that the com-
mittee of the National Academy of Sciences, in their report on the
‘“Sorghum Sugar Industry,” should have said :

It is evident that nothing was definitely determined, even on points where
work in the laboratory, and the exercise of analytical skill, were apparently
sufficient to settle most doubts, aside from economic questions, relating to
methods of manufacture.

Such, we find, was the condition of the ‘sorghum sugar question” up to a
period immediately preceding the researches undertaken by the United States
Department of Agriculture, in 1878, by their present chemist, Dr. Peter Collier.

Nor that they should have, in view of the results of these investi-
gations, reported as to the

CONFLICTING OPINIONS. iil

Value of the research, in a material sense, to the nation.

Aside from the value of this research from a scientific stand-point—illustrating,
as it does, the importance of obtaining, from an extended investigation, the
facts and their mutual relations in an agronomic problem—the results obtained
appear to this Committee to possess a high value, in a material sense, to the
nation.

Whether the cultivation of a crop like sorghum, deriving its support largely
from the atmosphere and water—since it appears to thrive best upon light soils—
may or may not reward the cultivator better than the growth of cereals, it cer-
tainly adds a new factor to agriculture, of value, not only as a sugar producing
plant, but also as a food plant of no mean quality. It thrives over a very wide
area; and, as we have shown, develops in the warm and temperate latitudes
more than a single crop per annum, and becomes, certainly, in one of its
varieties, perennial.

But the work is also of national importance in its relation to existing indus-
tries, and especially to that of the cultivation of the sugar-cane and sugar pro-
duction therefrom.

In this country the sugar planter has to contend with obstacles unknown to
the resident of tropical countries. A greater degree of skill and knowledge is
here required for the attainment of the same result that elsewhere is reached
through the normal operation of natural causes, almost without effort on the
part of the planter. Such skill and knowledge can only be attained by a care-
fully conducted experimental inquiry, such as this investigation exhibits.

The methods developed in the course of this investigation are also applica-
ble, with but slight modification, to the cultivation of the sugar-cane, and there
can be little doubt but that the ultimate effect of such investigations will be
to stimulate the Southern sugar planter to similar experiments for the ascer-
tainment of the most favorable conditions for the prosecution of his own special
industry, depending on the culture of tropical cane in subtropical’ climates,
where it never attains its its fullest development, and is consequently subject
to many adverse conditions unknown in the tropics.

As a work of national importance, calculated directly to benefit widely sepa-
rated sections of the country, it is one that’ has been wisely undertaken and
encouraged by the Department of Agriculture, and is deserving of every aid
that Congress may be willing to grant for its encouragement and prosecution.

The sugar planter of Louisiana and Texas may possibly discover that he has
at command, in one or more of the larger varieties of sorghum, which, like the
so-called “ Honduras,” ‘‘ Mastodon,” etec., attain at maturity, say in four or five
months, a growth of 18 to 20 feet in height, and a weight of 2 to 5 pounds per
stalk, a sugar-producing plant thoroughly adapted to his climate and soil, equal,
and possibly superior, in productive capacity of cane sugar, to the ‘‘ Ribbon,”
“Red, or “ White” cane now grown there, and escaping the perils from frost
which always attend the cultivation of the cane in those regions where the s«a-
son is never long enough to permit its full maturity.

Of the early maturing varities, like ‘“‘ Early Orange,” it will be possible, in
Southern latitudes, to make two crops of sugar and seed in one season, and

2 SORGHUM.

these, alternating with varieties of longer periods, may extend the sugar crop
over nearly half the year.*

The late Hon. J. P. Updegraff, of Ohio, in debate, upon the floor
of the House of Representatives, declared, that

The distribution of sorghum seed, by the Department of Agriculture, had
brought to the agriculture of this country a greater return than the whole
amount which that Department has ever cost since its foundation. Yet it is
only a few years since the distribution of sorghum was ridiculed.

And the Hon. J. H. Burrows, of Missouri, in the course of the
same debate, declared, that

The importation and introduction of the sorghum, or African, cane, is one

among the many of the practical results of the Department of Agriculture; —
and, to the people of the North, fell like a blessing from a war-clouded sky.

HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY IN
EUROPE.

To those at all familiar with the early struggles of nearly every great
‘industry, there is nothing surprising in the experiences which those
have been compelled to undergo who have labored to develop the
sorghum sugar industry. The prejudices of ignorance, the arrogance
of conceit, and the malevolence of jealousy, have conspired to belittle
and misrepresent, to hinder and obstruct every attempt, to ridicule,
rather than encourage: such has been the reception which has been
accorded to those who have taken the lead in this enterprise.

The history of the development of the beet sugar industry, pre-
sents much to encourage those who have engaged in the efforts to pro-
duce sugar from sorghum and maize; and a brief account will in-
terest and encourage those who hope to see sorghum sugar produced
in sufficient quantity to supply all our wants.

In 1747, Margraff, a member of the Berlin meee ae of igh
succeeded in securing from the beet root erystallizable sugar; and he

* We cite, in this connection, the following letter from Col. H. B. Richards,
of La Grange, Texas:

‘“ But now let me tell you about my Orange cane. Itis no longer doubtful at
all but that the Orange cane will become, in this climate, perennial; and, after
this year, I will only plant every two years. I have tested it now effectually for
two years, and am convinced that the stubbles will stand colder weather, and
more of it, than those of the Ribbon cane.

“My cane, from last year’s stubbles, has larger stalks, is stele and, in every
way, ahead of the earliest seed cane at this time. i

a cues truly,
“ HENRY B. RICHARDS.

“Ta Granoce, Fayette Country, Texas, April 8th, 1882.”

BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 13

urged upon the Academy the importance of his discovery, believing
that Europe would find in this root the basis of an immense industry.
But his important results appear to have been forgotten, until nearly a
half century later, his pupil, Achard, again took up the work of his
master, aud produced from beets a considerable quantity of sugar. In
1797, he published his results; and, in 1799, presented a sample of the
sugar, and submitted his method for its extraction, to the Institute of
France. ‘The interest aroused in the Institute was such that a commis-
sion was appointed by the Institute to examine the results and meth-
ods of Achard, and to repeat his experiments. This commission con-
sisted of MM. Cels, Chaptal, Darcet, Fourcroy, Guyton, Parmentier,
Tessier, Vauquelin, and Deyeux, names eminent in the annals of
science.

The report of this committee, although fully sustaining the methods
and results of Achard, was without apparent result until nearly ten
years after, when M. Deyeux, one of the committee, at the request of
the Minister of the Interior of France, again repeated the work of
Achard, and was again successful in obtaining ‘‘ sugar perfectly crys-

tallized, of great whiteness, brilliant, and sonorous—in a word, enjoy-

ing all the properties of the finest cane sugar.”

About the same time, MM. Barruel and Isnard undertook experi-
ments for the determination of the quantitative and economical aspects
of this question, and found that they were able to extract one and one-
half per cent of Muscovado sugar, at a cost of thirty cents per pound,
while the refined sugar cost forty cents per pound.

February 20th, 1811, the Société Encouragement pour |’ Industrie
Nationale received samples of beet sugar produced by M. Drappiez, a
pharmacist of Lille, who also, in a memoir, laid before this society his
methods for its extraction.

M. Drappiez obtained by his method one and three-tenths of one per cent
of sugar from the beet root, at an estimated cost of eighty cents per
pound. About a month later (March 25th, 1811), Napoleon issued his
first decree, now famous for the encouragement and the impulse it gave
to this struggling industry. By this decree, there was appropriated one
million franes ($200,000) to provide for the planting of 32,000 hectares
(79,040 acres) in beets; ‘‘for the establishment of six experimental
schools, for giving instruction in the manufacture of beet sugar, con-
formably to the processes of chemists ;” as also for the experiments and
instruction in processes for the manufacture of indigo. In addition, it
was decreed, that the importation of sugar and indigo from England and
her colonies should be prohibited. It is interesting to observe that, at
this time, the value of the sugar and indigo imported into France

14 SORGHUM.

amounted to 100,000,000 francs ($20,000,000), so that the amount
appropriated for the encouragement of efforts to produce these two com-
modities amounted to one per cent of the amount paid for them to for-
eign countries. In 1882, the United States imported over one hundred
million dollars worth of sugar and molasses, and the duties paid upon

the same amounted to more than fifty million dollars additional; and —

the amount appropriated by Congress for the purpose of investigations |
on sorghum was ten thousand dollars.

It is also interesting to observe, that the six experimental schools es-
tablished were ‘‘to give instruction in the manufacture of beet root
sugar, conformably to the processes of chemists.” This tells the whole story :
it fully explains how, from such small and unpromising beginnings—
’ from a root inferior, in every way, to the tropical cane—from the pro-
duction of sugar costing eighty cents per pound—this industry has
developed to that degree, that the beet root is to-day, and for many
years has been, the only rival of the sugar-cane in producing the world’s
supply of sugar. The acorn has become the oak. The predictions of
Maregraff, in 1747, are to-day accomplished facts. Europe has found,
in the beet root, the basis of an immense industry. The reason for this,
is found in that decree of Napoleon—than whom, whether in peace or in
war, Europe has never had his superior in the field—the decree of Na-
poleon, that the manufacture of beet sugar should be taught in the
schools ‘‘ conformably to the processes of chemists.”

The beet sugar industry is one of the proudest triumphs of science.
About its cradle, all the sciences have stood as foster parents ; and im-
proved methods, improved machinery, improved cultivation, improved
varieties, have marked each step of its progress. But for the careful
supervision of science, its present proportions were impossible: and so
soon as that supervision shall be withdrawn, or shall be given in equal
measure to the production of sugar from sugar-cane or sorghum the
bect sugar industry must inevitably perish; but its history has shown
the value of science to the arts, and has done much to silence the sneers
of the ignorant at laboratory work. As evidence of the rapid devel-
opment of this new industry, we may recall that there was produced
in France, from beets, in 1826, only 1,500 tons of sugar, and in 1875,
462,259 tons; and, at the present, 38 per cent of the world’s supply of
sugar is obtained from beets, and 62 per cent from the sugar-cane.

NECESSITY FOR FURTHER RESEARCH.

To those engaged in the development of the sorghum sugar industry,
it is hardly necessary to say, that, great as are the strides which have
been made during the past few years in our knowledge of sorghum as

NECESSITY FOR FURTHER RESEARCH. 15

a sugar producing plant, there yet remains many questions of the great-
est practical value, concerning which we know very little indeed; and
it is to be hoped that we have long ago ceased to speculate, when ac-

curate and repeated experiments alone can assist us in a correct solu-

tion of these questions.
It is proposed to indicate a few of the more prominent questions con-
nected with this industry, which are of practical importance, and await

- solution.

It must not be forgotten that, owing to the number of conditions
which affect each experiment, but few of which we may take cogni-
zance, that no conclusion may be safely drawn from one, or even
many results; but, at the same time, every carefully recorded observa-
tion is of value, and will serve in the final determination of the truth.
Not alone in this, but in every other inquiry is it true, that hasty gen-
eralizations are the very bane of science; and yet we have seen how
this unfortunate tendency has retarded the development-of this indus-
try for over a quarter of acentury. From a single poorly conducted ex-
periment, it was decided that, practically, no sugar could be made
from sorghum, owing to the inversion of the sugar, which, through
some mistaken method of manufacture, resulted in this one case.
From the examination of a single one of the hundred varieties of sor-
ghum, the sweeping conclusion was published, by one who should have
been an authority in agricultural science, that no variety was of any
value for the production of sugar. Through imperfect methods of test-
ing, one finds the seed of sorghum a rival of tan bark in its con-
tents of tannic acid, despite the fact that such a discovery would render

sorghum unique among the cereals ; another fails to find in the juice

of sorghum a trace of glucose, although it is never absent ; while still
another bases a method for the extraction of sugar upon his dis-
covery (?) of crystals of sugar in the fresh stalks of sorghum. Let
each remember that, for every incorrect observation or result reported,
there is necessitated at least ten times the labor to disprove it—and they
may be less disposed, without repeated confirmation, to publish, although
it is to be hoped they will not neglect to record.

Above all, let us not consider that we are bound, at the present, to pro-
fess complete knowledge concerning the entire subject ; for we may feel
no hesitation in confessing our ignorance, which our attempts to conceal
makes too evident.

At a recent meeting of sorghum growers, the question as to the soil
best adapted for the cultivation of the plant was under discussion. All
must admit that is a question of extreme practical importance.
After a long discussion, with the presentation of as many views as

16 SORGHUM.

there were speakers, it was at last settled, by the passage of a resolu-
tion, that such and such and such a soil was the best adapted for the
growth of sorghum. Than this, nothing could be more unwise, more
unscientific, or more utterly foolish. As well might the conveution
have resolved that a solar eclipse should take place the next week or
the next month. Accumulated facts, and not resolutions, are impera-
tively demanded. A leading agricultural writer, not long ago, de-
clared, that ‘‘ the conversion of amber cane (one of the varieties of sor--
ghum) into crystallized sugar of standard excellence, in paying quanti-
ties, and with a fair margin of profits to all concerned, is a result not only
never yet reached, but made simply impossible by the force of natural laws.”
Strong words, indeed ; and yet, within three months of the time the above
was written, there was produced, within 300 miles of this paragrapher,
notwithstanding the forces of nature he had so confidently declared as in
opposition, 160 tons of excellent sugar, at good profits, mainly from the
very variety he had named as being incapable of yielding sugar. This
new industry has very much conservatism of such sort to contend with.
It has, also, beyond doubt, many practical problems yet to solve; but
this may be confidently asserted, that, thus far, there has nothing pre-
sented itself which has long stood in the way of an advance, which,
during the past three years, has been most remarkable.

As with the beet sugar industry, many experiments have proved fail-
ures; and many persons have been found, as then, who, from the first,
have declared that the manufacture of sugar from sorghum was a com-
mercial impossibility. But, in spite of adverse criticisms, partial fail-
ures, and the opposition of interested parties, the beet sugar industry in
Europe has been, and to-day is, one of the greatest industries of that
country; and, as we have seen, provides, at a profit more or less great,
fully two-fifths the sugar of the world. It must not be, however, sup-
posed, that all the practical questions which may arise shall prove as
of easy and speedy solution as those, the solution of which have suf-
ficed to place the sorghum sugar industry fairly upon a basis of profit.

The development of any new industry of great magnitude, and in-
volving so many conditions conspiring to help or hinder its greatest
success, is sure to bring to light many important questions bearing
upon the cheapening and simplification of manufacturing processes,
the many questions concerning the cultivation and management of
the crop, which the results of only a series of years of observation and
experiment can bring to a reliable conclusion.

That it is a wise and enlightened policy for this government, whether
state or national, to encourage in every legitimate way the thorough
investigations of these great economic questions, which have so much

NECESSITY FOR FURTHER RESEARCH. 17

to do with the material prosperity of the country, seems hardly a
question admitting an intelligent doubt. Already New Jersey and
Massachusetts have by means of bounties stimulated experiments in
this direction, which, in New Jersey at least, have already led to most
important results.

New Jersey, inan ‘‘ Act to encourage the manufacture of sugar in the
state,” provides, that one dollar shall be paid by the state to the farmer
for each ton of material out of which crystallized cane sugar has
actually been obtained; and it provides, also, a further bounty of one
cent per pound to be paid to the manufacturer for each pound of cane
sugar made from such material. Massachusetts passed an act pro-
viding that one dollar be paid for each 2,000 pounds of sorghum cane,
or sugar beets, used in the state for the manufacture of sugar.

Several of the states have, by appropriations, provided for the con-
tinuance of investigations looking to the economical production of
sugar. The general government has for the past two years, in spite of
a persistent and determined opposition from a source as surprising as
it has been inexplicable, continued to make appropriations for the
prosecution of those investigations, which have already resulted in the
accumulation of most of the facts which are thus far established be-
yond question, and which have been recorded in tliese pages.

In the words of the Committee of the National Academy of Sciences,
‘the fruits of this policy of the general government are already be-
ginning to show themselves in the decided success which has attended
the production of sugar from sorghum on a commercial scale in the
few cases in which the rules of good practice, evolved especially by
the researches made at the laboratory of the Department of Agriculture,
have been intelligently followed,” and they conclude their report in
these words: ‘‘The sugar producing industry of the whole country,
both that of the tropical cane in the South and the sorghum over a far
wider area, will derive yet greater benefits from the continued in-
vestigations of the chemist of this department, to whose former work
we are already so much indebted.”

A few of the points which are at present awaiting investigation,
may be briefly summarized. Even granting that the questions already
settled have sufficed to place this new industry upon a safe and profita-
ble footing, it by no means follows that it may not be made far more
profitable. To this end there yet remains a vast amount of work de-
manding further investigation.

The unanimous testimony of sugar manufacturers conclusively
proves, that, at present, fully one-third the sugar present in the cane
or ora is lost through the imperfect methods for its extraction.

18 SORGHUM.

That such a loss is permitted to continue, is a reproach to the industrial
science of the country.

The variety of soil best adapted to the development of sorghum ; the
effect of the various fertilizers upon the several varieties of soil; the
effect of our climate and soils upon the sugar producing capacity of the
many varieties of sorghum; the effect of various methods of cultiva-
tion of the plant; the possibility of producing by skillful hybridiza-
tion varieties more valuable than any now known; the growing and ex-
amination of varieties as yet unknown to this country; the various
methods of defecation and their relative value; these, and many similar
questions, will at once arise to the mind of any one familiar with what
has already been accomplished.

Concerning each and all of these important questions, our knowledge
at present is almost nothing.

In view of the wide area over which this plant may be grown in this
country, with the great diversities of climate, it is by no means im-
probable that a variety of sorghum may be developed, combining the
excellencies of several and surpassing any now known. Such results
have been secured with the beet, so that the average per cent of sugar
present in the best varieties now grown, has been increased one or two
hundred per cent over that originally present in the root. Certainly,
with such results already the reward of investigation, it is to be con-
fidently anticipated that no efforts will be spared that similar results
may reward those engaged in the investigation of the sorghum, a plant
which is most remarkable for the great adaptability it possesses, as
evidenced by the numerous varieties grown in every quarter of the
globe. Even while engaged in writing, the author has received several
varieties of seed from Asia and Africa, wholly new to this country,
and mention has been made in this volume of some twenty or more
varieties from southern Africa, quite unlike any previously grown in
America.

The practical determination of what is known as “ available sugar,”
is also a matter of great importance; since it may be found that the
methods for its estimation in the juices of the sugar-cane and the beet,
are inapplicable to the juices of sorghum.

In the purging of sorghum and corn-stalk sugar, it happens very
often that this operation is of unusual difficulty, owing to the presence
of a certain gummy substance; and this practical difficulty has been
by some so magnified, that the economical production of sugar from
these two plants has been confidently declared impossible.

' In the experience at Washington, as well as that at many other
places, this peculiar substance has been found often to be present in

ohn +

FUTURE PROSPECTS OF sORGHUM. 19

quantity so small as to offer little, if any, resistance to complete purg-
ing in the ordinary centrifugal.

It is a matter of very great practical importance, to determine those
conditions which prevent its being produced in the manufacture of the
syrup; since in no case has its presence been detected in the freshly
expressed juices of either sorghum or maize. It appears to be formed
by transformation of other constituents of the juice in the re of
syrup production.

In fact, unless the sorghum sugar industry shall prove to be unlike
any other which has been developed, we may safely predict that many
questions similar to the above will, from time to time, arise and demand
solution.

It is worse than idle to dogmatize upon such questions; but dogmas
will prevail in the future, as in the past, where carefully ascertained
experimental results are wanting, and it is only the results of careful
research which can clear the way to the establishment of this industry
upon the basis of the greatest economy.

To such an end whoever contributes, even in the least degree, may
consider himself a public benefactor; and whoever, either through
ignorance or wickedness, shall hinder the consummation of a result
so greatly to be desired, shall receive, as he will most justly deserve,
the execration of his fellow men.

FUTURE PROSPECTS OF THE SORGHUM SUGAR INDUSTRY.

From the results already secured and recorded in this volume, there
would appear no good reason to doubt, that, within a few years, we
may render ourselves wholly independent of other nations for our su-
gar supply.

It may appear somewhat hazardous to venture any prediction; but
I think such a result will be accomplished within the next decade, and

- that, by 1900, we shall export sugar produced from sorghum to

Europe. That such a result appears possible, yes, most probable, rests
upon these few well established facts :

1. About 38 per cent of all the cultivated land in the United States,
including the grass land, is at present devoted to the cultivation of
maize: thus showing that the conditions of soil and climate in our
country conspire to make the production of maize profitable.

2. The demands made upon the soil, and the conditions of climate
necessary to the full development of sorghum, are practically identi-
cal with those made by and necessary to maize.

3. The methods of cultivation of the two crops are identical; so

20 SORGHUM.

that, in every township of the country, these methods are practically
understood.

4. The greater part of the maize consumed in this pauikey, is used
for the purpose of feeding and fattening swine; and numerous analy-
ses of several different varieties of sorghum seed, have shown that
the proximate chemical composition of sorghum seed is identical with
that of maize, the sorghum seed differimg no more from maize in com-
position than does one variety of maize from another.

5. Numerous feeding experiments have established the fact, that, for
feeding and fattening purposes, sorghum seed is the equivalent of
maize, and may be substituted for it.

6. As much sorghum seed may be produced from an acre as of
maize, on the same land; and wherever maize may be grown success-
fully in this country, one variety or another of sorghum may be as
successfully grown.

7. Fully ninety-nine per cent of the sorghum now grown in the
world, is grown solely for the seed and the forage obtained in the
leaves; and abundant testimony is given, that, for the seed alone, the
crop may be profitably grown, while many of those using the stalks
for syrup and sugar declare that the seed enables them to produce the
stalks free of all cost.

It is only after the seed of any variety of sorghum is quite ma-
ture, that the maximum of sugar in the stalks is attained; so-that there
is nothing to prevent the securing of both the maximum of seed and
the maximum of sugar from the crop of sorghum.

9. Many thousands of analyses of over fifty varieties of sorghum
have conclusively established the fact, that, at maturity, the stalk of
sorghum contains an amount of sugar equal to that found in the best
sugar-cane grown in Louisiana; and already, by processes and appara-
tus identical with those employed upon the sugar plantations of Cuba
and Louisiana, several hundred tons of sorghum sugar have been put
upon the market in competition with sugar from the tropical sugar-
cane.

10. The testimony of numerous manufacturers of syrups from sor-
ghum, shows that the syrup may be manufactured at an expense vary-
ing in different localities, and with different manufacturers, from 12 to

925 cents per gallon, from cane delivered free at the mill, even when
working with small mills instead of the umpRoaeS appliances of the
large plantations.

11. A yield of 6 to 8 pounds of sugar from the gallon of syrup,
made at the proper time, may be fairly expected; and thus the sugar
would cost, according to the expense of manufacture above given,

FUTURE PROSPECTS OF SORGHUM. pl

from 14 cents to 4 cents per pound, without any allowance for the
molasses.

12. Excellent sugar has been made from sorghum: and where ac-
curate account of all expenses was kept, including cultivation of crop,
but no account made of the seed, the expense of production of the
sugar did not exceed 45 cents per pound.

_ 13. In view of these results, I have no doubt that sugar may even
now be produced at an expense of not over 2 cents per pound; and I
_ believe that, within a decade, it will be produced at an expense of not
over 1 cent per pound.

22 SORGHUM.

CHAPTER II.

(a.) Chemistry of Sugar.

(0.) Sources of Sugar.

(c.) Statistics of Sugar.

(d.) Bibliography of Sorghum.

CHEMISTRY OF SUGAR.

Under the name, sugar, the chemist includes a number of different
organic compounds, most of them being vegetable in their origin.
They are all soluble in water, though in different degrees; and are all
characterized by a sweet taste, though possessing different degrees of
sweetness.

They are neutral in their reactions with vegetable colors; but, in
the compounds they form, play the part of acids. They are all
remarkable for their effects upon a beam of polarized light, which,
when passed through solutions of any one of the sugars, is rotated to
the right or the left. The direction and the degree of rotation is con-
stant under the same conditions of density of solution and temperature
for the several sugars.

The principal members of this group of sugars, are:

1. Cane sugar; also known as sucrose and saccharose, C,,H,,0,,-

This sugar is found present in the juices of the sugar-cane, Saccha-
rum officinarum; maize, zea mais; sorghum, Sorghum saccharatum ;
beets, Beta vulgaris; sugar maple, Acer saccharinum; several species
of the palm, and many other plants.

The pure sugar, from either of the above sources, is identical in all
its properties—as crystalline form, chemical composition, degree of
solubility, sweetness, and rotatory power.

2. Glucose, C,H,,0,. Under this name is grouped two principal
compounds: (a) Dextro-glucose, or Dextrose, which rotates the polar
ized beam to the right; and (b) Laevo-glucose, or Laevulose, which
rotates the beam to the left.

Dextro-glucose is known as grape sugar, starch sugar, fruit sugar,
honey sugar, diabetic sugar, according to its source.

Sweet fruits and honey contain this form of glucose, associated with
cane sugar and laevo-glucose. .

Laevo-glucose has the same chemical composition as dextro-glucose ;
but is distinguished by its left-handed rotatory power. This form of

CHEMISTRY OF SUGAR. 23

glucose is obtained, together with dextro-glucose, in the fermentation
of cane sugar, which, under the action of the ferment, splits up into
equal parts of dextro and laevo-glucose. And, since the left-handed
rotation of the latter is greater than the right-handed rotation of the
former, the solution of cane sugar—which, at first, was right-handed
in its rotation of the plane of polarized light—after fermentation is found
to be left-handed, or (as it is termed) inverted; and hence the name
‘inverted sugar,” which is a mixture of these two forms of glucose.

The formula which represents the final results in this process of fer-
mentation is, in

Cane sugar + water. Dextro glucose. Laevo-glucose.

C,,H,.0,, a H,O = C,H,.0, == C,H, .06¢.

One molecule of cane sugar uniting with one molecule of water, and
then breaking up into one molecule of dextro- and one molecule of
laevo-glucose.

This change in cane sugar is readily brought about, also, by the ac-
tion of dilute acids. If, to a dilute solution of cane sugar, a few drops
of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid be added, and the solution be heated
at a temperature of 90°C. (194°F.) for half an hour, it will be found
that the cane sugar will have entirely disappeared from the solution,
and, in its place, will be found its equivalent of inverted sugar. This
is the method pursued in the determination, by analysis, of the cane
sugar in juices of sugar producing plants. (See chapter on Methods of
Analysis. )

It is, however, to be remembered, that this change is effected by
the heat in the presence of an acid, and very speedily in such circum-
stances: but heat alone effects this change very slowly, indeed, if at
all; although the contrary opinion is very generally entertained by
those who have never subjected the matter to the test of experiment.

A series of experiments are given in the Journal Fabr. Sucre, by M.
Pellet, showing the amount of inversion of solutions of cane sugar at dif-
erent temperatures and degrees of concentration. The experiments
were, in each case, continued for four days (96 hours) :

Sugar in 200 e.c. At 25° C. At 50° C. At 75° C.
10 grams. .o975 grams. 3.0216 grams. 8.8100 grams.
30 grams. .5275 grams. 2.9200 grams. 7.1825 grams.
60 grams. .1025 grams. -6450 grams. 5.4900 grams.

90 grams. trace. .1500 grams. "3.9776 grams.

It will be seen, that the extent of inversion was dependent upon tem-
perature and concentration of the solution ; and that a solution contain-
_ ing 60. grams. of sugar in 100 cubic centimeters of solution (about the
consistency of a syrup), even after four days’ heating at a temperature

24 SORGHUM.

of 75°C. (177°F.), had only 5.49 grams. of the sugar inverted, or 9.15
per cent of the amount; so that, in ordinary work, the inversion of
sugar by heat alone may be regarded as very slight.

In the presence of a slight excess of lime, it has been found that a
solution of cane sugar remains unchanged, even after prolonged boil-
ing for thirty-six hours. The practical importance of this fact is obvi-
ous to the sugar manufacturer, since, by proper defecation with lime,
the acids present in the saccharine juices of plants are neutralized and
rendered inert.

3. Lactose, or milk sugar, C,,H,,0,,.

This sugar is that which gives to milk its sweet taste.

Lactose, although having the same composition as cane sugar, .differs
from it very greatly in all its properties, in crystalline form, degree of
solubility, and sweetness, and in its rotatory power, which, though
right-handed as is that of cane sugar, is far less in degree—the relative
degrees of rotatory power of the four sugars mentioned being as follows:

Cane Sucar right-handed ta2 2... corre pieiaa dees 73°8

Miik rh 4 6 OT A oe SO eee ae ace ee ees 59°3
Dextrose, g¢ £6, eRe NS Sa ee rein sisioh lel Sout
Laevulose, left SOT eet: Dae Nace eee) ee oe et 106° at 14° C

Lenn ER ns arr einen SAA h ram on de 53° at 90° C

Lactose, also, in ordinary fermentation, produces Lactic Acid instead
of glucose. The formula representing the results of the fermentation,
being:

Lactose + Water = Lactic Acid.
C,,.H,,0,, + H,O = 4 C,H,O;

The one molecule of lactose taking up one molecule of water and
being then broken up into four molecules of lactic acid; this result
constituting what is known as the souring of milk.

The relative solubilities of these several sugars in cold water, are
as follows:

1 part Cane Sugarin ¥% its weight of water.
1 ‘* Glucose Sate as a sf
1 ‘* Lactose “ 5 times its weight of water.

Cane sugar is readily obtained in crystals by the evaporation of its
solution in water, as in the familiar form of the so-called granulated
sugar, which may be seen to be composed of well defined crystals, also
in the well known form of rock candy, in which crystals an inch in
diameter are often found.

Glucose also crystallizes both in its anhydrous form, and also in
combination with water. The crystals of glucose, however, are gen-
erally a collection of minute needles clustered into granular masses, or,
if the solution is concentrated, uniting to form a semi-solid mass; as

a

bie

SOURCES OF SUGAR. 25

frequently occurred in the earlier efforts in making commercial glucose,
where the fluid syrup, after standing a short time, was found to have
been entirely changed into a solid mass of crystals of hydrated
glucose.

Lactose is easily obtained crystallized, although the form of its
crystals, its comparative insolubility, and its low sweetening power,
will enable one to readily distinguish it from either of the other sugars
mentioned.

It is also to be observed, that each of these sugars are composed only
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ; the last two elements existing always
in the proportion to form water, and hence the name carb-hydrates
which has been applied to compounds of this class. Since, now, these
three elements exists in the atmosphere in inexhaustible quantity, it will
be seen that the production of sugar need necessarily never result in
the exhaustion of the soil.

This matter will be hereafter discussed.

SOURCES OF SUGAR.

It has been already stated that cane sugar, or sucrose, is found in
the juices from the stalks of the sugar-cane, maize, sorghum, and many
similar plants ; also in the juices of the beet root, the sap of the sugar
maple, and of many species of the palm. It is, besides, a constituent
of honey, and of fruits.

A comparatively small amount is obtained from the palm, while the
maple sugar is an article of local consumption.

It is estimated that, in 1850, there was exported of palm sugar
10,000 tons from that portion of North-eastern India lying near the
mouths of the Ganges. About 20,000 tons of maple sugar is pro-
duced annually in the United States, in 18 states.

The commercial supply, however, nf this important product, is ob-
tained almost exclusively from two sources, viz: the several varieties
of the sugar-cane, and the beet root, the former furnishing about 62
per cent, and the latter 38 per cent of the world’s sugar.

The actual production of cane sugar in tons in the years 1875, 6, 7,

8, 9, 80, was as follows: ,
1875 1878.
From SUSar-Cane, .oorie. «gece ses . 8,395,478 From SUPaAT-Canes tcc ers «Seek 3,395,478
SCTEAGU Seve) | > sk are eee eae 1,168,281 e lojeiel << Spee © SHEE OO EOE ne 1,398,051
1876. 1879.
From DHOME-CAN Gi. gocyocaaa tice aoe 3,292,137 From SUITE 1 Ch ee oe Ore eae 3,550 390
s Beets. aah Sige otal aj te eeetate 1,350,731 " IBPCIS Ss ye eackc cee. 1,549,224
1877. 1880
From Susarcaneyt. 3:22. ;ss.0h-08% 3,337.410 From Sugar-cane.......:.........-. 2 2,527,000
Tle ECCI. 3 2a sak threes nase 1,103,466 ay St HB COLS ancl. san cide ania 2 o's 1h 670, 000

NOTE—SEE APPENDIX.

26 SORGHUM.

The several countries producing this supply, are as follows:

Cane. 1875. Cane. 1875.
CSU Stctscice Meee el stelscccaye!cerete 700,000 tons. POTUW tag te ce tae eens ois Wier isee .. 50,000 — *
IRORDOSIC ORs sete ach ia tye saree 80,000 Ofna hain area HO ad oD aaa ASe eo 40,000 **
British, Dutch, and Danish 250.000 « Central America, and Mexico. 40,000 ‘*
West Indies. SON Reunions ee eee ee eee 30,000.
RU SUV Eb gee ae eee Oe eek cr oowisbie ae ee 200,000 ‘‘ British Isles and Penang....... 30,000
EBA ere errs sees tales cso cls eistoininns 170,000 * lsiforavolheulve s.5'4e Ge suin seed onasoueer 10,000 ‘*
Manta eect a oicascosec ocak 130,000‘ Neteller & SSetoe eve ciotare ovis 10,000 ‘*
Olah es aie so os ei wees tsi wet L20/000 es AMStialian. cine cosmic kee tee 51,000 ‘<°
IMTS GIES Grek oko wisn osc ee ewtns 100,000 ‘* =
Martinique & Guadaloupe..... 100,000‘ Ota stereo ciare tastes sretore otros 2,186,000 ‘‘
JLGTINS IEA) CopaosepaeGenacasapeae 75,000“
Beet Sugar. 1875. Beet Sugar. 1875.
German M pire. < s.\..eelee= 2 346,646 tons. Bele ium: ec.26 eager ane 79,796 tons.
HITAIT COM sar tc oe ce: ioe cee een 462. 259 Holland and other countries.. 30,000 ‘
Russia and Poland.........:... 245,000 ‘* —
Austria and Hungary ......... 153,922 as TO CSL: 5 ays cinekiset ase on recleroet 15317, 62500

The Consumption per capita of Sugar in the World.

The amount of sugar consumed per capita differs very greatly, and
represents to a certain extent the relative degree of luxury of the
several countries.

According to the statement of Lock, Wigner & Harland, the fol-
lowing represents approximately the number of pounds annually con-
sumed in the several countries per capita:

Aggregate pounds Aggregate pounds.

Consumpt’n per Consumpt’n per

ewt. head. ewt. head.

WANISTT UA ee cence 1874 1,713,142 85.90 France....... ... 1874 5,000,000 15.50
Great Britain.......1875 | 18,374,543 62.80 Austria, Hungary ..1874 8,400,000 15 10
British America .. 1875 1,721,386 CEO NOW AVen se cee 1873 193,086 svi)
River Plate States..1874 1,000,000 43.90 Portugal..... ..... 1874 300,000 8 40
United States.......1873 13,040,500 vaste ( 0) eed biel 7710 Dad Sek a rk ae 1874 642,857 8.00
Denmark 2222 1873 533,831 33).90) Greece. ..... 22 1871 86,800 6 60
Eiolvama ia. 22. nec. 1874 800,000 PAT LIB gy MELE ea esky! 570,000 5.61
IBeleMMr se. eee 1874 1,000,000 23.19 Russia and Poland 1874 4,000,000 5 40
Sweden es cere 1873 630,741 ayes OV eal nhl (on gs acheter 1874 500,000 3.80
Germanys sc oes: 1874 6,120,000 TGEVGO tal vires cee a eke .. 1873 865,350 3.60
Switzerland........ 1873 381,295 1b OO LS pada wa-e: emacs 1873 81,817 54

Countries Supplying United States with Sugar.

Pounds, Value. Pounds. Value.
GuUDase eres oecnis seek 1,008,413,671 $41,039,048 Duteh E. Indies..... 26,187,830 1,052,953
Spanish Possessions. 110,445,708 3,572,400 British W. eee 212.168 844.144
Porto Rico........... 70,155,045 2,610,418 and Honduras 23,2 : )
French W. Indies) 49,687,265 1,751,458 British Guiana...... 21,865,691 912,101

and Guiana.} “* Sandwich Islands... 20,978,374 1,051,987

Brailes eee 40,010,416 1,329,938

The above are the principal sources. Twenty-one other nations
furnish the remainder, which constitutes about 3 per cent of the whole
amount.

From the statistics it appears, that, during the past 20 years, the
United States have produced less thau 13 per cent of their sugar sup-
ply, and little more than 21 per cent of the molasses consumed.

SOURCES OF SUGAR. 27

Sugar Product of Louisiana, 1823-1877.

AMERICAN ALMANAC, 1880, p. 32.

; Hogsheads. Hogsheads.
(239 | AMER OS OeCROE 5 Sch BRCe as Agiobaeosaric SO AOS ASAD es sete canine ne eaten oi diate alates poms 231,427
TEE We Se eS ee eos eecioce SzLOOD IBD G ist ow fee ea = 3 bvatatass< Saiatahtote eye etic. 73,296
MT BRW eer yore 3, ore faim == GE ~'e te\z lel eo sam ore SOLDOO ISS TG ob et oe ts cle siigene cs eset Stee Se 279,697
LDU: SSO SSae ORO CO CRE ab pOOCn: Span cacess. AR OO Le 1Sos Sexe eye ee= etc ate see mica aes oes 362,296
EER sr mao loch Soe cieicinicls wibiaie Welo-e'<,00 FUROR TRS oats acosetune sncU ace (Sou Aca oas 221,840
USES Babee ee SAA ere? Boe SOBER ae SS 000 1SB0 i oe sae aac use as wo nieln sess b= s 228,753
LLB jab EC SUB GR CHE GOO E Ocoee BS °QOO CIB GU arcs oeyaisiale: otainseialak 2 siaicjerstc'ela ls oe SMe 459,410
De toe ete egnale Cons Grin wielcee ania 5 ase ROO ESG Sy soot ang cy nie stale iis seers im etecieels. ae c 76,801
TAS SURRY Lat eek a ate pee ee pele On Ad, EN Ear FETAL La Wake oe erste Oe el eas Ress Mod ee 10,387
TUS aS eee Sees SAS OC? te an DEUS. U UL i ke ce Reon ae Seer nS SAE nS one mrp 18,070
TBE) GASUES tag Ce at ae Ae Ae Ea SUDIOE IR serait ee Oe he seers 41,000
TSA ae oe Ns cee a i I tate bie FO ODN g1S07 See a ee ee 37,647
LS ii os Se een Oon Shee OnE ConpeEe GSO) SISGS Saeco os cee wee aston tee cieicte ote @.... 84,256
TSG Sees AARC e SOOO OC eT eeCeE eer MOLGO0 De TSES Gach ci teen cies o~ scarcer nee a 87,090
ES DIS as alarciala civeyeron cee eis elelewwie, «’ainm Os LES OOO ISI re eases oc ree wee siecle cide atiemistes 144,881
TE les eS JOE CC te ee Re Ree Are S7EOUOF AST oo alate ae esa iatere Were eine =) arn aeons 128,461
Peed r= a aed arnre slater sine clea, ain/s ainre aierre seins CUA Lied bey Cate Bae aoe go ean te eae ane rs 108,520
peer oct ake Sete choc sine ale stjceras aie IPUIP UN) Say eae Mea sae cee Sacre ace pose oees 89,498
LGB AA ae SoS eae eae OAGOr SOG TIC aaa an TODO lst ee cee waa aw aaelaclcs seec.eer cette 116,867
Lact h SBR ERA oe A Senor gE CCC eere DOD DOOR IBRD. = steele one wae Scctclte oar in ote ope 144,146
Le Virete ecto essia ceric miees' =! -foicke oye = weet = 1SO:000 C1610 opt 2 c- sere eee mronee ee dows 169,331
ike Le ee Sa Se OB on Banoo Een rs PAQUIN A RI =) nteteiatseimcctatsistor ie oi tacaveraielaieteisiexe ena 127,753
eel Reta eS ale An Be Ae ae AME SEIS PAUNG a LS (Gs: fe ncesec iam ce calcio soe einee se 213,221
Lis for Gee See Ae oe, Se eee Tees AIL LU IU ee gap aout: Saabs ae oo aa oc ee 169,972
RO eres a le wines das ot ettoc/ccna sian aps PATEOIS” VGSO\. ce anes ne nasne ome soins co ieee cis 218,314
NBS oe ecc sce as ns {Be Ba Seen AGU DIOCESE PAR ym best Rese os eo ee ena on SS aoe 122,982
Tis S LL Oh Bee Pas eee BP re ge 236,547 1862S ease ate esas nae Sled Eo ee 241,220
1S eee secs BBE Dat Teor Pan actor re ee 321,93 Average weight af the hhd. is reckoned
LOTR 95 OS 50 So ee 5 Soa en ee Bie 449,324 at 1137 pounds net.
EE eee ctv ents BE Saar iCh iat IO Oe 346,635

Average Yield of Sugar per Acre.

Pds. Maximum Pd. Maximum
reported. reported.
WPUIOTAN ET = ce x. os S65. Sar8 «5/2 4,480 TOUISIAN Ses cas or acon 1,200
MATURES fetes -' 2. sacle . 3,900 5.500) Queensland)... te<%.- 1-0 2,958 7,840
ANU PINES A. 2. ccs sn. « 1,680 2800, INADA i ees re oho 7,000
Ve ADOMbe es Suc. sae sins 3.360 Sandwich Islands......... , 12,000
AC ATCIEO. ese, AS." eee. - 2,100 Ries ania eee ap ee 5,000
JOT TRep ep ee noes Bee ee 1,344 5600s Surinam 8.6. S2soeesed ee. 1,960
India, average... ..3-.05.... 896

The following statistics of the acreage and production of sugar and
molasses in the United States, is from the Annual Report of the De-
partment of Agriculture.

Sugar-cane.
(1879. Census.) .
States. Acres. Sugar. Molasses. States. Acres. Sugar. Molasses.
Hhds. Gallons. Hhds. Gallons.
Alabama........ 6,627 94 795,199 Mississippi ..... 4,555 18 536,625
MlOrig a oo... 528s 7,938 1,273 1,029,868 South Carolina... 1,787 229! 138,944
Georeiay > .-s 10,005 601 1 RO Ok ERAS ais eine tise 10,224 4,951 810,605
WOWISIAHS. <<< 181, 592 171,706 11,696,248 a
Totaly. ys. a2 227,776 178,872 16,573,273

Maple Sugar.

Lewis S. Ware gives the following table, showing the total product
of maple sugar in the United States:

(bho) ge GA BRE Coe e OR serie ae 42,000,000 pounds. STO recta ep siala nine oe talere >) “ines 28,443,645 pounds.
LAOS AGE one Seen rine 44,000,000 IBYAL SSPE SERS oee = seoscoe aoe 30. 756, 000

ihn SAS ee rere See 41,500,000 s ASI AR oe ce A olt, slots s cies sie bic 31,682,000 Be
LTE Ee cin oy eae ae eee 40,500,000 ei INS) oeARe co semonne Toe ee 32,157,000 4
Lees: SeasS DD Bae eeece - 39,740,796 SS TEES Ro Sh oc Mae we CHABaIe .. .83,044,200 Y
NSGG. Pc con cemios ote s os eee: 37,532,000 a IS¥Gik. poten abcdsodansswocns 43,197,930 +
LS/GGeh Ge Sapaenee aOnenne: 35,654,000 sf iWiDe Moe jecopamiaacunnas se 43,288,080 “
MSGS I case tacts vo Siaeee ae-css or 33,421,000 es ES fleet cleltes eioieieielp schol == 41,000,000 ‘**

USE) ses de oadhedndbeepanoce 29, 114,500 oe

28 SORGHUM.

Of this amount, over 50 per cent is produced by the states of New
York and Vermont, 20 per cent by Ohio and Michigan, while the re-
maining 30 per cent is divided between 14 of the northern states.

Production of Sugar from Sugar Beets,
France.—Auttority, Corenwinder and Macarez, Lille (Special Re-
port, Department of Agriculture, on ‘‘ Culture of the Sugar Beet”) :

From 2,200 PouNDs Roots.
Pounds Sugar. - Pounds Molasses.

LBV O—4 5k Ss Ne ait er. By dd Reese Se 124.74 79.20
1 RSLs AG Sateen Chir ce Merc seg its ter AREER Se 128.26 74.80
STD HG) oe CS re olor aiat Pi dias ina ete ahe 117.04 80.96
TSO bie. ares See ar ice beacon ener 97.68 69.96
NOTES Be are Seeders eee 133.65 77.88

Average. Pat eed PAN lay 76.56

Equal to 5.47 per cent sugar from beets:

From ‘‘A Complete Treatise on the Fabrication and Refining of Beet
Sugar,” by L. Walkoff, we learn that the average per cent of sugar
from beets, in 1872-8, was, in Russia and Poland, 7.0 per cent.

Germany... ....++: jad eee aa 5Os0) a nae
Austria amih Hage POT Sores on ener en teo me = a 9.63 eS

During the season of 1879-80, there were worked in Germany
4,628,748 tons of beet roots for sugar. The average product per acre
was 11.09 tons of roots. From 1,174 tons of roots there was obtained
100 tons of all sugars, or 8.52 per cent of the weight of roots. This
yield is equal to 1,890 pounds of all sugars to the acre.

The following tables give the statistics of the production, importa-
tion, and consumption of sugar and molasses in the United States from
1790 to 1882, inclusive.

From 1878 to 1882, inclusive, no allowance is made for sorghum or
maple sugar, owing to the lack of reliable statistics as to their produc-
tion. Since 1878, the amount of sorghum and maple molasses is esti-
mated at 15,000,000 gallons of the former, and 2,000,000 gallons of
the latter, although the production of sorghum syrup is probably very
largely in excess of the above estimate at the present time.

The tables are taken from the Report of the Department of Agri-
culture for 1878.

Explanations and Remarks on the Tables.

In making thorough examination of the question of sugar pro-
duction in the United States, a collateral inquiry has resulted
in information which is appended at this time, for the atten-
tion, not only of the legislative powers of the country, but of all

SOURCES OF SUGAR. 29

those interested in commercial transactions with sugar and its allied
products.

The tabular statement of the tariff on sugar, extending from 1790
to 1882, inclusive, compiled with care, has been subjected to such re-
vision, as, I believe, entitles it to the confidence of those who wish to
investigate this subject, or to predicate legislation thereon.

The Imports and Exports are taken or compiled from the ‘‘American
State Papers” and the statistics of ‘‘ Commerce and Navigation.”

The ‘‘Difference” is obtained by subtracting the exports from the
imports, or the reverse; if the export item exceeds the import item, a
minus sign is used to designate such excess.

‘‘Value” signifies the difference between the value of the imports and
the value of the exports, and is, therefore, the cost of what is con-
sumed. From 1867 to the present date, the amounts in the value col-
umn are quoted from the statistics of ‘‘Commerce and Navigation.”

“Price,” or ‘‘Average per pound,” is obtained by dividing value by
the quantities in the column of foreign consumption.

The annual amounts ‘‘ Paid for customs” from 1867 until date, are
quoted or compiled from the statistics on ‘‘Commerce and Naviga-
tion ;” previous to that year, they are found by multiplying the quan-
tity consumed by the rate of duty on each kind or grade of the article
under consideration. For instance, refined sugar comprises different
grades, with a corresponding variety in the rates of duty.

The “Rate,” or ‘Average rate of duty,” is the result of dividing the
Paid for customs by the amount consumed.

The column of Domestic produce is estimated and collected from va-
rious sources, and, although not absolutely correct, forms the best
known data of the sugar produced in the United States.

The figures in Domestic exports are quoted from the ‘‘American State
Papers” and statistics of ‘‘ Commerce and Navigation.”

Previous to 1867, Foreign consumption is deduced from the imports
and exports; after that time, the amounts are taken from the tables
of home consumption in the statistics of ‘‘ Commerce and Navigation.”

Domestic consumption, previous to 1867, is the difference between do-
mestic production and exports; subsequently, the amounts are copied
from the statistics of ‘‘ Commerce and Navigation.”

Total consumption and Average per capita are interesting and impor-
tant, as showing the rate of increase in the consumption of sugar with
the increasing population; also, the fluctuations from year to year,
caused by changes in the tariff laws, or by wars or other disturbances.

30

SORGHUM.

TABLE

Imports, Exports, Cost, Production, and Consumption of Cane, Maple, and Sor-

YEARS.

FIRST DECENNIUM.

_ VALUE OF FOREIGN

FOREIGN. SUGAR CONSUMED.
; - Paid for
Imports. | Exports. |Difference.| Value. Custom
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Dollars. Dollars.
18, 229,419 49,787] 18,179,632 (ce) 185,649
24,901,639 GOH aa) SEE OE] 2 Vasesbe 383,234
@24,490'372!| “1972016| OS DDR ABE linens es oe 355,969
@ 47,762,505} 4,611,988] 43,150,517|.........:.. 688,812
a@ 48,705,900) 20,762,221 29435679 ae ines 2 ctsiee 469,847
63,783,405} 22,117,267] 41,666,138] ........... 651,101
59,469, 154 30,852,790) 23,636,364|............ 355,789
7216D/821| © (88 DLO Llp Stel ODeT70l) ae seme oo 589,567
87,528,918] "51, 740rat7 |) sae, 20lleeemnet ocece 641,247
103,846,468} 79,054,040] 24,792,498]............ 3,026,964
113,339,751) 56,557,455| 56,782,296|............ 1,272,833
136,628,926] 97,734,211] 38,894,725]... ........ 978,401
98,630,775) 61,180,288! 37,450,487]............ . 689,446
73,822,203) . 23,226,453] .50,595,750]......-..--. 1,235,077
128,722,669] | 74,172,220] 54.450,449]............ 1,573,714
186,471,773} 122,808.993 635662 780|\e Nae siete ore 1,544,023
199,133,437] 145,630,841] 53,502,596] .. ...... 1,396,316
220,669,099] 143,119,605] 77,549,494] 7,999,772] 1,993,139
104,411,777| 28,962,527] 75,459,250] ............ 1,763,008
76,758,394] 45,297,388] 31,556,056]............ 752,126
55,104,722] 47,024,002| 8,080,720]............ 410,452
77,200; 594) 8 3209: 847\| RSS: 08247 ae een 1,502,465
83,409,956] 13,927,277 69,482,679]............ 1,765,403
33,397,038] 6,617,288] 26,779,750].......-.-.. 1,364,527
29,464,943 762 29,464,181 can cee 1,503,279
45,043,162 8,188,718 41,854,444 6,913,370 2,180,779
55,110,381 D7 e723, 9 Ole eg GOs4 14) it eres 1,911,861
935; 1475368|" 20319531681) = 72:S02°200|.. ewe 2,225,944
68,358,936] 22,057,904] 46,301,082].... ....... 1,415,565
(3,944697| LL; 2675182) (G2: 677475)" no: ie entcen 1,911,250
b 66,730,179 31,389,109 Bp. SIA Qheesneo cok an 1,076,982
59,515,701 20,061,725 39:43:39 76 |e en 1,202,360
88,310,686! 14,446,860] 73,863,826]......... if 2,268,782
60,791,470] 21,459,024] 39,332,446] 1,779,881| 1,189,907
94,452,057 14,128,429 80,323,628 4,171,756 2,500,127
71,772,468] 21,836,771 49,935,697 2,617,965 1,507,043
$4,935,959) 21,146,856; 63,789,103 3,569,920 1,961,327
76,702,280 15,343,530 61,358,750 3,385,958 1,872,943
56,936,418} 10,691,088] 46,215,330 2,718,296 1,422,184
63,308,621 12,343,478] 50,965,143 2,807,599 1,559,174
86,490,113 9,725,342 76,764,771 3,946,547 2,352,155
109,231,168] 22,580,947} 86,650,221 3,639,488} 2,669,860
66,488,891 17,536,028 48,952,863 2,001,808 1,498,399
97,734,438 6,619,154 91,115,284 4,329,474 2,328,990
115,392,096] 13,969,203] 101,422,893] 4,703,312] 2,575,155
126,038,333 7,257,476] 118,780,857 6,243,350 3,053,723
191,428,305 84,492,282) 156,988,023 9,681,940 3.948, 104
136,149,761 41,124,819 95,024,942 4,546,128 2,390,081
153,883,863 11,624,324) 142,259,539 6,697,656, 3,617,377
195,289,024 13,154,653] 182,184,371 8,939,000 4,593,141

(a) These imports are for calendar years, and not fiscal years.
(b) Estimated by taking the mean between 1819 and 1821, there being no statistics of

imports on record.

(c) The only reliable values on record, from 1790 to 1823, are those of 1807 and 1815,
which are found in “ Pitkin’s Commerce of the United States.’’

as

SOURCES OF SUGAR.

31

ghum Sugar, Candy, and Melado, inthe U.S., for each fiscal year from 1790 to 1882.

Total.

Se ere

eee eee ee eee

eee eet eee eee

3.499.702
6,658,464
7,278,467
9,297,073
13,630,044
6,936,159
10,315,033
13,532,141

DoMESTIC.
Produce. | Exports.
Pounds. | Pounds
P2000 000} 8.52 s<.,
PSEULIAL UT Se eae
11,200,000}..........
14,215,000
16,240,000] ..........
13,290,000} ... .....
45:340,000) 252) 0...
12,400,000) ...-......
14,499 SO0| Se sac see
16,600,000] ..........
$6, 000000) 2 a).
20,000,000) .....-..-.
A000 000 S55. :-
20,200,000 97,029
22,499,500 924,181
25,299,500 390,445
98,000,000} 510,578
28,000,000 139,986
31,000,000 20,362
34,000,000 287,921
39,000,000 762,321
38,603,070] 244,242
41,000,000 142.690
42,500,000 732,320
45,000,000 756
43,000,000 16,692
46,000,000 79,577
45,000,000 180,863
47,500,000 111,894
59,000,000 80,055
51,000,006 80,836
55,000,000 181,119
58,000,000 185,658
57,650,000 59,033
63,960,000 63,868
63,650,000 77,799
84,975,000] 226,016
117,005,000 255,447
132,599,575 323,326
90,014,890 532,996
119,315,000) 1,623,866
123,625,000} 2,237,619
121,125,000 856,022
116,850,000 517.076
121,625,000} 2,463,841
152,500,000} 870,506
72,150,000} 1,571,108
120,850,000} 2,150,769
113,075,000} 3,019,451
117,850,000} 5,109,926

Foreign.

Pounds.

18,179,632
24,825,978
93,299, 456
43,150,517
27,943,679
41,583,263
23,719,239
34,195,770
26,936,602
33,639,027

56,146,185
39,583,836
30,245,045
49,403,084
62,948,587
61,312,733
55,852,643
77,549,494
68,482,885
30,085,070

16,418,071
58,932,247
‘69,482,679
26,779,750
99'464.181
41,854,444
37,386,414
72,852,200
46,301,032
62,677,475

35,341,070
39,453,976
73,863,826
39,332,446
80,323,628
49,935,697
63,789,103
61,358,750
46,245,330
50,965,143

76,764,771
86,650,221
48,952,863
91,115,284
101,422,893
118,780,857
156,936,023
95,024,942
142,259,539
182,134,371

CONSUMPTION.
Domestic. Total.
Pounds. Pounds.
12,000,000 30,179,632
13,000,000} 37,825,978
11,200,030 24,422,456
14,215,000 57,365,517
16,240,000} 44,183,679
13,290,000} 54,873,263
15,340,000} 39.059,239
12,400,000} 46,595,770
14,499,500} 41,436,102
16,600,000} 50,239,027
16,000,000} 72,146,185
20,000,000} 5$,530,836
21,000,000} 51,245,015,
20,102,971{ 69,506,055
21,575,319} 84,523,906
24,909,055] 86,221,788
27,489,422} $3,342,065
27,860,014) 105,409,508
30,979,638} 99,462,523
33,712,079 63,797,149
38,237,679} 54,655,750
38,358,828} 97,291,075
40,857,310} 110,339,989
41,767,680) — 68,547,430
44,999,244 74,463,425
42,983,308] 84,837,752
45,920,423) 83,306,837
44,819,137) 117,671,337
47,388,106; 93,689,138
49,919,945) 112,597,420
50,919,164 86,260,234
54,818,881 94,272,857
57,814,342| 131,678,168)
57,590,967; 96,923,413
63,896,152) 144,219,760)
63,572,201) 113,507,898
$4,748,984; 148,538,087)
116,749,553} 178, 108.303)
132,276,249) 178,521,579
89,481,894) 140,447,037
117,691,134) 194,455,905
121,387,381; 208,037,602
120,268,978) 169,221,841
116,332,924} 207,448,208
119,161,159) 220,584,052
151,629,494) 270,419,351
70,578,892) 227,514,915
118,699,231} 213,724,173
110,055,549} 252,315,088
112,680,074) 294,814,445

Popula-
tion.

Number.
3,929,214

?

WH mv
SE3)
“I

¥

Rs

eres
DP Om

Visto

ome

Cony

IDA AAD Gon cicn

FS

bo
w
P=]

on
S28
wwe

Aas
tanh Sn oh alye
Cit 9

Sears
me Sho
Rees!

ah
ge)
ss] 1

5 the

WS
_
oO

Qo
isd
TOS
am Oo
S
i=)

{25 OP HO
2 Se
aa

%

9,638,453
9,917,091
10,205,555
| 10,504,195
10,813,777
| 11,132,991
11,459,903
11,803,775
12,157,956
12,508,898

12,866,029
13,205,429
13,615,826
14,019,343
14,420,731
14,814,243
15,270,483
15,711,264
16,120,891
16,599,492

SITIO G

Per
ita.

Average
Consump-
tion

Cap

z

WH

8

32 ' SORGHUM. ’

TABLE

eee ee
——
| VALUE OF FOREIGN

FOREIGN. SUGAR CONSUMED.

YEARS. saan
. alc Lig
Imports. | Exports. |Difference.| Value. Gastown

SIXTH DECENNIUM. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Dollars Dollars
Lick UGE ss dam eet memo sarien ear ake 120,941,277} 18,947,018} 101,993,719 4,223,754 2,974,145
eo ee Ri neoeeaeer.: - Sooke 184,264,995 11,814,266} 172,450,715 7,950,808 4,385,295
1% Deere ahr 175,864,844 12,597,703] 160,965,852 9,773,297 4,169,017
it: BR eee HRN eS Eero cos: Sides @ 71,339,050 1,886,976} 69,444,470 2,439,402 1,795,020
11: 0 eS ae eR As ca sens 186,808,695 4,475,032) . 182,329,492 6,884,501 4,572,952
TC eR a AEs Se 2 115,666,656] 13,799,€37| 101,865,203) 4,063,202} 2,573,331
Peres cas Bye ersyatm Siotesaistee eaters 128,032,840} 20,570,023] 107,458,852 4,324,562 2,687, 142
ist: 7, ARS BAP e EOI DOO EO oo cak 236,970,894 8,394,918] 228,573,926 9,406,444 8,165,490
SE teat orakas Sisis reralatecd ie tarePar eae 257,144,861 13,120,769) 244,008,984 8,775,772 2,632,732
NSAOA gi certie are coeiarae Maelo yess 259,326,584 Serer 242,169,247 7,276,241 2,182,872

SEVENTH DECENNIUM

S50 Nate ro sees Soa gener ets 218,439,055} 14,153,065) 204,272,283 6,953,667 2,086,099
TQ5 1 hs ee Sem te cee aN 380,423,569] 6,387,108] 374,014,916] 13,483,178] 4,014,954
TGS Ei BCs, Soke eeraneas Tomo 457,544,544 9,573,357| 447,937,734). 13,924,707 4,177,419
21-5 eee ae On, <a ewe ey 464,427,281 18,981,701} 445,418,963 13,934,467 4,180,341
LO poe aires ee Mee sais tore che iss) = o/s 455,964,452) 52,019,584) 403,894,136] 12,467,108 3,440, 133,
rf Beemer toys Pha mre fe chal Sakae charets io es, 1 2r 473,884,218) 33,716,323) 440,114,752 3,323,505 3,997,052
QE poy ote las oho eys =e Werayetene OTe ieuevats 545,262,754) 23,341,474! 521,872,706) 21,373,859 6,412,158
dT ne aed State OE asaya! atecaye = esd 777,003,115| 14,731,801) 762,137,041 41,731,898 12,519,569
Lie aloe octets win ie owen clgye prorat baie 519,240,945) 74,910,624) 444,330,321 19,083,918 4,580,140
GU Rob Ra See C SOs pp poner 655,868,415} 33,608,653] 622,003,778} 28,670,426 5,880,902

EIGHTH DECENNIUM.
ikea eee peice aretha a, ote bs acatncetays 694,879,795 34,016,070] 660,777,373] 29,291,087 7,029,861
Ast aA ee, ye $09,813,489] 80,408,714] 729,404,775} 27,254,957} 10,011,932
TNS et doe Ae aE Beemer OL 557, 143,184 93,552,145] 533,591,039) 19,049,781 10,724,725
Eyles acs = bh aia si » yee ee See 522,131,247 16,155,557| 502,448,466 17,642,237 10,272,961
BOL csc lorcet eto mutates © ctsisjets ebmncters 632,248,612] 27,271,713] 605,949,979] 27,069,139 12,317,647
rota Se Aetna ate be bre SORES OLIR ICR © 651,971,882) 30,743,484] 614,067,543 23,696,358 18,972,632
MSH dena he area olatpinlo evebfaters tee.aclate 1,000,076,709 8,580,092] 991,496,617 40,182,049 30,633,113
SB pe esate Spent eysie atate ais 5 ale eka, “headhe $49,108,911 2,210,707) 835,416,841) b 38,513,055) b 28,589,781
Bn 124 Gene ae ee Ae ee eee oaths 1,121,221,670 16,112,818]1,105,108,852| 43,434,090 30,455,442
SEO eM tiet eeciece ate ie ac itelas Seto 1,247,885,371 17,828,678] 1,230,056,693} 48,258,660) 30,929,337

NINTH DECENNIUM.
TESA UR pas ip te es Sateen ERA a or 1,196,829,389} 18,383,902]1,178,495,487 60,270,688] 36,829,037
Dl ae astm be Sess acc ene eres 1,277,525,009 10,364, 161} 1,267, 160,848 60,849,370) 30,758,657
ABV 2its cote ware lacie eles 5 a iclsieyaiatasecaes 1,509, 249,507 12,122,280] 1,497,127,227 76,029,865) 28,876,131
UST. Ue cirre. venice mens reat ate ely ees 1,568,393,877| 23,930,453]1,544, 463,424 79,513,278] 29,842,942
itsi¢: hers RRs Abaca Sen CaS Seta ciclo 1,701,354,312} 19,310,777|1,682,043,535| 81,491,851 32,499,835
ACY Fe NE es Ae na eT OR ICL TOOe 1,797 ,586,806 11,200,857) 1,786,385,949} 71,800,598) 34,662,057
ib See e So ao Aenea oe ae corte 1,494,065,427) 15,870,600]1,478,194,827| - 67,030,351 39,450,917
Te Fir Ae tes er ee ES ote it ae 1,623,973,537 3,122,956) 1,620,850,581 73,780,829 39,274,468
acyiReReeieso: |. Ac Sreaecne ee aaa 1,507,120,551 6,016,855) 1,501, 103,696 $2,659,480 37,080,803
Tyke Sees HS are Rete aie Ps 1,834,403,349| 10,389,906]1,824,013,443] 69,964,566) 38,074,137

TENTH DECENNIUM.
Th Ne eeeae ea eey, Be eee aot 1,829,355,368] 10,501,791|1,818,853,577| 72,197,267] 39,804,805
USE Sy celeste sisioraral s os ee etstormers' = . - 1,946,804, 201 9,728,295]1,937,075,906 88,372,629 46,325,011
ASOD eae cence. corer ..--11,990,234,525 5,625, 199]1,984,609,326) 91,752,195} 46,994,644

(a) These statistics are from October Ist, 1842, to June 30th, 1543, nine months.
(0) The ‘ Values,” ‘Paid for Customs,’’ and foreign sugar consumed, are quoted
from the consumption tables in the Annual Reports of the Bureau of Statistics.

; -
, ba
; f 7
x Z
SOURCES OF SUGAR, 33
4 . q y
y * f
I.— Continued. ’
>
| DoMEsTIC. | CoNSUMPTION. ofS
| BER 5
Total. P 1 5 = =
Produce. | Exports.| Foreign. | Domestic.| Total. ata Es 22

Dollars. Pounds. | Pounds.| Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
6,797,899} 167,930,705) 11,511,556) 101,993,719] 156,419,149) 258,412,868
12,336,103} 135,442,000) 13,747,948) 172,450,615) 121,694,052) 294,144,
9,942,314) 142,277,795) 3,596,879) 160,965,852) 138,680,916) 299,646,7
4,234,422) 200,246,000 667,447| 69,444,470) 199,572,553) 269,017,023
11,457,453} 137,003,436) 1,858,225) 182, ie a 135,145,211) 317,474,703
6,636,533) 273,979,000 Br 271,785,023) 373, 690,226,
7,011,704) 235,371,625] 4,237, A 231,133,818} 338, 592,670!
12,571,934] 192,002,000} 1,927,472) 228, 573, 926 190,074,528} 418,648,454) 2 |
11,408,504) 312,510,570) 3,513,779) 244,008,984) 308,996,791) 553,005,775) aL en S54
9,459°113| 292°772,000| 2°356,104| 242,169,247| 290,415,896) 532,585,143) 22.358.293) |

See
|

Number. Pounds. }
ii a .

19,102,946
19,640,029!
20,225,760

\ 18.73.

4

~ 9,039,766) 328,785,960

3,244,861) 204,272,283) 325,541,099) 529,813,382) 23,191,876
17,528,132 283,048,788} 3,2:
9

31,369} 374,014,916) 270,797,419) 653,812,335) 23,974,993)
18,102,117) 310,517,836) 2,498,390) 447,937,734| 308,019,446) - 755,957,180) 24,843,547

}
18,114,808} 409,457,592) 5,827,331) 445,418,963) 403,630,261) $49,049,224) 25,721 |
15,907,241) 549,283,584} 9,893,751) 403,894,136] 539,389,833] 943,285,969) 26,615,32: 30.18
17,520,557) 426,387,582) 11,160,945) 440,114,752) 415,226,637) 855,341,389 af 586,113) f a od
27,786,017) 295,843,882 oy 271,191} 521,872,706} 286,572,691 808,445,397) 2 8,349,746)
04,251,467) 114,405,480 5,338,247| 762,137,041] 109,067,233] 871,204,274] 29,124, Sia} |
23,664,058) 366,540,144) 7,201,090) 444,330,321] 359,339,054) 805,669,375) 29,966,042
39,991,328) 465,972,150) 6,558,757| 622,003,778) 459,413,393)1,081,417,171) 30,685,586) J

320,948) 302,209,105} 4,466,031) 660,777,673) 297,743,074) 958,520,447} 31,443,321)
266 312,294,955) 6,511,134) 729,404,775 3097 783,521 /1,035,188,596 32, 238 $403)
595,980,722) 2,755,252) 533,591,039) 593,225,470) 1,126,816,509) 32,987,985)

SBEe

o~

BRE
+43

}
198} 281,923,795} 3,595,009) 502,448,466) 278, 328,786 780,777,292 38.211 430) |
786| 128,568,644] 2,328,483) 605,949,979) 126,240,161] 732,190,140) 33,345,224) t 23.16
990 ;

J

fe
t 7)
~SPe

ms
re

Rs
Ear

51,903,854) 2,132,147) 634,067,543) 49.771,707| 663,839,250 eters
58,715,645) 4,460.1 991,496,617) 54,255,507/1,045,752,124 34,324,665)
82,698,658] 8,197,550)a 939,806,458} 74,501,108 1,014,307,566| 35,342,849)

aa
5
op
="
ro
Sj

73,889,532} 76,689,844] 2,282,655/1,000,886.403| _74,407,189]1,075,293.593| 36,361,669

ae, 79,187,997, 129,142,286] 3,187,993/1,018,807,068| 125,954,293|1,144,761,361| 37,400,130
97,099,725] 132,979,178] 4,501,221/1,216,459,872| | 128,477,957/1,344,937,829| 38,558,371) }
91,608,027, 208,196,046) 3,945,923/1,231,883,061} 204,250,123]1,436,133,184| 39,723,755
104,905,996] 186,106,426) 41590,932|1,412.919,438| 181,515,494) 1.594,434.932| 40,967,095 |
109,356,220) 163,955,047| 10,222,728|1,485,657,191) 153,732,319|1,659,389,510) 42,265,762
113,991,686) 141,629,424) 15,685,587|1,644,765,505| 126,043,837|1,770,809,342 pee alt aaa
106,462,655) 184,536,695) 35,694,888| 1,649.100,179| 148,841,807|1,797.941,986| 44,588,083
106,481,268) 214,974,473) 52,024,916/1,658,719,324| 162,949,557|1,821,668,881| 45,687,668
109,055,297} 241,286,958) 54,073,314/1,505,086,114| 187.213,644/1,692,299,758| 46,761,551 |
119,740,283) 155,928,057! 44,093,092) 1.620,087,542| 111,834.965/1,731,922.507| 47,874,485)
108,038,703] 253,847,478) 72,352,964/1,681,349,585| 181,494,514)1,862,844,099|....../... J
112,002,072] 210,900,015] 30,142,004) 1,687,576,123| 180,758,011/1,868,334,134) 50,155,783|..........
134,697,640| 289,361,873) 22,252,833|1,966,669,984| 267,109,040|2,233,779,024|.. .......|....2...06
137,746,839] 169,467,447| 13,814,005|2,033,787,066| 155,653,442/2,189,440,508|..........|..........

(a) See note (5), page 32.
3

34 SORGHUM.

TABLE

Imports, Exports, Cost, Production, and Consumption of Cane Mo-

VALUE OF CANE

FOREIGN, MOLASSES CONSUMED.
YEARS. Maco
a : al or
Imports. | Exports. | Difference.| Value. Gusane
FIRST DECENNIUM. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Dollars. Dollars.
179032 BAe ee eee cee 5,992,646 15,537 5,977,109 149,428
TPOT SF, ts crete ee EON. eG 7,194,606 12,721 7,181,885 215,457
LTO Rica vicke Acie stetole tere siete eet Sates @5.229,915 11,338 5,218,577 156,557
LOS Ae RO A econo eens ee enrt a 4,930,141 28,733|" 4,901,408 147,042
Tyke ees Beis ins ay Lest ee a. 3,476,906 7.216 3,469,690 104,091
TWA ages ays ee eee a Seer 4,425,621 20,124 4,405,497] -.-..-2.-- 132,165
Wi Rea tent BSW coe TE 4,965,191 112.257 1,85 fs 145,588
At (lie, SiS ae eke be Ase peat 3,876,420 48,559] 3,827, 861 153,114
OB se anes mere rete. octet 4,629,370 S2850l) 40507 020 |e secon ee 183,881
19D eee 25 ore Sloe eeoe 4,100,242 61,911 AiGaS Bt ere Scenes 161,533
SECOND DECENNIUM. }
SOO Ee ae er cMie Met, ciate ons beet 4,092,677 39,122 ZAM B Eas |ee ScaocS nt 162,142
SOLS ae Sead citeichasises 5,717,290 421,628| 5,295,662|............ 211,826
Ths aio BOR bid Akaie gs Coe Ieee 6,833, 261 56,959] 6,776,302] 2,026,114 271,052
TET REN AH deal: See ae 6.725,400 38,552] 6,683,848] 1,992,681 267,474
TSA ee ae Rett We 5,747,256 55,259 5,691,997] 1,702,907 227,680
TSOH esc Lit ey: 9,021,700 48,474 3.9'75'906||. 20 pores 448,661
Thee ee ge i cee oe ae ek 8,597,456 53,798] 8,543,458].------. oe 427,183
SOT eek oretks chet noe eh sate cy. 8,511,234 40,957| 8,470,277] 3,125,582 493,514
TSOR pew ie suis dite cn Mee ae 6,489,008 7,337 6.481 671] 2.00.2 oe 324,084
TBO Ses paee fee he fees. 5,219,415 35,0438 1b 15:4 72| ance elem ee 259,274
THIRD DECENNIUM
FL Oe ear ea: So ak eee 8,055,629 40,245 S015 S84 cee suse 400,769
TL SRE RS Soe MaNEIAS Sears dee 8,634,418 18,837 SOL5sSlle. weet ere m 430,779 -
TESTIS Pee aia Sees Fe Nae ee 8,141,264 8,001 Sy IER POY GY RAG onan sp 406,663
SIS Reena Eee con teccatoeine 3,199, ae S09), hans 19805 2| cee nee 319,805
be Ree rw See te tee ee S370 B67 Seems BUC atsay i bar ietioe das 337,637
[ET Sen manaarn Bean eine Soceeteus $90 649 AROS, A ALA eee - 474,141
STG ae ce eee IR ec een e me 8,494,248 99:008| 8.465.940) j-.o-ee.- 846,524
MSL eee CAopenee sate ee aac ar 11,480,948 AAAS TI) Wed GG:401l ee seen. 578,325
MeL Sires S tte, Savaistdletor' o a0) peters sacrata 12,353,985 PATS} LOSS SOT see errors 617,125
a ESE: pies een Aue ee Se aie gee 10,583,298 20,486 10,562,812|.........--- 528,141
FOURTH DECENNIUM
{B20 cee eete een aw es tras b 9,835,140 8255701) 1 Ost Osn69 leer 487,628
ROE wee Ae ate Pe antag oe 9,086,982 39,421 9,047,561 1,707,995 452,378
SAG eS Sseinn cee cases os 11,990,569 13,292] 11,977,277 2,393,945 598,864
ISDE OO Se nocerincs ce miees miaiteees 13,019,328 3,409! 13,015,919] 2,633,228 650,796
SOE are tae toes eet tore ey 13,117,724 18,737| 13,098,987 2° 408,911] 654,949
PSD ees te eer MI ae a os Sarre: 12)535,062 15,806] 12,519,256) 2,543,137 625,963
TSQG Meee chee ione ee beens ae 13, ee 045 50.602) 13.7921443| 2,822/309 689,622
ISD PRR SS WA See ee teree Ser 1,002 20,107] 13,356,395] 2,812,490 667,820
BOS Wea eee nen ny: bie? 13. 308) 651 30,168] 13,363,483] 2,778,983 668,174
TY) at teeth es ARGS oe lon teri ..1 10,150,224 36,920] 10,113,304 1,475,609} 1,011,330
FIFTH DECENNIUM.
ISSO were: Sy Nan SEAS VER ee arse 8,374,139 27,121 8,347.018 988,985 834,702
TBI be Ooh a Meaney Rodbo sean a boee 17,085,878 17,695} 17,068,183} 2,427,708 853,409
TBSDee encanta Mee eee ee ee 15,860,553 29,656] 15,830,897| 2,515,498 791,545
TRSS oer lat ae ee eee 15,693,050 18,730] 15,674,320) 2,862,536 783,716
GBA Sera eee eee : 17,086,472 58,736 3 851,387
TRG aah Oca GEMS atm Ooo. S50 18,971,603 50,776 : .04f . 946,041
TCR GSS React PC era oanbSo 18,051,784 42951! 18,008, 833 4,061,240 900,442
TCR (ar cat ems, PCE, ee acca re .| 16,451,182 90,597 16,360,585] 3,411,757 818,029
USSS Ecorse Eee artrryr ass 21,196,411 62,098] 21,134,313] 3,845,701 1,056,716
TET). SRS See RAGA a ee 8 f 23,094,677 121,171} 22,973,506] 4,327,500) = 1,148,675

———— es ees

(a) These imports are for calendar years, and not fiseal years.
(b) Estimated by taking the mean between 1819 and 1821, there being no imports on
record for this year.

SOURCES OF SUGAR.

lasses in the United States for each fiscal year from 1790 to 1882.

30

DOMESTIC.
Total.
Produce. | Exports.
Dollars. Gallons. | Gallons
SIGAS Cobian See en ee | ae nae ee
ye ee ASIST. oo 325552
ie: Sa gS eee
Sacto Sacco PEL 22 32 ioe 6d
a ater 7G S|
Bees wadie2 S| eee
Re Sires | a See
22a ae AS ADO So. oso
Pree Stee 54,545} - .
=e Se eee 90,909) .
fe SPR dp iF ee
2,297,166 454,945} .....-.--
2,260,154 ss: 7] ae
1,930,586 GEE 772) 320 -
Pee ene Te {a2 85!) eee neope
a oe eee DN ISUes cation
3,549,046 909,090] ..........
“pS, £ eee 4 (irre? leper iene
2 Begs saaee 1, 363;636] ...-....:-
elses cncce eS 1 BESS 7555 | ele oe
BAe ee 1500,000h 555.2 2:
Re eats Soe 1,583,333]... ....-
= See ae 1,666,666] .......
Becmase et. 2 1,790,000).-. 2 ....-
Bees cose toe = y RE 2 5 | Ce
ne iL GIG GGG. 2 = e455.
Bese 2,000;000) ..... 2...
b Ae Ae Al Kr | | Gee
Recents f= yA 35555) ne
Beomaect ct 2,250,000} ..........
2,160,373 ar A eee
2,992,809 2,500,000} ..........
3,284,024 2887, 000). 2s. e--
3,063,860) ,080,000}........-
3,169,100 2,887,500 aa
3,511,931 4,331,250 a 2,070
3,480,309 6,833,75 5,037
3,447,157 8,466,631 2,003
2,486,939 4,642,907 6,640
1,823,687 6,485,769 13,227
3,281,117] 6,653,461 3,160
3,307,043 6,663,461 8,310
3,646,252 6,219,230 7,597
3,826,610 6,663,461 19,780
4,008,086 8,884,615 6,543
4,961,682 2,665,384 2,837
4,229,786 6,219,230 23,903
4,902,417 5,775,000 22,067
5,476,175 6,219,230 11,460}

Foreign.

ye
SO
S39
ay
wo

NAM. 0. te
LeZy :
Mode ad
pio
t
SF

8,465,240] ©

11,466,491
12,342,507
10,562,812

9,752,569

9,047,561
11,977,277
13,015,919
13,098,987
12,519,256
13,792,443
13,356,395
13,363,483
10,113,304

8,347,018
17,068,183.
15,830,897
15,674,320
17,027,736
18,920,827
18,008,833
16,360,585
21,134,313
22,973,506

CONSUMPTION.

Domestic. Total
Galions Gallons.
Pen eT 5,977,109
UR: 7,181,885
18,181} 5,236,758
19,545} 4,920,9533
21,818 3,491,508
26,363 4,431,860
30,909 4,883,543
36,363 3,864, 224
45,409 4,642,429
34,545 4,092,876
90,909 4,144,464
272,727 5,568,389
454,545 7,230,847
563,636 7,250,484
681,772 6,373,769
754,500 9,727,726
818,181 9,361,839
909,090 9,379,367
1,272,727 7,754,398
1,363,636 6,549, 108
1,333,333 9,348,717
1,500,000} 10,115,581
1,583,333 9,716,596
1,666,666. 4,864,718
1,750,000 5,128,367
1,833,333 6,574,747
1,916,666} 10,381,906
2,000,000} 13,466,491
2,041,666 14,384,173
2,093,333} 12,656,145
2,250,000} 12,002,569)
2,416,666 11,464,227
2,500,000} 14,477,277)
2,887,500] 15,903,419)
3,080,000} 16,178,987)
2,887,500} 15,406,756)
4,329,180} 18,121,623
6,828,713] 20,185,108)
8,464,628} 21,828,111
4,636,267) 14,749,571
6,472,542) 14,819,560
6,660,301 23,728,484!
6,655,151 22,486,048
6,211,633} 21,885,953
6,643,681] 23,671,417
8,878,072} 27,798,899
2,662,547) 20,761,380
6,195,327 22,555,912)
5,752,933] 26,887,246)
6,207,770

Popula-
tion.

Number.

9,638,453

9,917,091
10,295,355
10,504,195
10,813,777
11,132,991
11,459,903
11,803,775
12,157,956
12,508,898

12,866,020
13,205,429
13,615,826
14,019,343
14,420,731
14,814,243
15,270,483
15,711,264
16,120,891

Average
Consum
tion Per

Capita.

}
|
be
|

7}
| 1.59

29,181,276| 16,599,492| J

(a) From 1826 to 1835, inclusive, the statistics of domestic exports are given in value,
which are reduced at the rate of 30 cents per gallon.

36 SORGHUM.

TABLE

po ee eee ee
ES
VALUE OF CANE

FOREIGN. MOLASSES CONSUMED:
bigs Paid for
Imports. | Exports. |Difference.| Value. ciaoneee
SIXTH DECENNIUM. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Dollars. Dollars.
boy: Ut eae eey eee oes atte See Ati Foe ee 19,703,620 188,078 19,515,542 2,861,261 975,777
GSA 5 Oe Ae Se aoe cei eetteteneaete 19,355,028 328,786 19,026,242 2,942,933 951,312
ao): Ae ee ek Snob: Goce 17,834,927 203,472 17,631,455 1,908,131 881,573
1 By SR evaoes apse eels OSA ey a@ 11,776,047 100,763 11,675,284 1,116,310 525,388.
ns OS eet ed A oo OS ate Ce 22,675,302 224,668} 22,450,684 2,795,055 1,010,281
BLS Aay ein elo oeniee sccterasiats avers 18,301,033 297,949 18,003,084 3,072,021 $10,139
BEIGE eS neo cove teleiol Nem blob as inre ste e 22,760,622 414,678 22,345,944 3,254,075 1,005,567
1 he 7) Se eS tay oO Eon OOo CAAae 30,677,630 1,467,418 29,210,212 2,740,392 872,494
18432 5 SR ry ee hee 33,640,287 559,739 33,080,552 3,337,865 1,001,360
fo NR ne Ot re Pha Cas aS 23,796,806 793,539} 23,003,27] 2,636,920 791,076
SEVENTH DECENNIUM. ;
H 31311 Jy EOP CAH ee Dn Seen eer aa 25,044,835 581,820) 24,463,015 2,785,117 835,535
US yeah eee erates Mie Cleve cial wrote sre ee 36,376,772 226,592] 36,150,180 3,663,323 1,098,997
TOS Ketch te aainnes pseu ewe 82,795,610 25,958} 32,469,652 8,034,277 1,060,283.
dea A heeeco sion bt SOOO TOT DOUVO SESE 31,886,100 488,666] 31,397,434 3,587,008 1,076,102
[SAN Soe Mod se Sele releietencicns 27,759,463 889,295 26,870,168 2,946,562 883,969
ICS) Ss GEE CoD Aen OS ath sGcapace 26,385,593 1,517,474 24,868,119 3,190,706 957,212
IESG Ae eees Coca tecpate Coenen aes 23,617,674 1,261,140 22,356,534 4,028,488 1,208,546
PRS ypecree ew eeieciaies aca atow eiciteer« 32,705,844 1,441,660 31,264,184 7,748,961 2,324,688
1 ee RO SHO poe Caparo cacimarcc 24,566,397 5,908,075 20,658, 282 2,991,326 717,918
Js = es Coe. ao Ro aoe ease ei ere 32,818,146 2,118,669 30,704,477 4,543,012 1,090,323
EIGHTH DECENNIUM.
SBD eetcce tee epesis eres tne “Pele aye 30,922,633 1,222,118} 29,700,515 4,932,886 1,183,893
ibs ela Bee ae boon oUC aos or 29,94) 397 5,065,986 26,872,411 3,908,330 709,862
belt P A” orn Sick IOC OO. Cnty stots 25,157,280 1,296 564 23,860,716 3,213,983 1,193,036
SE iclecre t= inte teats otabe sels polatels halorais 30,854,264 1,156,799 29,697,465 4,439,597 1,781,848
RG was oie the ae misteistee nine = bee wie 33,971,230 953,472 32,617,758 7,005,603 2,609,421
1s Sp SA One Ret Daa terete 37,306,168} 1,487,815] 35,818,353] 6,965,428; 2,865,468.
eT Th AAR e eeroe ape nao Seok ctouc 45,289,983 1,020,544 44,265,439 7,495,864 8,541,235
AT Sritrcrceese aisha nis eases nie wie tert 56,123,079 639,888] 55,483,191} 6b 8,916,211! 6 4,009,321
MEGS aie tte cts « Oe olay Pei aeee 56,408,435 548,428) 55,860,007 11,884,702 4,402,624
SEO ie aeicccct: Rictetae toate sine wheter 53,304,030 2,315,842 50,988,188 11,847,827 4,168,900°
NINTH DECENNIUM.
a CY UB Aas er ie eres Bele aa oine Sor eiorse 56,373,537 1,606,272 54,767,265 11,345,631 3,821,461
RS fis rive eile eters ronsiatatets otatetsrate risa 2 44,401,359 1,002,184 43,399,175 10,953,029 3,826,462
LS Te savers che tobslows hein em niofashtnioters tele 45,214,405 310,558 44,903,815 10,108,889 2,102,896
ents arm He oe lat am sttctstmteaee 43,533,909 558,289} 42,975,620! 10,424,652 2,205,621
LSTA tote, ccetelacnreie este focteie ates 47,189,837 958,280} 46,231,557 11,122,174 2,360, 282
LTE heroics tates eiela: eiate\e inlets wetererin re 49,112,255 648,488} 48,463,767 10,409,255 2,495,189
1G (eases ak npatnocanoa dg fone 39,026,200 1,058,815 37,967,385 8,712,116 2,447,658
STE i cetote BU SADS CEH ote Deabeate sor 30,188,963 302,891 29,886,072 7,339, 194 1,812,525
MLR e big wale ee oie rire le eiaate marine 27,490,007 844,206 26,645,801 6,874,767 1,678,485
ROTO osc tets 2 ors cere ete alete iaiats eon deans Sie 38,460,347 734,706| 37,725,641 6,914,983 2,209,660
TENTH DECENNIUM.
ISSO ee ctwaens. Dcrsie be Rie arse 38,120,880 77,878 28,043,002 8,997,844 2,465,265
USS Mtas ee cite Rickore os tey Sete sist ahcneare sian 28,708,221 616,831 28,091,390 6,401,214 1,659,064
TICS NRA S Aer, Siem At cricket 37,268,830 72,773) 37,096,057 9,714,943 2,221,692

(a) These statistics are from October Ist, 1842, to June 30th, 1848—nine months.
(b) The values and amounts paid for customs aiter 1866 were calculated on the amount
entered for consumption.

,, 1) =r.

ITI1—Oontinued.

SOURCES OF SUGAR.

s
‘
i
© oes
BES3
Stes:
Popula-| S25 &
tion 49550

DOMEsTIC. CONSUMPTION.
Total.
Produce. | Exports.| Foreign. | Domestic. Total.
/

Dollars. Gallons. | Gallons.| Gallons. Gallons. Gallons.
3,836,936) 10,217,307 32,553 19,515,542} 10,184,724) 29,700,266
3,494,245 7,803,230 26,663 19,026,242 7,776,567; 26,802,809
2,789,704 8,072,317 63,467) 17,631,455 8,008,850) 25,640,305) 1
1,641,698 12,596,923) 4,390 11,675,284) 12,552,533! 24,227,817
3,805,836 9,000,264 13,073} 22,450,684 8,987,191} 31,437,875
3,882,160 17,925,076 69,237 18,003,084 17,853,839} 35,856,923
4,259,642 16,682,769 5,270} 22,345,944] .16,677,499} 39,023,443
8,612,886 12,556,923 89,863 29,210,212} 12,467,060) 41,677,272
4,339,225] 21,526,153 18,543} 33,080,552) 21,507,610) 54,588,162
3,427,996} 19;938,461 24,807} 23,003,271 19,918,654) 42,916,925
3,620,652) 21,038,037 47,123) 24,463,015} 20,990,914) 45,453,929
4,762,320] 17,921,913 56,100} 36,150,180) 17,865,813) 54,015,993
4,594,560) 20,072,702 43,877| 32,469,652} 20,028,825) 52,498,477
4,663,110 27,318,399 58,607 31,397,434) 27,259,792] 58,657,226
3,830,531 37,422,270 436,413 26,870,168 36,985,857 63,856,025
4,147,918] 28,869,743 790,956 24,868,119} 28,078,787 52,946,906
5,237,034 19,274,563 454,315 22,356,534 18,820,248] 41,176,782

10,073,649 6,245,248 207,931 31,264,184 6,035,317) 37,299,501
3,709,244) 23,824, 189 290,046} 20,658,282] 23,534,143) 44,192, 425)
0,633,335} 30,568,725 181,341 30,704,477 30,387,384 61,091, 861)
6,116,779 18,717,760 79,439} 29,700,515} 18,638,311 48,338,826
4,218,192} 19,301,032 91,593 26, Si 2,411 19,209,439} 46,081,850,
4,407,019} 39,417,378 45,009} 23,860,716} 39,372,369) 63,233,085,
6,221,445) 17,160,000 39,290} 29,697,465} 17,120,710) 46,818,175)
9,615,024 6,275,738 47,455 32.617 "758 6,228,283) 38,846,041
9,830,896 848,766 30,875} 35,818,353 817,891) 36,636,244

11,037,099 1,476,577 55,653} 44,265,439 1,420,924 45,686,363)

12,925,632 3,390,285 59,544; @ 50,116,517 3,290,741 53,407,258

16,287,326] 3,076,297 42.543] 55,006,060} 3,033,754! 58,039,814)

16,016,727 7,128,841 268,995) 52,111,252 6,859,846} 58,971,098

15,167,092 6,961,706 299,672] 47,768,267 6,662,034) 54,430,301)

13,779,491 11,821,501) 2,946,113} 47,260,021 8,875,398) 56,155, 419)

12,211,785 10,283,428] 2,726,858} 42,057,924 7,596,570) 49,614,494

12,630,273 8,774,254] 3,055,836) 44,112,413 5,718,418} 49,830, 's: 31|

13,482,456] 7,226,878] 2,447,905) 47,205,641| 4,778,973} 51,984,614

12,904,444 9,415,328] 4,769,292) 43,220,697 4,646,035) 47,866,733

11,159,774] 11,439,264} 4,408,412} - 39,213,805 7,030,852) 46,244,657)
9,147,719} 13,347,079} 3,470,827 29,000,397 9,876,252) 38,876,649
8,553,252] 20,359,310} 1,477,057] 26,945,298] 18,882,253] 45,825,551
9,124,643] 18,902,318] 4,727,367| 35,353,586] 14,174,951) 49,528,537

11,463,109) 17,430,452) 3,596,010} 39,545,695) 13,834,532) 53,380,227
8,060,278} 21,814,691] 2,214,467) 26,744,013) 19,600,224) 46,344,237

11,936,635) 13,858,279] 1,892,050) 35,696,353] 11,966,229 47,002,502

Number. | Gallons.
17,070,240} )
17,563,990
18, 065,813 e
18. 603,956
19, 102,946
19,640,029
20,225,760
20,869,760
21,609,554
99'358, 293

23,191,876} }
23,974,993
24'843°547 |
25,721,956] |
26,615,328
97'586.113| ¢ 1-89
28°319°746
99°124'515 |

29° 966,042
30,685,586| J

31,443,321] )

32,238,403
32,987,985
33,211,430
1.45
J

33,345,224
33,394,882
34,324,665
35,342,849
36,361,669
37,400,130

38,558,371] )
39.723,755

40,967 095 |
42.965, 762
43,456,931| |
44,588,083} ¢ 2-15
45,687,668
46,761,551 |
47,874,485

(a) After 1867, inclusive, the amounts of foreign molasses consumed were obtained

from the Annual Reports on ‘Commerce and Navigation,’

“and not

exports from the imports, as was done previous to that date.

by subtracting the

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‘STATISTICS OF SUGAR. 41

STATISTICS OF SUGAR.

The magnitude of the sugar industry in the United States may be
realized, by reference to the following statistics obtained from official
sources.

In 1879, the sugar and molasses imported reached in round numbers
the sum of $76,500,000, one-eighth of which was for molasses; a sum
requiring more than the aggregate production of gold and silver of
our mines, which, in 1880, was of gold $36,000,000, and of silver
$39,200,000, a total of $75,200,000, or $1,300,000 less than sufficient
to pay for the sugar imported the previous year.

In 1881, the raw sugar consumed in the United States amounted to
1,008,952 tons of 2,240 pounds, and in 1882 to 1,177,949 tons. About
an eighth of this was produced in the United States.

The value of the importations in 1881 was as follows:

Sugar and Bolesass Ba SoC eee oe ee $ 88,432,083
Duties. . ca teeeeceeesenens scenes eeeeeeeeeeeeees 47,984,033
DOL coe emit iste kx arn serettsts ane eae ... -.$136,416, 116

The Director of the U. S. Mint gives the gold and silver produced
in 1881, in the United States, as follows:

GO I foc ce cis eeceans ion Pan Peo ee e00.000
SSH VO ro ete aba oc nrckn eet statue aie <Te er aren er ee 000

Thus it will be seen that the sugar cost us, without duties, $9,832,-
083 more than the entire product of our gold and silver mines; and,
since to the consumer the duties are to be added, it appears that our
sugar cost, in 1881, $57,816,116 more than our gold and silver
product.

In short, it is found that the amount of sugar consumed in the
United States, since the discovery of gold in California, in 1848, has
exceded the entire product of gold and silver of the United States
during the same period, and has amounted to an aggregate of about
$2,000,000,000.

So impossible is it for the mind adequately to grasp the amounts
represented by such figures, that it may perhaps be more readily com-
prehended when we say, that the amount of sugar annually consumed in
the United States would fill a continuous row of hogsheads extending
nearly from Boston to Chicago.

The following table represents the total receipts of the United States
for revenue and customs in 1881. It will be seen that the duty upon
sugar amounts to 24.3 per cent of the total receipts for customs, and

42 SORGHUM. |

to 14.6 per cent of the entire revenue of the government from both
customs and revenue.

Internal Revenue se) 1881. Customs Duties.
Sp lrltss ope = ee eee ero ernst, ee $67,153,975 Sugar, Melada, and Molasses.... $47,984,033
TNODACCO css easy ee eee 42,854, \999.. Silk Goudetnn tte oaks 0. cee 19,038,666
Fermented Liquors Pe eee 13;700,241'. TronvamdStecl 2.3 oan. ie sence 21,462,534
Banks and Bankers..:.... ...-...-- 3,762,208 WoOoOlStudisen. 3) secs. canes: ce eel eee
Penalties, "eles -s25. 52 ecss: t Gceee é 2311078. COON SUULIS)s a5 crs etacn eee 10,825,115
Adhesive Stamps.........7........ 7;924; 708, Wax Suuitse ce ceaaces cect oases 6, 984,375
OURerPATGICIOS nee meme octet 152163: OtRer-ATtICles: vite tess «5 oes cee 59, 980, 663
$135,779,365 $193,561,011
135.779, 865
Grande Topple 3.0 ein ces 329,340,376

Sugar equal 24.3 per cent of Customs.
14.6 ‘* of Entire Revenue.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SORGHUM.

The following attempt has been made towards the chronological ar-
rangement of the literature of sorghum, and, although it is confessedly
imperfect, it will at least assist those who may desire to investigate for
themselves the history of this plant.

Many of the most valuable articles have appeared in the current
publications, of which it was obviously impossible to procure a record.
At some future time the list may be brought to a condition more nearly

complete.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SORGHUM.
(Chronologically arranged.)

Arduino Pietro. Memorie di osservazioni e di sperienze sopra la coltura e gli
usi di varie piante, che servons o che servir possono utilimente alla tinctura
all’economia, all’agricoltura, etc. Tomo]. Padova, 1766.

Child, David Lee. The Culture of the Beet, and Manufacture of Beet Sugar.
Boston, 1840. 12°. p. 156.

Notiz iiber Mais-zucker. Annales maratimes et coloniales. Paris, 1842. II
T., 2, p. 346.

Colman’s Rural World. St. Louis, Mo., 1848 to 1884.

Montigny. Liste de l’envoie Bulletin du comice agricole du Toulon. 1853.

Holcus Saccharatus. Revue Horticole. 1854, February, July, and November.

Browne, D. Jay. Researches on Sorgho-Sucré, Department of Agriculture,
Report, 1854, P. XII, and pp. 219-223.

Chinese Sugar-Cane. Correspondence, Department of Agriculture Report,
1855, pp. 279-285.

Barral. Ueber den Zucker in Holcus Sorghum. Moniteur industriel, 1855, p.
1919.

Ponsard. Verzuche mit Holcus Saccharatus. Moniteur industriel, 1855, No.
1939.

Reihlen. Ueber Holeus Saccharatus. Polytechnisches Centralblatt, 1855, p.
703.

Vilmorin, Louis. Le Bon Jardinier. 1855, p. 41.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SORGHUM. 43

Sorghum, Characteristics of. Massachusetts Agricultural Report, 1856, pt. 1,
pp. 89, 91, 98.

Sorghum Saccharatum brought from China. Illinois Agricultural Report,
1856-57, p. 446.

Browne, D. Jay. Crystallization of the juice of the Sorgho-Sucré. Depart-
ment of Agriculture Report, 1856, pp. 309-313.

Jackson, C. T., M.D. Chemical Researches on the Sorgho-Sucré. Depart-
ment of Agriculture Report, 1856, pp. 307-309.

Erfahrungen iiber die Kultur und Ausbeute von Zucker aus Sorghum. Moni-
teur industriel, 1856, No. 2049.

Turrel. Ueber das Sorghum in Nord-China. Moniteur industriel, 1856, No.
2110.

Zoulie. Ueber Sorghum. Moniteur industriel, 1856, No. 2110.

Madinier (P.) and (G.) Lacoste. Guide du cultivateur du Sogho-4-Sucré.
Paris, 1856.

Madinier, M. Department of Agriculture Report, 1856, p. 313.

Vilmorin, Louis. Department of Agriculture Report, 1856, p. 312.

Browne, D. Jay. Report of the United States Agricultural Society. Depart-

ment of Agricuiture Report, 1857, pp. 181-183.

Sorghum, Experiments in the cultivation of. Massachusetts Agricultural Re-
port, 1857, pt. 1, pp. 117-145, 149-215; pt. 2, pp. 38, 157, 170, 222, 225,
229, 234.

Sorghum Mills, Description of. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1857, p. 416.

Sorghum, Lovering’s experiments on. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1857, p. 423.

Sorghum, Statement of, in Ohio. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1857, p. 437.

Hardy. Ueber Zucker aus Sorghum. Moniteur industriel, 1857, No. 2131.

Cavé. Ueber den Anban von Sorghum auf dem Gute de Condé, Moniteur in-
dustriel, 1857, No. 2153.

Sorghum, Report on, at Fair. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1857, p. 142.

Sorghum Sugar-Cane. New York Agricultural Report, 1857, pp. 16, 128, 135.

Hyde, J. F. ©. The Chinese Sugar-Cane. New York, 1857. 12°.

Sorghum Saccharatum. Pennsylvania Agricultural Report, 1857-58, pp. 147,
Boil

Sorghum, History of. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1857, p. 409.

Sorghum discussed in annual convention. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1857, p.
196:

Sorghum or Chinese Sugar-Cane. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1857, p. 34.

Jackson, C. T., M.D. Chemical Researches on the Chinese and African Sugar-
Canes. Department of Agriculture Report, 1857, pp. 185, 192.

Lovering, Joseph S. Sorghum Saccharatum, or Chinese Sugar-Cane. De-

tailed account of experiments and observations upon, 1857.

On the Identity and Hibridity of the Chinese and African Sugar- Canes.
(Condensed from the proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History.)
Department of Agriculture Report, 1857, pp. 183-185.

Smith, J. Lawrence: Investigation of the Sugar bearing capacity of the
Chinese Sugar-Cane. Department of Agriculture Report, 1857, pp. 192-
196.

Sorghum Sugar, Condensed correspondence on. Department of Agriculture
Report, 1857, pp. 196, 226.

44 SORGHUM.

Stansbury, Charles F. Chinese Sugar-Cane and Sugar Making. New York,
185%.) 122
Sorghum Syrup, Statement in regard to making. New York Agricultural Re-
port, 1858, p. 722.
Sorghum- Cane, Letters read at a convention on. Illinois Agricultural Report,
1858, p. 306.
Sorgham Cane. Wisconsin Agricultural Report, 1858-'59, pp. 261, 350, 409,
412.
Sorghum. New York Agricultural Report, 1858, p. 12.
Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1858, p. 9.
Sorghum- Cane, Sugar from. Illinois Agricultural Report, 1858, pp. 107-109.
Sorghum- Cane, On. Illinois Agricultural Report, 1858, p. 512.
Olcott, Henry S. Sorgho and Imphee. The Chinese and African Sugar-Canes.
A treatise upon their origin, varieties, and culture. New York, 1858, 12°,
p. 352.
Jackson, Ch. T. Compte rendus, xlvi, p. 55. 1858.
Du Feyrat. Comparative Ausbeute aus Sorghum u. Zuckerrohr. Moniteur in-
dustriel, 1858, No, 2228.
Leplay, Ueber Sorghum u. dessen Zuckergehalt.
Moniteur industriel, 1858, No. 2334.
Comptes rendus, v. 46, p. 444.
Polytechnisches Centralblatt, 1858, p. 593.
Polytechnisches Jour. Ding. B, 148, p. 224.
Collectaneen tiber Zucker aus Sorghum.
Polytechnisches Jour. Ding., B. 148, p. 158.
Bulletin de la Société d’ Encouragement pour l’Industrie Nationale, 1858,
p. 505.
Polytechnisches Centralblatt, 1858, p. 1102.
Habich. Ueber Sorghum u. dessen Werth.
Polytechnisches Jour. Ding., B. 148, p. 302.
Polytechnisches Centralblatt, 1858, p. 1647.
Lovering. Ueber den Werth des Sorghums als Zuckerpflanze.
Moniteur Industriel, 1858, No. 2313.
Bulletin de la Société d’ Encouragement pour I’Industrie Nationale, 1858,
p. 673.
Sorghum Saccharatum. Essay onitscomposition. Michigan Agricultural Re-
port, 1859, p. 213.
Wagner. Ueber den Mais als Zuckerpflanze. Agronomische Zeitung, 1860,
poel2
Das Zucker-Sorgho, oder das chinesische Zuckerrohr (Holcus Saccharatus).
Deutsche Gewerbezeitung, Wiecks, 1859, p. 443; 1860, p. 156.
Pierre. Ueber das chinesische Zucker-sorgho als Futter-u. Zuckerpflanze. Bul-
letin de la Société d’Encouragement pour I|’Industrie Nationale, 1860,
. 94.
aaasele mit der Zucker-hirse (Sorghum Saccharatum). Annalen der
Landwirthschaft, Wochenblatt, Berlin, 1860, p. 350.
Cook, D. M. Culture and Manufacture cf Sugar from Sorghum. Department
of Agriculture Report, 1861, pp. 311-314.
Sorghum. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 52.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SORGHUM. 45

Sorghum as an Exhauster of Soil. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 526.

Sorghum as a Wine Plant. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 526.

Sorghum, Growth and Manufacture. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 210.

Sorghum Sugar. Warder’s statement. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861. p. 15.

Sorghum, Culture and Manufacture. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 208.

Sorghum Sugar-Cane. New York Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 785.

Corn-stalk Sugar. Department of Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 275.

Sorghum Culture. Illinois Agricultural Report, 1861-’64, pp. 553-567.

Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 8.

Sorghum. History of. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 206.

Sorghum as a Forage Plant. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1861, p. 527.

Sorghum Culture. Wisconsin Agricultural Report, 1861-68, p. 35.

Goessmann, C. A. Chinese Sugar-Cane; contributions to the knowledge of its
nature, etc. Transactions of New York State Agricultural Society, 1861,
pp. 785-811.

Hedges, Isaac A. Sorghum Culture and Sugar making. Department of Agri-
culture Report, 1861, yp. 293-311.

Sorghum. Milinois Agricultural Report, 1861-64, pp. 32, 67, 209, 859.

Boliman, Lewis. Cultivation of the Sorghum. Department of Agriculture
Report, 1862, pp. 140-147.

Smith, J. H. Imphee and Sorghum Culture, and Sugar and Syrup Making.
Department of Agriculture Report, 1862, pp. 129-140.

Statistical Report. Department of Agriculture Report, 1862, pp. 552, 553.

Syrup and Sugar Manufactured from Sorghum. Ohio Agricultural Report,
1862, p. 87.

Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1862, p. 128.

Hedges, Isaac A. Sorgho, or the Northern Sugar Plant. With an introduction
by Wm. Clough. Cincinnati, Ohio, 1862, 12°, p. 204.

Sorghum. Ohio Ayricultural Report, 1862, p. 87.

Wetherell, Chas. M., M. D., Chemist Department of Agriculture. Report on
Sorghum. Department of Agriculture Report, 1862, pp. 514-540.

Clough, Wm. Sorgho Journal, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1863 to 1869.

Gould, John Stanton. Report on Sorghum. New York Agricultural Report,
1863, pp. 735-769.

Wallace, G. B. Sorghum. lowa Agricultural Report, 1863, p. 162.

Moss, James W. Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1863, p. 244.

Sorghum, Essay on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1863, pp. 137-244.

Gould, J. Stanton. Report on Sorghum and Sugar Beet Culture. Transac-
tions of New York State Agricultural Society, 1863, pp. 735-769.

Sugar Evaporator and Mills. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1863, p, 100.

Sorghum Sugar, Protest from Exhibitors of. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1863,
p. 101.

Sorghum. lowa Agricultural Report, 1863, p. 4.

Sugar Mills, Ohio Agricultural Report, 1863, p. 85.

Clough. Wm. Sorghum, or Northern Sugar-Cane. Department of Agriculture
Report, 1864, pp. 54-87.

Sorghum Mills. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1864.

Sorghum. lowa Agricultural Report, 1864, p. 7.

46 SORGHUM.

Sorghum Mills, Report of Committee on. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1864, pp.
119, 120.

Collins, Varnum B. Sorgho, or Northern Chinese Sugar-Cane. Journal North
China Branch Royal Asiatic Society, December, 1865, pp. 85-98. Shanghai,
1865.

Clough, Wm. Production of Sugar from Sorghum or Northern Sugar-Cane.
Department of Agriculture Report, 1865, pp. 307-324.

Sorghum, Introduction into the State. Michigan Agricultural Report, 1865, p.
We

Sorghum. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1865, pp. 14, 352.

Sorghum. Premiums awarded. Illinois Agricultural Report, 1865-66, pp.
18-97.

Sorghum, Report of Committee on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1865, p. 225.

Tenney, A. P. Sugar Question. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1865, p. 329.

Ives. Mrs. E. F. Essay on Sorghum making. lowa Agricultural Report, 1865,
p. 225.

Peck, F. Botanical history of Sorghum. Department of Agriculture Report,
1865, pp- 229-307.

Webster & Co., Sorgho Sugar-growers. The Culture and Manufacture of Su-
gar and Syrup from the Chinese and African Canes. Chicago, 1865 (?),
32°, p. 41.

Reed, W. History of Sugar and Sugar yielding Plants, and Epitome of Pro-
cesses Of manufacture. London, 1866.

Moser, J. Versuches Stationen, vol. 8, p. 95, 1866.

Jacob Brothers, Sorgho Manufacturers. Manual, ete. Columbus, Ohio, 1866.

Sorghum and its Products. Michigan Agricultural Report, 1866, pp. 169-172.

Sorghum in Delaware County. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1866, pt. 1, p. 188.

Sorghum and Imphee. Missouri Agricultural Report, 1866, p. 28.

Sorghum Mills. Illinois Agricultural Report, 1865-66, p. 202.

Sorghum, Report of Committee on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1866, p. 133,
223.

Sorghum, Report of Standing Committee on. Lowa Agricultural Report, 1866,

223.

Sh tian Sugar Making. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1866, pt. 2, p. 287.

Stewart, F. L. Sorghum and its Products. Philadelphia, 1867, 12°, p. 240.

Sorghum and its Products. Michigan Agricultural Report, 1867, pp. 65-67.

Sorghum, Report of Committee on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1867, p. 18.

Sorghum, Resolutions and Report in regard to. Michigan Agricultural Re-
port, 1867, pp. 305-307.

Sorghum and its Produets. Missouri Agricultural Report, 1867, p. 92.

Sorghum and Machinery, Awards on. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1867, p. 138,

Sorghum. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1867, pp. 62, 246; pt. 2, p. 16

Sorghum of Van Wert County. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1867, pt. 1, p. 158.

Sorghum and Machinery. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1868, p. 97.

Sorgho, The Journal and Farm Mechanic. Cincinnati, Ohio, Feb., 1869, 8°

Sorghum, Committee on. Jowa Agricultural Report, 1869, pp. 190-195.

Sorghum, Products of. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1869, p. life

Sorghum, Report of Committee on. Lowa Agricultural Report, 1869, p. 179.

Sorghum, Secretary’s Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1869, p. 16.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SORGHUM. 47

Sorghum and Imphee. Wisconsin Agricultural Report, 1869, p. 27.

Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1869, p. 16; 1870, p. 189.

Breischneider. Notes on History of Plants and Chinese Botany. Peking, 1870.

Sorghum Syrup. Wisconsin Agricultural Report, 1870, p. 34.

Sorghum and its Products. Michigan Agricultural Report, 1870, p. 149.

Sorghum, Statement as to. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1871, pp. 205-212.

Sorghum, Report of Secretary on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1871, p. 23.

Sorghum Sugar and Syrup, Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1871, p.
204.

Sorghum. Abstract of County Agricultural Societies. Iowa Agricultural Re-
port, 1871, p. 300.

Skinner, E. W. Sorghum. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1872, p. 290.

Sorghum Syrup and Sugar, Report of Committee on. Iowa Agricultural Re-
port, 1872, p. 325.

Cadwell, Phineas. Report of Committee on Sorghum and its Products in Iowa.
Iowa Agricultural Report, 1872, p. 286.

Sorghum Plant. Nebraska Agricultural Report, 1873, p. 89.

Sorghum, Abstract of Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1873, p. 313.

Sorghum, The Production of. Nebraska Agricultural Report, 1873, p. 89.

Sorghum, Table of Products and Acreage. Kansas;Agricultural Report, 1873,
pp. 89-126.

Sorghum, Abstract of Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1874, p. 304.

Sorghum. Ohio Agricultural Report, 1874, pp. 254, 636.

Basset, N. Guide Pratique du Fabricant de Sucré Paris, 1875, 3 vols., 8°.

Sorghum, Number of acres in. Georgia Agricultural Report, 1873-’75, p. 9.

Sorghum, Abstract of Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1875, p. 281.

Sorghum. Tables of Product and Value. Kansas Agricultural Report, 1875,
pp. 464-469.

Sorghum. Diagram showing Product and Value. Kansas Agricultural Report,
1875, p. 460.

Sorghum. Georgia Agricultural Report, 1876, p. 222.

Sorghum, Abstract of Report on. Jowa Agricultural Report, 1876, p. 312.

Sorghum, Report of Committee on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1876, p. 224.

Stewart, F. L. Maize and Sorghum as Sugar Plants. Department of Agri-
culture Report, 1877, pp. 228-264.

Sorghum Molasses, Gallons of. Virginia Agricultural Report, 1877, p. 43.

Sorghum, Abstract of Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1877, p. 271.

Collier, Peter. Sorghum. Department of Agriculture Report, 1878, p. 98.

Maumené, E. J. Traite theorique et pratique de la Fabrication du Sucré.
Paris, 1878, 2 vols., 8°.

Stewart, F. L. Sorghum Sugar made from Maize, ete. Washington, 1878.

Sorghum. Virginia Agricultural Report, 1878. p. 31.

Sorghum, Abstract of Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1878, p. 386.

Sorghum. Introduction into the country. Kentucky Agricultural Report,
1878, p. 144.

Collier, Peter. Sorghum. Department of Agriculture Report, 1879, p. 36.

Sorghum, Abstract of Report on. Iowa Agricultural Report, 1879, p. 315.

Sorghum, Production of. Keatucky Agricultural Report, 1879, p. 64.

48 . SORGHUM.

Goessmann, C. A, Early Amber Cane. Report Massachusetts Agricultural
College, 1879.

Sorghum, Sugar from. Vermont Agricultural Report, 1879-'80, p. 260.

La Sucrurie Indigine, Extraction du Sucré du Sorgho et du Mais, 1879, p. 130.

Collier, Peter. Sugar from Sorghum. Vermont Agricultural Report, 1879-80,
p. 219.

Stewart, F. L. Sugar from Maize and Sorghum. Washington, D. C., 1879.
Lc spe 102.

Drummond, Victor A.W. Report on the Production of Sugar from Sorghum,
1879. ;

Sorghum-Cane. Proceedings of the Wisconsin Sugar Cane Growing and Manu-
facturing Association. Wisconsin Agricultural Report, 1879-'80, p. 463.

Sorghum Sugar. Report on, to Johnston, Hon. J. W., Chairman of Commit-
tee on Agriculture in United States Senate, 1880.

Blymyer Manufacturing Company. Sorgho Hand-Book. Cincinnati, Ohio,
1880.

Clough Refining Company. Clough Refining Process for Sorghum, ete. Cin-
cinnati, 1880.

Collier, Peter. Corn-stalk and Sorghum Sugar. Abstract of an address deliv-
ered in the House of Representatives, Hartford, Conn., February 17th, 1880,
Pamphlet, 8°, p. 23.

Collier, Peter. Sorghum and Corn as Sugar Producing Plants. Address de-
livered before the Connecticut State Board of Agriculture, at Willimantic,
1880. Pamphlet, 8°, pp. 23.

Sorghum: Sweets of Wisconsin. Wisconsin Agricultural Report, 1880-’81,
p. 331.

Sorghum, Statistics of. Quarterly Report. Kansas Agricultural Report, 1880,
pp. 21, 22.

Sorghum, Productions of. Kentucy Agricultural Report, 1880, p. 140.

Yollier, Peter. Sorghum. Department of Agriculture Report, 1880, p. 37, and
Special Report, No. 33.

Ingram, W. Sorghum Cultivation in Belvoir. London, 1880.,

Department of Agriculture. Preliminary Report, 1880.

Collier, Peter. Department of Agriculture Report, 1881, p. 17.

Hedges, Isaac A. Sugar Canes, and their Products. St. Louis, Mo., 1881.

Rutgers Scientific School. Seventeenth Annual Report, 1881, p. 63.

Tucker, J. H., Ph.D. A Manual of Sugar Analysis, including the Application
in general of Analytical Methods to the Sugar Industry. New York, 1881,
8°, p. 353.

Weber and Scovell, Professors. Sorghum. Report on the Manufacture of Sugar,
Syrup, and Glucose, from. Illinois Industrial University, 1881.

Vilmorin, Andrieux. Le Sorgho sucré de Chine et ie Sorgho hatif du Minne-
sota, ou Sorgho sucré ambré. Journal d’Agriculture practique, May 8th,
1880, and February 17th, 1881.

Spon's Dictionary. Article, Sorghum. London, 1881.

Ware, L. S. A Study of the Various Sources of Sugar. Philadelphia, 1881.

Sorghum, Sugar from. Kentucky Agricultural Report, 1881, p. 83.

Sorghum, Cultivation and Manufacture of. Kentucky Agricultural Report,,
1881, p. 72.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SORGHUM. 49

Kolischer, Theo. Sorghum, Sugar from. Kentucky Agricultural Report, 1881,
p. 86.

Locke, Wigner, and Harland. Sugar Growing and Refining. London, 1882.

Experimental Farm, Madison, Wisconsin. Experiments in Amber Cane, 1882.

Biot and Soubeiran, Zucker in Mais. Polytechnisches Jour. Ding., 86 s.,
213;

Pallas. Mais Zucker. Polytechnisches Jour. Ding., 94 s., 326. Brévetés
d'invention, Paris, T. 46, p. 146. .

Vorschlag. Zu einer Production von Zucker aus Holcus Sorghum. Tech-
nological Repository, Gill v. 10, p. 119; Franklin Jour., 1 s., v. 1, p. 201.

Pallas. Zucker aus Mais. Polytechnisches Jour. Ding., 63 s., 156; Jour. des
con. usul. et prat., Paris, T. 26, pp. 97, 109.

Neumann. Zucker aus Mais. Polytechnisches Jour. Ding., 67 s., 300.

Collier Peter. Department of Agriculture Report, 1881-82, p. 379.

Van Buren, Thomas B. Sorghum in Japan. Commercial Reports, Consuls,
1882, No. 25, p. 97.

National Academy of Sciences. Report of Committee on Sorghum Sugar In-
dustry. Washington, 1882.

Report. Miss. Valley Cane Growers’ Association. St. Louis, 1882.

Report. Wisconsin State Cane Growers’ Association. St. Louis, Mo., 1883.

Report. Northern Cane Growers’ Association of New York. Elmira, N. Xe
1883.

Collier, Peter. Sorghum as a Sugar Producing Plant. Special Report Dep't
of Agric., 1883.

Sorghum and Beet Root Sugar Industry. Department of Agriculture. Special
Report, 1883.

Storer, F. H. Sorghum Sugar. The Nation, vol. 31, p. 58.

Kittell, T. P. Sorghum. Hunt's Merchants’ Magazine, vol. 48, p. 17.

4

50 SORGHUM.

CHAPTER “EEF:

(a.) History of Sorghum.

(6.) Botany of Sorghum.

(c.) Introduction of Sorghum into the United States.
(d.) Hybridization of Sorghum.

HISTORY OF SORGHUM.

This interesting and valuable plant,. which, for one purpose or
another, has been cultivated, from the earliest historic periods, over
an extent of territory as wide as that occupied by any of the other
cereals, is in its early history very obscure. It origin is supposed to
have been in India, the fruitful source of so many other cultivated
plants; and thence it has been carried over a large portion of Asia,
Europe, and Africa. Cultivated not only in India, but China, over
the wide territory of Central Asia, Syria, and Arabia, and thence into
Africa and Europe, until it occupied nearly the whole of Africa and
the southern half of Europe, this plant has supplied the wants, as
food or forage, of perhaps as large a number of the earth’s population
as any plant. Although its great value has so long been known, it
appears destined to be, in the future, of far greater value to the agri-
culturist than it has been in the past.

Whether or not the many varieties of this plant now in existence
have resulted from a common origin, remains, and perhaps must re-
main, an open question. Certain it is, that the numerous varieties,
together with the closely related species, have long engaged the atten-
tion of botanists. The following quotations will show some of the
points in the history of this plant.

Tn his ‘‘ Principal Plants used as Food by Man,” Dr. F. Unger says:

The common Indian millet (Sorghum vulgare, Pers.) was introduced into
Egypt by Arabians, and is a characteristic plant of Africa, not because it
was originally indigenous there, but because it is principally cultivated in this
country, on the east and west coast of the northern half to Timbuctoo; in
Abyssinia, from sea level to 8000 miles elevation. Although its native country
can not be positively ascertained, it can scarcely be any other land than India.
Even in the time of Pliny it was known in Europe, and in the 13th century
had extended to Italy, and at beginning of 16th century reached France
under name of Saracen millet. It is now grown in Hungary, Dalmatia, Italy,
Portugal. The different varieties of the Indian millet, however, are not well
defined at the present day. It is doubtful whether the Sorghum bicolor, Willd,
and the Sorghum Usorum, Nees, are entitled to a specific rank.

aN

HISTORY OF SORGHUM. 51

In his ‘‘ Manual on Physical Geography,” Professor Gustav Adolph
von Kloeden, Berlin, 1866, says:

Sorghum (Holeus) saccharatum (Halapense andropogon), a variety of S. vul-
gare, or of the Durrha, is the sugar-cane of Northern China, and by the Zulu Kaf-
firs called Imphee. The Japanese cultivate it only for the sugar and the alco-
hol, and for that purpose it is now cultivated in the United States. In the year
1851, this plant became first known in Europe. In France, it is cultivated in

the Drome, East Pyrenees, the upper Marne, Gironde, Gers, etc., also in Al-
geria, where it is extensively cultivated. It grows from 9 to 18 feet in height.
‘When the cane is cut, there grow 5 to 20 canes from the root. It is an ex-
cellent food for cattle.

The seed coming from the East Indies, are used in England for puddings. From
the common Durrha the Kaffirs make a flour, and they plant close by their huts
15 varieties of the Imphee, which they chew for the sweet juice. They call it
also Mabali. The stronger varieties seem to be Koom-ba-na, Shla-goon-dee,
and Oom-see-a-na; the tallest are the Vim-bis-chu-a-pa and E-a-na-moo-
dee.

This variety of Sorghum grows also in Nubia, and in the Oases, and it is
called in Egypt Bali, Arabic Durrha. In Egypt, there are six varieties culti-
vated.

The common Sorghum (vulgare) is the principal grain food in Africa: it is
made into bread, or eaten as mush. It is the principal nutriment in many parts
of India, where it is called Jovari, and in the dry regions of Arabia, in Syria,
where it has been cultivated since time immemorial. In Egypt, Nubia, where
it is called Durrha, it grows from 5 to 20 feet in height, and in Senegambia,
where it reaches 15 feet in height. It is cultivatedin Hungary, Dalmatia, Italy,
and Portugal. In the West Indies, it is called Guinea Corn. In China and
Cochin China, the S. saccharatum is also cultivated. Marshilla, Sorghum bi-
color, is cultivated in Abyssinia at 8,000 feet above the sea. In Borneo, they
grow akind called gussub, which is used exclusively as food, and they make
the Kaddel from it as a delicacy. The Nubians make from the sorghum a
fermented beverage called Buzah.

Chambers’ Encyclopedia says :

The common Durra, Doura, Durra Millet, Indian millet, Sorghum, S. vulgare,
or Andropogon sorghum, Holecus sorghum, Joar and Jowaree, in India, native
of East India; cultivated extensively in Asia, and may be called the principal
corn plant of Africa. Also cultivated largelyin South Europe. Rival! of maize
in amount of seed. Leaves and seed are used as food for horses and cattle.

The seeds of the Shaloo or Sugar Grass (S. saccharatum) are more pleasant
than those of Doura to taste. It is cultivated in warm parts of Asia and Af-
rica, and has diffuse and very spreading panicle. The moist pith is eaten. It
is cultivated in the United States as Chinese sugar-cane. Kaffir-corn (S. caf-
frorum) has a very diffuse umbel-like panicle, with branches bending down all
around. Has sweet pith. Largely cultivated in South Africa, both by Caffers
and colonists. By latter, the grain is used for horses.

52 SORGHUM.

Dr. S. Wells Williams, the distinguished Chinese scholar, in a com-
munication to the Committee of the National Academy of Sciences,
engaged in the investigation of the ‘“‘Sorghum Sugar Industry,” in
reply to the question, ‘‘Is it known how long sorghum has been culti-
vated in China as food, or for making spirits?” says:

To this question it is hard to make any satisfactory reply, inasmuch as no
Chinese books contain illustrations of grains or plants used in ancient times,
nor are there found among their monuments pictures of these similar to repre-
sentations of ancient Egypt, Assyria, Greece, ete.

As to the history of this grain in China, Dr. Bretschneider, of the Russian
legation at Peking, and foremost among the authorities upon Chinese botany, says
(concerning the plant called Shu): “This cereal is separately described in the
Pun Tsao (Chinese Herbal), published a. p. 1570. The grain is called Hwang-
mi, and is said to possess much glutinous matter. It is used for manufacturing
alcoholic drinks. This corn was known to the Chinese in the most ancient
times. It seems to me that the meaning of the character Shu, in ancient days,
was not glutinous millet (as Dr. Legge states in the Shu King), but rather sor-
ghum, as Dr. Williams translates.”* If this deduction is true, the cultivation
of this plant dates from about 2000 8. c. The precise uses of this grain in an-
cient times can only be inferred. d

If the identity of the Shu (mentioned in the classics) with sorghum could be
proved beyond question, this grain would rank in age as grown in China with
any in the world.

Sorghum is seldom used in China now as food for man; the great food staples
of Northern China are wheat, pulse, maize, and Italian millet (Setaria). Buck-
wheat, panicled millet, and the sweet potato, may be included as secondary sta-
ples. Rice is imported to the north from the southern provinces.

I have never seen the broom corn grown in China.

The twenty or more varieties which President Angell brought from China
could, probably, be increased in number if the collection were made from a more
extended area.

The uses of this plant for fuel, tend to increase attention to the development
of its stalk rather than the grain.

The plant often attains a height of 15 or 16 feet. The common practice of
stripping off all the leaves within reach upon the growing stalk, for feeding cat-
tle, increases very materially its woody fiber. Cutting the stems while in their
prime of growth, and chewing them green, as southerners do the sugar-cane, is
not unusual in the north.

The Chinese do not possess the art of refining sugar or making syrup to per-
fection. Even in the cane-growing districts their employment of molasses is
small; none of this is ever made from sorghum, to my knowledge.

*As to the sugar-cane, the same writer adds: “I have not been able to find any allu-
sion to it in the most ancient of Chinese works (the five classics); it is first mentioned
by writers of the second century B.c. * * * One says, ‘it grows in Coehin China.
It is several inches in circumference, ten feet high, and resembles bamboo. The juice
is very sweet, and, dried in the sun, changes into sugar.’ ”’

ae ee ere ee es

HISTORY OF SORGHUM. 53

Dr. E. Bretschneider, physician to the Russian legation at Peking,
who is quoted in the foregoing notes from Dr. Williams, says, in his
essay, or memoir, on the study and value of Chinese botany, page 46:

The true sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum) growing in China, must not be
confounded with what is called Northern China sugar-cane. This is Sorghum
saccharatum, a plant now-a-days largely cultivated in Europe and America for
the purpose of manufacturing sugar fromit. This plant was first introduced from
Shaughai into France by the French consul, M. Montigny, in the year 1851,
whence it spread over Europe and America, after it was proved that it is very
rich in sugar.

Dr. Bretschneider then relates substantially the same statements
respecting Mr. Collins astonishing the natives by making sugar from
sorghum, which Dr. Williams also mentions.

On page 45, after discussing the meaning of the Chinese terms ap-
plied to these plants, he adds, in conclusion :

It seems to me that the meaning of the character translated Shu in ancient
times, was not glutinous millet (as Dr. Legge states in his translation of the Shu
King), but rather sorgho, as Dr. Williams translates.

It seems, then, that the term Chinese sugar-cane is a misnomer, only
so far as the plant was not recognized as a sugar producing plant by
the Chinese, while the original seed of the Sorghum saccharatum, ac-
cording to these authorities, was undoubtedly imported into France
from China.

The above statement is very interesting, in connection with the
names of those varieties of sorghum received through President Angell
from Northern China. Each of these was called Liang, which was
interpreted millet, though they were, undoubtedly, specimens of sor-
ghum. As will be seen, however, Dr. Williams mentions panicled mil-
let as one of the secondary staples grown in China. Besides the com-
mon name Liang, the additional names, Hwong-mao-nien, translated
yellow-cap-glutinous, were given; and the name of the grain grown by
Dr. W. is Hwang-mi.

In this connection, the following quotation from a letter received
from John Thorne, Esq., is of interest. It would appear that, if the
identity of Hwang-mi and Hwong-mao was established as the grain of
the plant ‘‘Shu,” that the cultivation of sorghum in China is verified
by historical evidence extending back nearly 4,000 years.

The note of Dr. Collier I inclose, and note what he says about the meaning
of the word in Chinese. I fancy Hwang-mao the same as H. mi, or, better,
“ shu,” which is a radical, and means millet. See Williams’ Ch. Dict’ry, Rad.

*,

54 SORGHUM.

202. The appearance of the grain is cap-like, growing in even rows, corn
high, and beautiful to look at, in all of the North China provinces.

I have not seen it, except to a limited extent, in the provinces watered by the
great river (Yang Tse).

Dr. Williams’ Report, p. 57, is a very accurate one, and I can add nothing
thereto. ‘‘ Pao Liang,” which is also understood in China as a millet produc-
tion, is a spirituous liquor much used by the Chinese, north, south, east, and
west. I have tasted it, but, like all the Chinese distillations, in failing to purify
from ‘‘must,” is objectionable. Other grains are also distilled in China; but
none, I think, to the same extent as the millet plant.

BOTANY OF SORGHUM.

In the Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, 1865, p.
299, F. Pech has collected many historical and botanical references to
sorghum, which have been verified by reference to the several author-
ities, and are here appended. Pliny the elder, who lived in the first
century, in his Natural History, Lib. XVIII, ch. 10, says:

Milium intra hos decem annos ex India in Italiam invectum est, nigrum
color, amplium grano, arundineum culmo. Adolerat ad pedes altitudine sep-
tem, praegrandibus culmis lobas vocant, omnium frugum fertilissimum, Ex
uno grano sextarii terni gignuntur. Seri debet in humidas.—Within the past
six years, a millet has been imported into Italy from India, of a black color,
abounding in seed, and with a reed-like stalk. It attains a height of seven feet,
and has very large stalks, which they call lobas; and of all grain it is the most
fruitful. From a single kernel, about three pints of seed is produced. It should
be planted in moist ground.

And a note appended to the above, by Scaliger Exercit, 292, p. 869,
Says:

Hoe sorghum vocari apud nos populares.—This plant is called sorghum
among our people.

The name milium, or millet, means thousands, referring to its numer-
ous seeds, and is, of course, as applicable to sorghum as to millet, and
was, probably, applied originally to all plants of this general character.

Pliny, 32nd chap., Book VI, speaking of Insulae Fortunae (Canary
Islands), asserts, on authority of Juba:

Arbores similes ferulae, ex quibus aqua ex premitur, ex nigra amare, ex can-
didioribus jucunda.—Trees similar to the giant fermel, from which juice is ex-
pressed, which from the black variety is bitter, and from the whiter variety is
sweet.

Since sugar-cane is not reported as having been introduced upon
these islands earlier than 1420, it would appear that the above refer-
ence of Juba must have been to the sorghum.

Fuchius, of Belgium, describes, in his History of Plants, in 1542,

BOTANY OF SORGHUM. 55

a plant under the name of Shorghi, which is precisely the true popu-
lar name of the Sorgho in the East Indies.

Jerome Fragus, in describing the plants of Germany, in 1552, gives
the description of the same plants, under the name of ‘‘ Panicum Di-
oscorides et Plinii” (bread millet of Dioscorides and Pliny), thus
showing that the plant referred to by Pliny was the same as that men-
tioned by Dioscorides, the Greek, and was already cultivated in Ger-
many.

Conrad Gesner, in his Hortus Germania (German garden), in 1591,
names the same plant Sorghum. ;

Matthioli, an Italian, in his Commentaries on Dioscorides, in
1595, describes it under the name of Milium Indicum (Indian
millet).

Lobel, a Belgian, in 1576, describes the plant as the ‘‘ Sorgho
melica Italorum” (sweet sorghum of the Italians).

Dodon, a Belgian, in 1583, in‘his Pemptades, names it ‘‘ melica, sive
sorghum” (honey, or sorghum).

It will be observed, here, that a distinction is made in these plants,
then cultivated in Italy and Germany—reference being made to the
sweet character of one variety. And a Roman writer, Lucian, the
Syrian poet, who wrote about the second century, says, verse 237, Book
III, ‘‘ Quique bibunt tenera dulces ab arundine succos” (Those who
drink the sweet juices from the tender cane), may refer to Sorghum
saccharatum.

Belloni speaks of it as Sorghum Insubrum, thus locating it as al-
ready established in Northern Italy.

Lonicer, a German, 1589, and Gerarde, an Englishman, 1597, de-
scribe several varieties of sorghum, as sorghum panicum loculere.

Bester, a German, 1613. also describes it as milium Plinii: thus
showing that the plant described by Pliny had been cultivated in Eu-
rope from his day down to the seventeenth century.

In 1623, Gasper Bauhin, in his Pinax, includes all the above names
as synonyms, under the descriptive phrase of ‘‘ milium arundinaceum
subrotundo semine, sorgo nominatum” (a reed-like millet, with nearly
round seed, called sorgo), and with the observation, that the seed varies
in color from a brownish red to black, and from white to yellow;
these names represent one or more species.

And, in his Historia Plantarum, Liber XVIII, Art. Sorghi, Bau-
hin, says of the seed:

‘‘ Appensa haeret copiosissima, quae lentibus aequalia compressa non nihil
oblonga, nunc alba, nunc fusca et quandoque nigra.’’—It is in the greatest

56 SORGHUM.

abundance, and is compressed similar to lentils, somewhat oblong in shape,
white, dark, and sometimes black in color.

And of the stalk, he says:

Eius tamen calamus, non ut vulgarium arundinum inanis est, sed saccha-
riferarum arundinum modo, alba farctus medulla. — Yet the stalk of this
reed is not worthless, like the common reed, but is, in fact, a sugar bearing reed,
filled full of a white pith.

And he quotes Dodonius as saying, in Hist. Lat. Frum:

Melica, siva sorghum, Lusitanis milium Saburrum appellatum non nulli tamen
Panicum peregrinum at Indicum cognominant.—Melica, or sorghum, called
by the Lusitanians Saburrum millet, yet sometimes they call it foreign, or In-
dian Panicum.

And he concludes as follows:

Nos eorum sententiam probamus qui milium Indicum Plinii esse conclu-
dent.—We agree with the opinion of those who consider it to be the Indian
millet of Pliny.)

Frequent reference is made to the white, sweet incrustations upon
the joints of an Indian reed, to which the name Saccharum was given
by Dioscorides; and which is supposed to be the earliest reference to
sugar. It is probable that this substance was similar to, if not identi-
cal with, a similar exudation from the joints of a hollow reed growing
in our Western territories, and which is annually gathered, in consid-
erable quantity, by the Indians, and is known as Piute sugar. It is
allied to manna in composition, and is not cane sugar.

Besides the many quotations given, there are many others which
could, with equal force, apply to either the sugar-cane or the sorghum,
as, for example, Varro (68 B. C.), says:

India non magna nimis arbore crescit arundo illius é lentis primetur radicibus
humor dulcia qui nequeant succo condendere nulla.—There grows, in India,

a reed, not much less in size than a tree, from the pliant stalks of which is ex-
pressed a juice which the sweet honey can not surpass.

From Bauhin to the present day, botanists have been more careful
in their determinations of those plants so closely allied.

Linnzeus places them under his genus Holcus, under the specifica-
cation of H. sorghum for the Indian millet, and H. saccharatum for
the Chinese cane.

Persoon, after a careful study of these plants, has divided the Lin-
nan genus Holcus to form a new one, which he calls Sorghum.

The name sorghum is from Shorghi, the common name of the plant
in the East Indies.

> ~ . % ead ong

~ Fa

BOTANY OF SORGHUM. 57

Botanical Description.

Generic characters: Spikelets (flowers with their husks at the end Ps
of the small branches), two or three together on the slender ramifications
of the panicle (seed head), the lateral ones abortive, or reduced to a
mere pedicel; the middle or terminal ones fertile. Glumes (the husk
or hull) coriaceous (leathery), closely bearded or downy, becoming
indurated after the anthesis (blooming), with or without awns. Palea
(inner husk) membranous ; stamens, three; styles, two, with bearded’
stigmas. Stout, tall grasses, with solid stalks with pith.

Specifie Name, Sorghum Saccharatum.

Botanical Names.

Milium quod ex India, in Italiam invectum, nigro colore.—Pliny. .

Sorgo melica Italorum.— Lobel.

Melica, sive sorghum.—Dodon.

Melica forte a milica sagina, aliis saginanda calamagrostis Dioscori-
des.—Coesalpin.

Milium arundinaceum sub rotundo semine, sorgo nominatum.—G,
Bauhin.

Sorghum.—Rumpbhi.

Milium Indicum arundinaceo caule, granis flavescentibus.—Herman.

Holcus saccharatus.—Linneus.

Milium Indicum sacchariferum altissimum seminibus ferrugineo.—
Breynuis.

Holeus dochna.—Foskal.

Holceus caffrorum.—St. Clair.

Andropogon saccharatum.— Kuntz.

Sorghum saccharatum —Persoon.

Holceus caffrorum.—Thunb.

Holeus caffir.—Arduini.

Sorghum Arduini.—Jaquas.

Sorghum caffrorum.—Beauvois.

Description of Plant.

Root, fibrous; culm (stalk) thick, stout, solid, with pith, from six to
twelve feet high; leaves lanceolate, acuminate, downy at base; flowers
forming a large, more or less diffusely spreading panicle, with the
branches more or less verticillate, often nodding when in fruit; glumes
(husk) of the perfect flower hairy, downy, and persistent; from the
East Indies. Cultivated. F

William Henry Harvey, F.R.S., in ‘‘The Genera of South African
Plants,” London, 1868, gives the generic characters of this plant as
follows:

58 SORGHUM.

Sorghum.—Spikelets at the ends of twigs of a branching panicle—either
female, male, or neuter—dissimilar. Outer glumes, two; in the fertileand male
spikelets coriaceous, hardening with scarcely obvious immersed nerves; in the
neuter spikelets membranous, nerved; flowering glumes thinly membranous
ciliate, the lower neuter, the upper fertile, with a short twisted awn, or awnless;
Palea small, narrow scales, fimbricate. Seed thick, short, hard, closely:
wrapped in the hardened glume and palea.

s” Nees, es, paiens

Tall, strong, broad-leaved grasses, with villous or pubescent glumes; grain
used as food in India.

Holcus eaffrorum, described by Thunberg, in his ‘‘ Flora Capensis,”
and later (1780) introduced from South Africa into Italy by Peter
Arduino, was found by Sprengel to be identical with 8S. saccharatum,
to which he also referred 8S. arduini, Jaqu., and the 8. caffrorum,
Beauv.

Nees agrees with Sprengel; but states decidedly that two distinct
species are cultivated on the Cape of Good Hope; as is seen from a note
appended to his description of the following species: ‘‘ Species altera
in hortis Coloniae culta quae Holecus caffrorum. Thunb. Flora. Cap.”

Sorghum Usorum. N.v. E.

This species, referred to above by Nees, has been described by
Thunberg, in his Prodromus Floro Capensis, as Holcus caffrorum, and
has subsequently been mentioned as § caffrorum panicula compactiori.
Roem and Schlut.

Recognizing it as a proper species in his Agrostographia Capensis,
Nees applied to it the name of the Caffir tribe, ‘“‘ Us,” among whom
Drege found the plant extensively cultivated.

Dr. Charles Mohr, of Mobile, Ala., who has recently investigated

the subject, writes, that

There can scarcely be any doubt that all the South African varieties, with
more or less closely contracted panicles, can be referred to this species. The
many forms under cultivation can be reduced to those specifically distinct
types. Adopting the view that Sorghum vulgare is the parent plant. of these
species, and all of them can be separated in two races, distinct in habit and
geographically in their ancestry, as has already been shown by Pech, in his
Botanical History of Sorghum (Annual Report, Department of Agriculture,
1865) :

1. The race of the sorghos chiefly of Asiatic origin, with the branches of the
expanded panicles more or less drooping, characteristic of the Sorghum sac-

' charatum.

2. The race of the Imphees, or the exclusively African race, the closely con-
tracted panicle more or less dense, with erect adpressed ramifications, the type
of Sorghum Usorum.

BOTANY OF SORGHUM. 59

By the crossing of these races, and the inter-crossing of the resulting hybrids,
many varieties have been produced. Introduced into regions of different lati-
tudes, exposed to influences of various conditions of climate and soil, these
were subjected to further modifications, which, permanently retained by inheri-
tance through future generations, show their peculiarities less in the morpho-
logical features than in their physiological relations, of much more importance
to the cultivator, by their influence upon the life of the plant and the product
of its activity. In the endeavor to attain those modifications which shall ap-
pear most favorable under given conditions, in respect to the time required for
ripening, the percentage of sugar, and also the capacity of resisting unfavorable
influences, the number of permanent variations is constantly increasing in the
United States.

The difficulty of assigning them their proper places, and discovering their
relationship and ancestry, increases with the obliteration of the original type.

In general, the following well established varieties can be regarded as belong-
ing to the first of these races: regular Sorgho, Chinese sugar-cane, Honduras,
Mastodon, Honey cane, Sprangle-top, Honey-top, Link’s hybrid, and other va-
Tieties produced by crossing with varieties of African ancestry with rather ex-
panded panicles.

To the second, or the African race, belong the Liberian, Imphee, Oomseeana,
Neeazana, White African, with the varieties produced in this country known as
Black top, Bear tail, lowa Red top, White mammoth, Wolf tail, Gray top. The
Early Amber and Early Orange are forms of prominently African type. The
identification of these various sorts is extremely difficult, and can only be ac-
complished by artificial methods, regardless of their natural affinities, as has
been successfully attempted by Dr. Collier.

C. G. Nees ab Esenbeck, in his Agrostographia Capensis, 1853, p.
86, classifies the sorghums as follows:

1. Sorghum bicolor.—Willd.

Holeus bicolor.—Willd.
Andropogon cernus.— Kunth.

2. a. Sorghum saccharatum.—Pers.
Sorghum saccharatum.—Pers.
Holcus saccharatus. —Kunth.
Holeus Caffrorum.—Thunb.
Holeus Caffer.— Arduini.
Sorghum Caffrorum.—P. de Beauv.
Sorghum Arduini.—Jacq.
Holecus dochna.—Forsk.

b. Rubens.

Sorghum rubens.— Willd.
Andropogon rubens.— Kunth.

3. Sorghum Usorum.—N. ab. E.
Holcus Caffrorum.—Thunb. ° |
Sorghum Caffrorum panicula compactiori apud.—R. et Sch. S.

4. Sorghum halapense.—Pevrs.

Holcus halapensis.—Sibth.
Trachypogon avanaceus.—N. ab E.

60 SORGHUM.

Andropogon halapensis.— Kunth.
Andropogon avanaceus.—Michx,
Blumenbachia halapensis.— K6hl.

Bentham, in Genera Plantarum, III, p. 1135, considers the whole genus sor-
ghum as comprised in two species, 8. vulgare and S. halapense.

This final conclusion of such eminent authority, is evidence of the plastic
nature of this plant, which, by variations, has adapted itself to the various cli-
matic conditions under which it is grown, and gives reason to hope that, in the
hands of the intelligent cultivator, it may develop other varieties more valuable
for the purpose of sugar production than any now known.

The genus Sorghum (of which Sorghum vulgare is the accepted type) is in-
cluded in the natural order Graminacez, to which natural order belongs, also,
the tropical sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum); but it should be remarked
that, between the genus Sorghum and the genus Saccharum, there are classed
by botanists the three genera, Erianthus, Kriochrysis, and Ischaemopogon.
Vid. Grisebach’s Flora of the West India Islands, pp. 560, 561.

While, therefore, the two plants are somewhat closely related, this relationship
does not warrant the assertion made by a recent writer upon this subject, “ that
the name sorghum is a mere disguise, for the reason that it is nothing more nor
less than a sub-variety of sugar-cane, which may explain why it is that the
reader and the investigator have so frequently been misled.”

To the unscientific observer, a growing sorghum plant would seem to combine

many of the exterior characteristics of sugar-cane.

I here append parallel statements, prepared by Dr. George Vasey, Botanist of
the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which show the differences between the
genera Sorghum and Saccharum, upon which botanists base the opinion that
sorghum is not “a sub-variety of sugar-cane.”’

~ : e

Sorghum vulgare.

Flowering spikelets, two or three to-
gether, on the ends of the branches of
an open panicle; these spikelets are
of two kinds, viz., one sessile, single
flowered, fertile spikelet, and accom-
panying this, one or two others, which
are short stalked, or pediceled, and
contain male flowers, or sterile flowers;
or sometimes these disappear, leaving
only the stalks or pedicels. The fertile
spikelet consists of a pair of thick,
coriaceous or hard glumes, and of two
very thin hyaline palets, one of which
usually has a twisted awn or beard,
twice as long as thespikelet. In some
varieties, the glumes and seed are more
jor less hairy, and in others nearly
smooth. The seed is large and round.

Saccharum officinarum.

The flowering spikelets are placed,
at short intervals, on the joints of long,
slender branches of the panicle, usu-
ally in pairs, one of which is sessile,
and the other pedicellate. They are
each surrounded at the base with a cir-
cle of silky white hairs, which are
longer than the flowers. The spikelets
are usually single flowered; the sessile
one fertile, the upper sometimes male
only. The glumes are soft and char-
taceous, the palets thin and transpa-
rent, and awnless.

The most striking differences be-
tween the two genera, are in the size
and consistence of the flowering or-
gans, in the manner of branching of
the panicle, and in the presence in
Saccharum of the long hairs at the
base of the spikelets.

BOTANY OF SORGHUM. 61

The above will suffice to settle a question, which could not have
arisen but that a recent writer, who, by some, might be assumed to
speak with authority, has in his writings confounded the sorghums
with sugar-cane, while he places a single variety of sorghum appa-
rently in a genus by itself.

The Agricultural Character of Sorghum.

Under this head the Committee of the National Academy of Sci-
ences say in their report:

The cultivated varieties of sorghum, considered botanically, are cereals.
‘They belong more especially to that very small group of cereal species which
have been cultivated from the dawn of history, and have developed along with
our Civilization. During ages of culture they have so changed under the hand
of man, that we are ignorant as totheir native countries, and know not what their
original wild progenitors were. Their descendants now exist in a vast number
of varieties, which differ so greatly among themselves, that neither scientific
botanists nor practical cultivators are agreed as to what are true species, and
what mere varieties which have arisen in cultivation.

The cultivated varieties of sorghum have been placed in the genera Holcus,
Andropogon, and Sorghum, by different botanists—the latter being the name
now accepted.

A generation ago, botanists grouped the numerous cultivated varieties into
a considerable number of distinct species, without agreement as to how many:
five or six were generally believed to exist. Certain varieties of durra, with
the grain in a somewhat loose panicle, and which were more especially culti-
vated in Asia and in southern Europe, were classed as one species called Sor-
ghum (Holcus or Andropogon) vulgare; the varieties with the grain in a
densely contracted panicle, grown more largely in Africa, and known as Guinea
corn, Egyptian durra, Moorish millet, ete., were grouped into another species
called S. cernuum ; the variety best known as chocolate corn was the S. bicolor ;
broom corn, and all the sugar producing kinds, were classed together as S.
saccharatum ; and other specific names were applied to smaller groups of
these varieties.

But the investigations of modern science have gradually led to the belief,
that all the numerous varieties once classed in the several species above enu-
merated had a common origin and constitute but a single species, to which the
old name Sorghum vulgare is now applied.

This is now the belief of the most eminent botanists of the world. Some
even go further, and believe that a// the cultivated varieties of the genus, includ-
ing the spiked millets (Sorghum ( Holcus) spicatum), are the descendants of a
single original parental species.

These conclusions have a most important bearing upon the subject of this
special investigation.

It is a law of nature, that the longer a species is cultivated and the wider its
cultivation extends, the more easily it changes into new varieties, and the wider
the differences between the varieties become. Some species, however, have a

62 SORGHUM.

much greater capacity for variation than others, and Sorghum vulgare stands.
pre-eminent among the useful plants for this character.

The usefulness of any agricultural species is intimately correlated with its.
capacity for variation in cultivation, for this means capacity for the improve-
ment of varieties by the only means known to cultivators by which such im-
provements may be effected. It also means capacity for adaptation to varied
conditions of soil, climate, and natural surroundings, and, furthermore, adap-
tation to various methods of culture, and to various uses. It is a sort of plas-
ticity which allows the species to be molded in the hands of the intelligent.
cultivator.

This species (Sorghum vulgare) has varied more widely under cultivation
than any other cereal, unless it be Indian corn. The varieties differ in all their
characters—in height, fruitfulness, habit of growth, grain, stalk, leaf, panicle,
chemical composition, preference of soil, climate, and exposure; and so on, to
all the differences in which species themselves differ. Its cultivation has ex-
tended to most of the warm, and many of the temperate, climates of the globe,
and it has adapted itself to the varied uses and more varied agricultural
methods of nearly all the civilized races of mankind.

The agricultural success of any plant in a country depends, in part, upon its
fitness to the soil and climate, and in part to a variety of other conditions, one
of which is, that it must fill some place in the agriculture of that country better
than the other species competing with it. Sentiment and local customs are
also factors, but which have less force in this country than in others.

Durra, Guinea corn, broom corn, and, probably, also chocolate corn, were in-
troduced into this country in colonial times. During the days of more imper-
fect tools and machinery, and of difficult transportation, all our agricultural
crops were, of necessity, grown upon a much smaller scale than now; and, on
most farms, a greater variety of crops were grown than now. Most, if not all,
the agricultural plants of the Old World were tried here, and many had a wide
and sparse cultivation until wellinto the present century, and then disappeared
under the new conditions of our agriculture. The cultivation of others became
specialized. Varieties of this species may be found in both these categories.
Durra and Guinea corn were both widely introduced, and they lingered in cul-
tivation until crowded out by Indian corn. They were dropped just as many
other minor crops were: they did not fill a place in our modern agriculture so
well as some other species did, and now are only found in regions where Indian
corn does not grow so well, particularly in the states which border on Mexico.
Chocolate corn (the old S. bicolor) was cultivated here and there as a poor sub-
stitute for coffee; but, under the changed conditions of things, it has entirely
disappeared from our fields and gardens, crowded out by imported and better
coffee. Broom corn, also introduced in colonial times, was widely cultivated :
forty years ago, very many persons grew enough for their own use or for local
sale. It supplied a certain want better than any thing else, consequently, it
could not be crowded out; but, under the conditions of modern agriculture, its
cultivation has become specialized an concentrated in fewer localities, in some
of which it has assumed an importance found nowhere else in the world. It has
been greatly improved, and the cultivation of American varieties has now ex-
tended to the Old World.

About thirty years ago, the sugar yielding sorghum was introduced. Filling

BOTANY OF SORGHUM. 63

a certain place on our farms better than any other plant previously tried, it
spread in cultivation with a rapidity no other agricultural plant ever did before
in this or any other country, and is the only one adapted to a wide region in-
troduced into the United States since colonial times which has become of suffi-
cient importance to be enumerated in the census. It has become the “ sor-
ghum”’ of common language, and its cultivation has extended the whole length
and breadth of the country.

Its adaptation to our soil and climate is abundantly demonstrated, and its
capacity for improvement also thoroughly proved. The Department of Agri-
culture has already examined more than forty varieties, some of which have
originated in this country. We have, now, varieties with very unlike charac-
ters: some mature in eighty days, others require twice as long a time, and one
variety has become, in a sense, perennial—a fact rot true of any other cereal
species grown in the country. They vary in habit of growth and in sugar con-
tent; the two extremes have been developed here—the one as rich as Louisiana
sugar-cane, the other, the broom corn, so poor in sugar.

Belonging to such a plastic species, with such adaptation to a wide range of
soil and climate, with such capacity for modification and improvement, already
in such wide cultivation, and promising to meet such a definite want in our ag-
ricultural production, it is certain that, in obedience to natural laws, some of
the existing varieties may be greatly improved, and that new ones may be made,
some of which will better serve the ends we are now seeking than ‘any varieties we
now have. Noefforts have yet been made to increase the sugar content by system-
atic, intelligent, and long continued selection. In the light of the successful
results of experiment in this direction with sugar beets, and with the abundant
experience we have with other species as to other results attained by such pro-
cesses, we have much to hope as to improvement in this character with a spe-
cies which has been so variously molded to the uses of man.

Agriculture, however intelligently pursued, is more of an art than a science.
Hence, the ultimate profitableness of any agricultural crop introduced into a
region new to it, can only be determined by actual trial through a series of years.
The nature of the economical problem is such that science can not predict the
result. It can, however, render great aid in making success more probable, and
in hastening it where it otherwise might be much delayed. It can suggest
means and methods, can indicate promising directions for experiment, can aid
in foreseeing and overcoming many difficulties, suggest remedies for mishaps,
and, in a multitude of ways, aid in solving the practical problem. This is es-
pecially true when the crop is to be manufactured into a commercial product,
and emphatically so in the production of sugar, the whole economical aspects
of which have been changed by the aid of modern science.

No agricultural species can be cultivated profitably every-where within its
range of actual growth, and it is yet to be demonstrated where the best regions
are for the most profitable growth of sorghum. This is only partly an agricul-
tural problem; it is as intimately related to the question of winning the sugar
in the best form and at the least expense. For the solution of the latter, scien-
tific work is needed. It can ultimately be done in the sugar-house; it may be
more quickly done, and with vastly greater economy, if this be aided by the
scientific laboratory. The profitable production of sugar from cane, as now
pursued in Louisiana, and from beets, as pursued in Europe, was achieved only

64 SORGHUM.

by such aid. The methods of extracting sugar from these two great sources
are very unlike, and each was developed along with scientific investigation in-
stituted for each special plant. Sorghum still needs this. The work so nobly
begun and successfully pursued by the Agricultural Department, is still incom-
plete and unfinished. To use an agricultural simile, the crop has been sown,
but the harvest has not been reaped.

Agriculturally, the sorghum question is solved so far as it can be, until sci-
ence now does her share. That the crop may be widely and economically
grown, containing a satisfactory amount of cane sugar, is sufficiently proved.
All the problem remaining unsolved relates to the extraction of sugar. In view
of the magnitude of the interests involved, the results already obtained, and
the wide attention the matter is now receiving, we feel that there are most en-
couraging indications of practical success.

INTRODUCTION OF SORGHUM INTO THE UNITED STATES.

In 1850, M. de Montigny, the French consul at Shanghai, China,
sent to the Geographical Society of Paris a lot of plants and seeds
from China, and among them sorghum seed grown upon the island of
Tsung-ming, at the mouth of the Yang-tse-kiang river.

It is said that but one seed germinated, and that from the single
head 800 seeds were obtained, which were bought by the firm of Vil-
morin, Andrieux & Co., of Paris, at one frane each.

In 1853, Wm. R. Prince, of Flushing, Long Island, N. Y., imported
from France the black seed variety of Chinese sorghum into the United
States of America, and in‘1854 a few pounds of this seed was distrib-
uted.

In 1855, a large hogshead of the seed was disposed of in small
quantities throughout the country.

The first lot of sorghum seed sent out by the Agricultural Depart-
ment at Washingtom was in 1856, and, about this same time, Orange
Judd distributed to the subscribers of the American Agriculturist
25,000 packages of this seed. ;

In 1857, Leonard Wray, an English merchant, brought from Natal,
South Africa, 16 varieties of sorghum seed, which were sent to
South Carolina and Georgia and grown there.

To these African varieties the general name Imphees was given,
while to the variety from China the name Chinese Sugar-Cane was
given.

In 1840, M. d’Abadie sent to the Museum at Paris the seed of 30
kinds of sorghum from Abyssinia, and it is said of several of
these, that the stalks had a sweet juice. But whether any of
these seeds were planted, does not appear to be a matter of record,
and the cultivation of sorghum during these later years appears to

INTRODUCTION OF SORGHUM INTO THE UNITED STATES. 65

have begun with the introduction of the China variety by M. de Mon-
tigny, in 1850.

Although throughout France and in Algeria the cultivation of sor-
ghum rapidly spread, and many experiments were undertaken in the
production of sugar from this plant, the new and growing beet sugar
industry resulted in the abandonment of all efforts with sorghum, and
it has been mainly in the United States that sorghum has been grown
as a sugar producing plant during the last quarter of a century. Even
here the crop has been chiefly used in the production of syrup, sugar
having been only an accident of manufacture rather than the result of
intelligent efforts for its production.

For several centuries, however, before the importations of M. de
Montigny, sorghum had been extensively grown in Europe; not, in-
‘deed, as a sugar plant, although, so early as 1776, Pietro Arduini, of
Florence, had succeeded in making sorghum sugar. He says, that the
seed of the sorghum he experimented with was of a clear brown
color.

In 1859, E. T. Teas, of Dunreith, Ind., reports to have imported
from Vilmorin, Andrieux & Co., of Paris, a few pounds of Chinese
cane seed, and that in this lot of seed, upon planting, he found a single
plant, the seed of which had thoroughly ripened before the rest of
the plants were in full bloom. The seed from this plant was care-
fully preserved, and is said to be the source of the Minnesota Early
Amber, so named since it was very early, gave an amber colored syrup,
and has been grown extensively in Minnesota of late years.

On the other hand, Mr. Leonard Wray at once recognized this so-
called Early Amber, from the wood-cuts of the ripened panicle, as one
of the 16 varietes of Imphees which he introduced in 1854, and he
says the name is Boom-ywa-na.

In this connection, it will be interesting to know the names and de-
scriptions of the several varieties which were introduced by Mr. Wray,
which were as follows:

Vim-bis-chu-a-pa.—This is the largest and tallest of the whole; full
of juice, very sweet; requiring from four to five months to come to
maturity; grows toa height of ten to fifteen feet; from one and a
half to two inches in diameter at the lower end; usually cracks or splits
as it ripens; juice contains fourteen per cent of sugar; seed head
large-and beautiful, twelve to eighteen inches in length; plump seeds,
sandy color, strongly held by a sheath, which partially envelops
them.

E-a-na-moo-dee.—Next in size, and very similar in habit and value;

5

66 SORGHUM.

not as coarse, softer, and more juicy; fourteen per cent of sugar in
juice; seed heads large, stiff, erect; seeds round, plump, of a clear
yellow color; ripens two weeks earlier than last variety.

E-en-gha.—A fine, tall kind, from ten to twelve feet high, more
slender than either of the foregoing, exceedingly graceful in appear-
ance, ripens in four months; fourteen per cent of sugar in juice; seed
head large, and very pretty; seed upon long, slender footstalks, which
are bent down by weight of seed, forming a graceful drooping ; seeds
a dull yellow color, rather long and flat.

Nee-a-za-na.—Held, by the Zulu Kaffirs, to be the sweetest of all the
Imphees; ripens in about three months; stalks soft,and more abound-
ing in juice than any; fifteen per cent of sugar; small size, tillers
greatly, having sometimes fifteen stalks to one root; juice mucilagin-
ous, and abounding more in fecula than some other varieties; seed
heads very bushy and bunchy when ripe; seeds round, large, and
plump.

Booi-vwa-na.—Most excellent and valuable variety; juice never
contains less than fifteen per cent of sugar; resembles the E-en-gha, but
stalks brighter and more slender; stalks have a pinkish tint, and seed
‘cases have pink and purple hue, mixed with a yellow ground; short,
stiff footstalks; tillers very much, giving ten to twenty stalks for one
root, which seldom weigh more than one pound each; makes beautiful
sugar; reaches perfection in three to three and a half months.

Oom-see-a-na.—Distinguished by the purple or black appearance of
its seed heads, the sheath, or seed cases, being of this color, and not the
seed itself; seed head stiff, erect; short, strong footstalks ; seed large,
round, and full; growth and goodness of juice very similar to the
Boom-vwa-na; stalks small, numerous.

Shla-goo-va.—Slightly inferior to the three last mentioned ; ripens in
three and a half months; tall, good sized plants; chief distinction, ex-
ceeding beauty and elegance of seed head ; footstalk extremely long,
drooping gracefully ; seed cases, or sheaths, vary in color from a deli-
cate pink to red, and from a light to a very dark purple, but each color
is very bright and glistening.

Shla-goon-dee.—Sweet and good; under favorable conditions, pro-
duces fine sized stalks; seed heads very stiff, erect; seed vessels com-
pact and very close; usually requires three and a half months to reach
maturity.

Zim-moo-ma-na.—Likewise a sweet and good variety; seed heads
upright, compact, and fine; seeds plump, very numerous.

E-both-la, Boo-ee-a-na, Koom-ba-na, See-en-gla, Zim-ba-za-na, E-thlo-
sa.—These last six are merely mentioned by Mr. Wray, with the re-

INTRODUCTION OF SORGHUM INTO THE UNITED STATES. 67

mark, that they ‘‘form the remainder of fifteen varieties, each differing
slightly from the others in saccharine qualities, as well as appearance ;
but still easily distinguished from each other by any one who has
studied them.”

J. H. Smith, of Quincy, Ill., who, in 1862, reports the results of his
investigations upon sorghum, says:

Of the Chinese cane,»we have known but one description, as before stated.
We have cultivated six different kinds of the African canes.

And he enumerates six of those names already given.

The following letter from Mr. Leonard Wray, is especially interesting
in connection with this discussion of the Imphees:

“ Perak, via Penane, September 7th, 1882.
To the Commissioner of Agriculture, Washington, U. S.

Dear Sir: I am pleased, beyond measure, to find that the United States Gov-
ernment has qt dast awakened to the great value of the ‘“‘imphee varieties,” which
Lintroduced into your country; and has taken the most certain course to verify,
by scientific tests, the druth of my printed statements respecting them, published
in English, and also in French, in 1854, copies of which I gave to Mr. D. J.
Browne, of the Patent Office, in Washington.

You will find the contents of this, my pamphlet, in a little book by H. S.
Olcott, published by Moore, of Fulton street, New York, in 1857; and if you do me
the honor to read that, you will, I am sure, fairly acknowledge, that every state-
ment I therein made is strictly proved by the valuable results of the able men
whom you selected to conduct your experiments. I must, however, mention that
the last chapter of my pamplet—viz, that on the manufacture of the imphee juice
into sugar—is omitted in Olcott’s little book.

It is most gratifying to see the “¢horough” manner in which your Department
has gone into, and decided these important questions.

I first became acquainted with these plants in March, 1851 (thirty and one-
half years ago), just after my arrival in Natal, South Africa; and, in 1854, I
grew them in several parts of France, in England, Spain, Italy, and in various
other places, so that I may claim to know their merits; and I now say, that all
I said and wrote about them at that time, I am fully prepared to stand by, and
substantiate the truth of.

In fact, your admirable Department has, in its recent scientific demonstra-
tions, abundantly and authoritatively confirmed my facts, and thereby rendered
an inestimable service to your country, and to other countries also. I hope and
trust you will continue it.

Looking at the beautiful plates in your reports, I can not but express my ad-
miration, and, at the same time, my astonishment, at the very remarkable con-
stancy of the “types’’ maintained by the different sorts of imphee shown. For
instance, I may mention Plate 1, facing page 8, in Special Report, 33. This is
there called ‘“‘Imphee,” “Liberian” and ‘“Sumac;” but I distinctly recognize
it as my “ Koom-ba-na,” one of the very sweetest and best I had. (I inclose
you some very old seed.)

Plates 2, 3, and 4, are my Neeazana, and its sports.

68 SORGHUM.

Plate 5 is my En-ya-ma, which I see figures as ‘‘ White Mammoth.” I in-
close some of my old seeds of it. :

Plate 7 is my Oom-see-a-na.

Plate 8 seems to me to be the “Chinese sorgho.”

Plate 9 is an Oom-see-a-na kind (no doubt a “‘sport”).

Plate 10 is undoubtedly my “ Vim-bis-chu-a-pa,” which, to please General
Hammond, I nicknamed Sorgho Ka-bai (or Sorgho Brother). Some grew to six
pounds weight when “topped,” and I had the head of gne such until about nine
months ago, when I unluckily threw it away (it was twenty inches long). I
see you call it by the names of Honduras, Honey, Mastodon, ete.

Plate 11 seems to be no other than my Boom-vwa-na, one of my special fayvor-
ites. Please see the description in my little pamphlet (in Olcott’s book, 1857),
and I think you will not long be in any doubt about its origin, bogus stories.
notwithstanding.

Plates 12 and 13 are both my imphees, and I had some growing here twelve
months ago; but the seed unfortunately got spoiled.

The seed you were kind enough to favor me with, I have sown, and had sown
by my friends here; and mine are now eight inches high, being: only sixteen
days’ growth. I may mention that I soaked my seed in a strong solution of sugar,
with a little salt, camphor, and soap-suds, for twenty hours, and I think they
are growing much more vigorously than those not so treated. I shall continue:
to watch them.

Pray, do not think me ungrateful, when I say that I felt disappointed in not
finding any ‘‘Minnesota Early Amber,” nor any ‘‘ Oomseeana,” among the seed
yousent me; and [trust you will forgive me, if I trespass so far on your kindness
to beg that you will be so good as to send me some of those two kinds, also as
“White Mammoth” and “Sumac,” ail of which I particularly wish to have.
Even one hundred or two hundred seeds of each of these four sorts will be am-
ple for me to propagate from; and these might come in a letter direct to me
here (and not by Singapore). In such case, the correct address is, ‘‘ Perak, via.
Pinang, straits of Malacca,” nothing more.

I need not say, also, how thankful I shall feel for any of your instructive re-
ports, or other information you may be kind enough to bestow upon me.

I will, by no means, neglect to send you a goodly assortment of such seeds as
T think you will be glad to have, as soon as they are ready. With many excuses.
for so troubling you, I beg to subscribe myself, dear sir,

Yours, very faithfully,
Leonarp Wray.

In explanation of the above letter, it is necessary to say, that the
plates referred to by Mr. Wray, were of the ripened panicles, or seed
heads, of several varieties which had been grown at the Department of
Agriculture at Washington, from seed received from different parts of
the United States. Not unfrequently the same variety came under
several different names: e. g., Plate 1 was received under the names
of Liberian, Imphee, Sumac, Chinese. Mr. Wray recognizes it as his
Koom-ba-na. Plates 2,3, 4, were from seed named, respectively, Nee-
azana, Wolf Tail, Gray Top. They are, without doubt, very closely

INTRODUCTION OF SORGHUM INTO THE UNITED STATES. 69

allied, if not identical, varieties. Mr. Wray recognizes them as his
original Neeazana and its ‘‘sports.”

Plate 5 was received from Western Missouri under the name of
“© White Mammoth.” Mr. Wray recognized it as his En-ya-ma.

This name does not appear in his list already given, but it will be re-
membered that he is reported to have introduced sixteen varieties, and
only fifteen are mentioned in his list. Besides this, ‘‘ White Mam-
moth” is the most characteristic of all the varieties grown in this
country, and can not possibly be confounded with any other. The
seed is almost as white as rice, and the glumes are quite black.

It is especially interesting, also, that this was one of the two varie-
ties of which Mr. Wray sent specimens of his old seed, and both speci-
mens received from him were at once recognized as the identical ones
which he declared them to be from the plates, viz.: Liberian (Koom-
ba-na) and White Mammoth (En-ya-ma).

Plate 7 was grown as Oom-see-A-na, and such Mr. Wray declares it
to be.

Plate 8 was grown from seed received from Hon. D. Wyatt Aiken,
of South Carolina, and by him called “ Black Top.” Mr. Wray thinks
it the original ‘‘ Chinese Sorgo.”

Plate 9 Mr. Wray pronounces an Oom-see-a-na sport. It is ‘‘ Link’s
Hybrid,” which Mr. Link, of Greeneville, Tenn., found in a field of
“« Honduras ” sorghum.

Plate 10 is from seed which has come under the names Honduras,
Mastodon, Honey Top, Texas Cane, Honey Cane, and Sprangle Top.
Mr. Wray is positive that it is his old Vim-bis-chu-a-pa.

Plate 11 is the Early Amber. Mr. Wray’s Boom-vwa-na.

Plates 12 and 15, Goose Neck and White Liberian, respectively, he
also recognizes as among those varieties he imported. The great im-
portance of this matter will be discussed in another place, but it is re-
markable that these varieties should have so persistently retained their
characteristics during over 30 years of continuous cultivation.

Hybridization of Sorghum.

The letter from Mr. Wray, and these reports from Natal, have much
value, since they throw more light upon a matter of very great prac-
tical importance, and fully confirm the experience of the last five
years at the Department of Agriculture at Washington.

Mr. Wray writes, that he is ‘‘ astonished at the very remarkable con-
stancy maintained by the several varieties” which he had introduced
a third of a century before. It certainly is remarkable that Mr.

79 SORGHUM.

Wray should be able, even from plates, which fail to represent many
of the marked peculiarities of the different varieties, to have at
once recognized almost every one as among those introduced by him.
Perhaps nothing has been more generally believed, than that the
greatest care was necessary to avoid the hybridization of the different
sorghums.
At least a score of so-called hybrids have been received from one sec-
tion and another of the country; and generally, along with the state-
‘ment as to the desirable qualities of this new variety, the information

is given that a little seed may be had at quite an advance over the price —

of common varieties.

It is reported, that, owing to the marked success which attended the
production of sugar from sorghum at Rio Grande (near Cape May),
New Jersey, the seed obtained was by certain thrifty farmers of that
vicinity, sold under the name of ‘‘ Cape May Hybrid,” although it was
no other than the common Early Amber variety.

It is probable, that, in the hands of an expert hybridist, there may
be originated many new varieties, and possibly those surpassing in
excellence any now known; but, at present, the so-called ‘‘ hybrids”
have not resulted in any such way, and, so far as they really exist, are
only accidental.

During the past five years there have been cultivated in Washington,
in all, at least 100 varieties, and upon the same plat of ground. These
varieties were grown in rows, separated from each other only three feet,
and, although it is possible that erosses have taken place, and remained
unobserved, it is certain that no evidence has been seen of such fact:
and this is the more remarkable, since, day by day, throughout the sea-
son, the different varieties were subject to careful observation.

As has been said, those specimens of seed received from foreign
countries, have been found to contain generally several varieties under
one name, differing very widely among themselves, and giving eyi-
dence of an admixture, in the samples received, of several distinct
varieties.

No such result has ever been observed in the samples of seed received
from various sources in the United States—since generally ripened
panicles have been sent to the Department instead of the cleaned seed
—and in no case was it found that two distinct kinds of seed were
present upon the same panicle. This result is entirely at variance with
the universal experience in growing different varieties of maize in the
same vicinity; and in this regard the two plants, which,.in many
respects are similar, could hardly be more unlike.

It would appear incredible, if this tendency to “cross” or ‘‘ sport”

lo

INTRODUCTION OF SORGHUM INTO THE UNITED STATES. 71

was in any degree marked, that these many varieties could have been
grown by our farmers for thirty years, and have so entirely maintained
their identity. In regard to the ‘‘ White Mammoth,” the En-ya-ma,
of Mr. Wray, the only specimen received at Washington came from
Western Missouri. Of all the varieties, none is more marked than this
one; and yet, grown year after year beside a scdre of varieties quite
distinct, it has steadily maintained its integrity, not a seed of any other
variety is found upon its panicles; nor has it, so far as careful obser-
vation extends, in any way affected its neighboring varieties. The
contrast with maize could not be more noticeable. Under similar con-
ditions, hardly an ear of maize in the field would be found uniform
as to its seed.

In this connection, a portion of a letter from Ephraim Link, of
Greenville, Tenn., one of our most intelligent cultivators of sorghum,
will be of interest.

It accounts for the origin of the so-called ‘‘ Link’s Hybrid,” one of
our most valuable varieties of sorghum ; but it will be seen, that there
is not the slightest evidence of hybridization given. Indeed, under
the circumstances, it appears impossible that hybridization could have
taken place, since the single original head of ‘‘Link’s Hybrid” was
found in a field of Honduras. It would seem most likely that, unless
this was simply a sport, remarkable for its persistence in retaining its
valuable peculiarities, it may have been one of the original Imphees
introduced by Mr. Wray, and which, but for the careful observation
of Mr. Link, might have been quite lost. It is remarkable, that, of
the varieties introduced by Mr. Wray, he is now able to at once recog-
nize so many among those cultivated in America; while, of the large
number recently received by the author from Natal, not one is to be
confounded with either of those hitherto examined.

From letter of Ephraim Link.

Perhaps six years since, I procured my first Honduras seed from Mississippi,
and readily found it much superior to any of the varieties I had before culti-
vated, and discarded all others in the endeavor to prevent any hybridization.
It remained seemingly pure and fully satisfactory for several years, during
which time I furnished the Department at Washington seed for distribution to
the amount, in three years, of 50 bushels or more. In my crop of 1879, I saw
a good many heads indicating a mixture, for which I could not account, and
which I had been so careful to avoid, unless the contamination occurred the
first year, when another variety grew a little distance off. If so, the contami-
nating principle lay dormant three years and had developed only that year. I
sent to a friend in Texas for an entire renewal of seed for the planting of the
spring of 1880, and found that, and the crop of last year, to be very pure, and
to ripen two or three weeks sooner than the same variety before grown. Here

(29 SORGHUM. ,

also is a locked mystery I fail to understand. Also, four years ago I found a
head—a clear sprout in the Honduras—entirely different in appearance from it,
propagated it, and found its yield and richness in juice second to no other, and
its. syrup freer from the sorghum flavor than any I ever made. I sent General
Le Duc a specimen of the syrup and seed, and he ordered all the seed I had,
about 14 bushels. In his report of the analysis of varieties, he calls it “‘ Link’s
Hybrid.” It grows to good size, stands well, ripens before the Honduras, and
I predict for it a high place among varieties.
Eruraim Linx.
GREENVILLE, TENN.

>

VARIETIES OF SORGHUM CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES. 73

CHAPTER IV.

(a.) Varieties of sorghum cultivated in the United States.
(b.) Signification of the names of the varieties of sorghum.
(c.) Table for identification of varieties.

(d.) Comparison of sorghums from different countries.

VARIETIES OF SORGHUM CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

Durie the seasons of 1879, ’80, 81, and ’82, there were received,
at the Department of Agriculture, the seed of very many distinct va-
rieties of sorghum, from different parts of the country ; aud these have
been cultivated, and subjected to a careful examination, during the
entire period of their growth, for the purpose of determining their
actual and relative value for sugar production. In the case of many
of them, cultivation and examination were continued during the four
years; and since the several varieties of seed were planted on the same
plat of ground, and upon the same day, and were subject to the same
climatic conditions during growth, their relative value, under the con-
ditions of climate prevailing at Washington, is established. What
these conditions of soil and climate were, will be presented in another
chapter.

It often happened that the same variety of sorghum seed was re-
ceived from several localities, under as many different names; as, for
example, the same seed came as Chinese, Liberian, Oomseeana,
Sumac, Imphee; and, it is interesting to observe, that its origin was,
by one referred to China, and by another to Liberia, West Africa;
although I find no record of any sorghum seed having been received
from any other African locality than Natal, in South Africa.

Many other samples of seed were obtained, which, upon being culti-
vated, produced plants very closely resembling each other, if, indeed,
they were not identical. It is quite probable that the slight differences
existing between the so-called Honduras, Mastodon, Honey Top, Honey
Cane, Sprangle Top, and Texas Cane, are the result of variation pro-
duced by the different climates and soils in which these canes have
been grown during the past thirty-four years, since their introduction
by Mr. Wray.

The same appears true of those varieties known as the Early Orange,
Orange, Wolf Tail, Gray Top, each of which bears a close resemblance

to the Neeazana, another of Mr. Wray’s original importations. So, too,

74 SORGHUM.

the Early Amber, Early Golden, Golden Syrup, and at least three
others, which have been sent as ‘‘new varieties” without name, are
so nearly alike as to trouble one to distinguish them; and these are
recognized, also, by Mr. Wray, as identical with, or but slight varia-
tions from, his original Boom-ywa-na.

Relative Lengths and Weights of the different Varieties of Sorghum.

In the following table will be found the average length of the sey-
eral varieties of sorghum, as grown upon the experimental plat of the
Department grounds; the average weight of the entire plant; of the
stalk topped and stripped of its leaves, and ready for the mill; as, also,
the number of stalks of each variety upon which such averages are
based.

This table will enable any one to determine the relative amount of
either variety which may be grown upon an acre, since these several
varieties were grown from seed planted the same day, and upon a plat
of ground which insured practically uniform conditions in every re-
spect, since the culture of all varieties was the same. -

It will be observed that the average loss, by stripping and topping,
is, in the case of the sorghums, 24.6 per cent, and of the maize 38.4
per cent.

RELATIVE LENGTHS AND WEIGHTS OF THE DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF SORGHUM.

3

Go

: 8D

=|:

A oo |

NAME. SOURCE OF SEED. be ; 2 3

SN lees = 2

S| 9 iS ie

A 4 = wn

Feet. | Lbs. | Lbs.
Early Amber........ D. Smith, Arlington, Va.. .....-| 111] 8.70 | 1.390) 0.960
a Sem .3 ’ Plant Seed Company, St. Louis, ‘Mo... 0... 104] 8 70 | 1.410) 1.004
Early Golden«.:....:..| A. Bu Swain, Elysian, Minn): .02.-........- 98] 8.70 | 1.370] 1 001
Golden Syrup. ...... WEL? Lytle, Yellow Springs, Ohio}. 101; 8.50 | 1.370) 1.001
White Liberian. .....| Rush G. Leaming, Decatur, Neb... .......| 62] 8.46 | 1.629) 1.337
Early Amber...... |) So Bava: MOMrOG, kcal ine abe cue oo 54] 8.54 | 1.317] 0.979
Black Top Sorghum. .| DoW: Aiken; Cokesbury, SG. ..2-25.25.-. 48| 7.48 | 1.409] 0 961
African Sorghum. . | W. E. Parks, Carlisle, Ky 100} 8.59 | 1.654) 1.155
White Mammoth...... ee CAE Den tare Carpenter's Store P. { 50| 9.54 | 1.637] 1.358
Oomseeana... .....-. Blymyer & Co., C incinnati, (OV nti ees nee 100} 8.26 | 1.578) 1.169
Regular Sorgho. ..... Blymyer & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio.......... 101) 9.485} 1.779] 1.266.
Wits DLCs y.. tata Sli Gh oie Greeneville, Tenn. eat ONE Peete ..| 43] 8.854] 1.901) 1.379
Sugar © COV s pbahe Jee barcer: ovale wlOW ae actentase cree 51] 7.326] 1.261] 0.893.
Oomseeana Sorghum D. W. Aiken, Cokesbury, S.C.2, 0.22.02. 52} §.398} 1.510} 1.140
NPCAZSO RS a. Sela: W. H. Lytle, Yellow Springs, Ohio ....... 105} 7.694] 1.512] 1.089
(roose Neck.........-. P. P. Ramsey, Belgrade, Mo... (........ 94} 9.057] 1.738) 1.255
Early Orange......... I. A. Hedges, St THOUS vO neers 92| 8.238] 2.115) 1.467
Neeazana.. ..-...-+ ..| Blymyer & Co., Cincinnati, GniO-cre eee 104| 7.547} 1.450} 1 047
New Variety...-...... F. Link, Greeneville, MP EMTS otrne 2e oh oetaue ores 41) 9.144] 1.562) 1.181
GQWINESE Fait se as. ae ehets HaSmith-ATLMS ton Velie ees a ace ee 93] 7.95 | 1 722) 1.225
AN VoyL Les NS Pe or eter ta E. Link, Greeneville, Tenn............ .-. 34| 8.06 | 1.449] 1.277

= es"

VARIETIES OF SORGHUM CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES. 75

Relative Lengths and Weights, etc.—Continued.

ae

a

f SD

1S 3

x ‘wo | =

NAME. SOURCE OF SEED. = cS =

; 2|/a/2/3

I Vine = ea) = >

tls = rr

Zlealela
: : Feet.| Lbs. | Lbs.
ERLE SUTY Rp Ree H. C. Sealey, Columbia, Tenn............. 92} 7.419, 1.661} 1.189
TADETIBI SO? ci. 2224 Blymyer «& Co., Cincinnati, Ohio.......... 101} 8.61 | 2.370} 1.807
IP TMAN Soh i to aed W. H. Lytle, Yellow Springs, Ohio........ 99! 8.29 | 2.154) 1.803
Oomseeana........... W. I. Mayes & Co., Sweet W ater, Tenn.. 83) 8.11 ; 2.337] 1.729
SLU Sac eee W. Pope, Jones Switch, Ala... ...........-. 81} 8.70 | 2.177] 1 632
Mastodon’. 205... 222: D. W. Aiken, Cokesbury, sill blobs 5 Pe a Ae 46|11.33 | 2 612) 1.928
TIMBHEC?. oa racke seed = D. W. Aiken, Cokesbury, S. C... ......-.. 41|/ 8.84 | 2 057) 1.543
New Variety os255-. J. W. H. salle, Strafford, Mo...) 2122277) 73| 8.33 | 1 786] 1 200
SL OR a ee J. H. Wighton, Movnt Olive, Ala......_.... 36] 8.68 | 2.041] 1.528
Wonduras...:.22)-<.-- Arsenal, Washington, D.C................. 82/10.09 | 1.633] 1.269
Honey Cane .......-. | J. H. Clark, Pleasant Hill, La.............. 84]11.35 | 2.771} 2 289
Sprangle Top..........] W. Pope, Jones Switch, Ala...........5.... 90/11.07 | 2 378} 1.854
Rho 5 eee oe E. Link, Greeneville, Tenn................. 62/11.60 | 2.543] 2.148
Honey Top or Texas. FCEEMSSEAG. Oe 5s Shee ees 97/11.48 | 2 517] 2.181
“ENOTES Se eee eae L. Brande, Mayersville, Texas............. $1|11.76 | 2.579] 2 079
BuparCaue._.--...<5- C. E. Miller, Efimeham, Tis 22is50 82. S 120) 6 82 | 1.089] 0.731
CEN? eG eh er ere | J4C~Moore, San Diego. Cal. i205 ek 67| 8.95 | 1.869]. 1.262
SugarCane..... -..... EB. 14k, Greeneville, Tenn. 2). 5.0 Fo.) Sa] SIS9rT ak 700) 4357
CS El a Soe ae Jacob Latshaw, Cedarville, Ill...... eyiike 42| $.06 | 1.383] 1.055
Towa Red Top.........| Jacob Latshaw. Cedarville, Ill............. 41) 8 39 | 1.329} 1 009
New Variety ... KW: Siump: Marshal 4: - So 41] 8.34 | 1.309] 1 037
W. India Sugar Cane | D. C. Snow, Lamoile. Iowa................ 15] 7.89 | 2 107] 1.653
White African...... John N. Barger. Lovilia, Jowa............. 83] 7-75 | 1.434] 1.045
Goose Neck ....... ...| GN. Gibson, Shelbyville. Ky........ et 31] 8.19 | 1.852) 1.335
White Imphee........ John N. Barger, Lovilia, lowa. ---| 35} 7.50 | 1.309) 0.911
Bybrid, Nov. -. ic. Will N. Wallis, Collin County, Texas. .... 40) 8 79 | 1.410) 1.065
Sugar Cane ...... .. | John N. Barger, Lovilia, lowa............. 21] 6 65 | 1.324) 0.971
New Variety.. John N, Barger, Lovilia, A ie nae Se MA epers Mees perc ee ees bis?
Min’sota Early Amber! Vilmorin, Paris Saree cee 29| 7.30 | 1.441) 1.097
Holeus Saccharatus .}] Vilmorin, Paris....... .................... 18} 7 88 } 1 93) 0.722
Holeus Sorghum fy) WANE er ct LRN COV VIS (SS Sie Bee get RAL ee 4, 28] 7.69 | 1.036% 0.746
Holcus Gernus, white.| Vilmorin,. Paris. ..-.................-:4..: 22) §.26 +] 1.855] 1.245
Honey,Cane...... »..]°J. H. Clark. Pleasant Hill, La.. See 14/10.23 | 2.193} 1.765
New Variety... .... | D. B. Bradford, Elizabeth City, 30 5 by) ae ee era fs
Chinese Imphee.. W. A. Sanders, Sanders, Cal....... 2 A |Saae ae 1.128
New Variety........: Richard Haswell, Armstrong Grove, Ta.. 23) toes]. 2. cl Od)
Standard, No.2. ... | Isaac O. Harrell, Greeneville, Senn: 35.2.3; 25) eee : 1.488
New Variety ..-..-.-... Hampden Sidney COU W a. ot. 3- ene Dt aoe fees 2 0.800

In the above list, sixteen States are represented as furnishing seed ;
and four varieties were obtained from France, among which is our
own Early Amber, which already appears to be grown there from seed
imported from America. Aithough, some thirty years since, we ob-
tained our Chinese varieties of sorghum from France, and having, at
the present time, many of them extensively cultivated in the United
States, nearly all, if not every variety, of these Chinese sorghums seem
to have disappeared from France, since the large house of Vilmorin
& Co. were unable to send even a single specimen.

The local names of the above mentioned varieties (as, for example,
West India sugar-cane), must not be confounded with the real suvar-
cane of Cuba and Louisiana; for the so-called sugar-canes, represented

76 SORGHUM.

by the above numbers, are only varieties of sorghum, a family of
plants quite distinct from the true sugar-cane.

Varieties of Sorghum received from Africa, China, and India.

In 1881, the author received through President Angell, Minister to
China, six varieties of sorghum seed, the names of which were as
follows:

Hwong-mao-nien-liang— Y ellow-cap-glutinous-millet.

San-sui-hoong-liang—Separated-headstalks-red-millet.

San-sui-pai-liang—Separated-headstalks- white-millet.

Er-chiu-hung-liang—Second-autumn-red-millet.

Ma-wei-nien-liang—Horse-tail-glutinous- millet.

Ta-min-hung-liang—Large-people’s-red-millet.

Also, through W. T. Thiselton Dyer, Esq., Assistant Director of the
Royal Gardens, Kew, England, thirteen varieties of sorghum seed
from the Botanical Gardens at Natal, South Africa, and from the
Gordon Mémorial Mission of Natal; also, through Mr. Dyer, two va-
rieties from Cawnpoor, India.

The names of these were as follows:

From Natal.

Undendebule. Umgatubanda.
Ukubane. Ubehlana.
Jyangentombi. Ufatane.
Tyenga. Unkunjana.
Ibohla. Hlogonde.
Dindemuka. Unhlokonde.
Uboyana.

From India. .
Black Sorgho. Red Sorgho.

Upon planting these, it was found that very many more varieties
could be distinguished than had been recognized by those sending the
seed ; and it, was found that there were at least 14 instead of 6 of the
Chinese, 26 instead of 13 of the African, and 3 instead of 2 of the In-
dian. This appears the more remarkable, since, in a letter from the
Assistant Secretary for Native Affairs, J. Shepstone, Esq., of Natal, he
says: ‘‘The natives that I have spoken to only know of six varieties
of the ‘ Imfe.’”

Besides these specimens of seed, the author received from Wm.
Keit, Esq., Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Natal, ripened
panicles of the several varieties mentioned below, for the greater fa-
cility of identification :

i
.
;
;
j
‘

VARIETIES OF SORGHUM.CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES. 77

Iyenga faghan. Dundemuka Imphee.
Ufatana Imphee. Unkunyana Imphee.
Ubehlana Imphee. Hlogonde Imphee.
Undendebule Imphee. Umgatubanda Amabele.

Also from Dr. Dalzell, of the Gordon Memorial Mission, Natal, the
following list of ripened panicles:

U-Dwe Imphee. Dindemuka Imphee.
M-behlana Imphee. Hlogonde Imphee.
Iyenga Imphee. Ukabane Amabele.
U-fengkule Imphee. Umquatubanda Amabele

Ihlosa Imphee.

The differences in the spelling, of what are obviously the same
names in the several lists, is retained.

It will be observed that there are twelve varieties in the two lists
of ripe panicles, and that four of the varieties in the list of seeds are
not represented among the lists of panicles.

We have then sixteen named varieties received from Natal in these
several lots, although the natives knew. of only six, as was reported.

This is the exact number of varieties which Mr. Wray brought from
Natal in 1854; but it is to be noticed, that of his list only four of
his varieties, in name, bear any resemblance to those in the above
lists, viz:

Tyenga, which may be his E-en-gha.

Thlosa, which may be his E-thlo-sa.

Ibothla, which may be his E-both-la.

Hlogonde, which may be his Shla-goon-de.

Supposing the above four to be identical, it would seem that at least
28 named varieties have already been received from Natal.

The thirteen specimens of seed received were planted, and twenty-
six varieties were observed among them, and not one resembled either
of the numerous varieties grown in America the past thirty years, and
which have been grown at the Department of Agriculture, in Wash-
ington. Either the effect of climate and cultivation has been such
as to materially change the character of those varieties introduced by
Mr. Wray, or else there must exist, under cultivation in South Af-
rica, a much larger number of varieties than those already received
from there. Since Mr. Wray so readily recognizes his old varieties
from the plates published in the reports of the Department of Agri-
culture, it would hardly seem possible that any change has resulted ;
and the conclusion appears well founded, that these numerous varieties.

78 SORGHUM.

have already, through centuries of cultivation in Africa, become per-
manently fixed in their character.

Besides the above foreign varieties, there have been grown, at the
Department of Agriculture, at Washington, during the past five years,
nominally, sixty distinct varieties of sorghum, from seed received from
different parts of the country: and, at the present time, the author
has in his possession full ripened panicles representing all these, as,
also, each of the foreign varieties already mentioned, besides many
specimens of seed from what purport to be new varieties, which have
been sent in to be planted, in order that their comparative value for the
purpose of syrup and sugar production might be determined. In the
current news concerning this industry, mention is often made of other
varieties, at least, under names new to the author, and it is, without
doubt, true that there exists, at present, in the United States, at least
one hundred varieties of sorghum, more or less distinct. There is lit-
tle reason to doubt, that, should a careful examination be made in
those sections which have already so abundantly supplied us with new
varieties, the list might be very greatly extended. Indeed, when we
remember that, so far as our knowledge extends, India is the original
home of the sorghum, and that, for thousands of years, in all proba-
bility, it has been subjected to cultivation there, it seems more than
probable that very many varieties now unknown to us, and, possibly,
surpassing in value any we now possess, might be found there. More
than twenty years ago, Mr. J. H. Smith, of Quincy, IIL, in an article
upon sorghum, says, in reference to this very point: ‘‘Is there any
way in which the Agricultural Department at Washington could spend
money to better advantage, than in sending an experienced agent to
the countries from which these canes have originated, for the purpose
of obtaining all possible knowledge concerning these important acces-
sions to the agriculture of our country?”

A distinction is made in the sorghums received from Natal,
most of them being called Imphees: but two are called Amabele.
Professor von Kloeden speaks of the native Kaffirs calling the fifteen
varieties which they cultivate Imphi or Mabali; and he mentions Bali
as the name under which the sorghum is grown in Egypt, where six
varieties are cultivated.

I have not met with these names elsewhere in the literature of sor-
ghum. But the use at Natal as a specific name is interesting, and it
will be observed, in the plates showing the ripe panicles of these two
varieties, that they are peculiar in having large, prominent seed; in
fact, the Umgatubanda is remarkable for the size of its seed.

Analysis also shows the juice of these two varieties to be very infe-

is

SIGNIFICATION OF NAMES OF VARIETIES OF SORGHUM. 79

rior in its content of sugar to the other African varieties, and compara-
tively of little value. From the above considerations, it would appear
as though there existed very marked differences between these two
groups of sorghums, not to be aceounted for by cultivation, so far as
we know. .

In the Report of the Government Farms, Said a pet, Madras, India,
Sept. 7th, 1882, mention is made of three varieties of sorghum as. be-
ing there under cultivation experimentally: Black Cholum (Sor-
ghum vulgare), Planter’s Friend (Sorghum kaffrarium), Chinese Su-
gar-cane (Sorghum saccharatum). The last two were used in making
syrup, and preference was given to the Planter’s Friend for its greater
saccharine value. Mention is also made of broom millet ( a variety
of sorghum), and of the Early Amber sorghum, from the United
States of America; and it is reported that the syrup of the Early Am-
ber crystallizes far more rapidly, and to a much more considerable ex-
tent, than the syrup of either Sorghum saccharatum or Sorghum kaf-
frarium. The refuse canes (bagasse), after crushing, are far more pal-
atable to stock than refuse of sugar-cane; and, judging from its
appearance and general character, the refuse sorghum must be far
more digestible. -

SIGNIFICATION OF THE NAMES OF THE VARIETIES OF SORGHUM.

It will be observed that in the names given to the different varieties
of sorghum, there isa tendency on the part of those cultivating them
to describe them by their physical peculiarities. Thus, we have the
“« Sprangle Top,” which has a loose, waving seed head ; the ‘‘ Sumac,”
which in its close, compact panicle, resembles the seed head of our
common Sumac, so well known to our farmers; the ‘‘ Goose Neck,”
owing to the bent culm of this variety, a characteristic which is not
uncommon with several other varieties.

So, too, in the Chinese names, we have the ‘‘Separated Head
Stalks,” red and white; the Horse Tail, ete.

Also, in the South African varieties, the same tendency appears in
their names: as, for example, ‘‘ Jyenga” means ‘‘ loose headed, wav-
ing ;” “‘ Hlojonde” is ‘‘ long headed,” ete.

In this connection, the following letters will be found of interest,
being in reply to letters of inquiry as to the significance of those names
of the Imphees found current in sorghum literature, of which names
a list was sent.

Two of the varieties of sorghum received from Natal, viz., Ukabane
and Umgatubanda, are called Amabele, while the remainder are des-
ignated as Imphees.

80 SORGHUM.

The following letters were received through the kindness of Mr.
Dyer, of the Royal Gardens, Kew, to whom a list of the Imphee
names had been sent. The one is from the Assistant Secretary of Na-
tive Affairs at Natal, the other fromethe daughter of the late Bishop
of Natal:

Secretary of Native Affairs to Colonial Secretary, Natal:

I can not give the meaning of the generic term, ‘‘Imfe,” nor can I find na-
tives that can do so. The natives that I have spoken to only know of six varieties
of the ‘‘Imfe,” of which I will give the names and derivations:.

Ist. ‘‘ lyenga’’—Enticer—from its drooping or waving ear or head of corn.

2nd. Umbemba—Sprouts or shoots. This cane invariably having small
shoots from each joint.

3rd. ‘‘ Uzimumana ’—The enwrapped—from the close adherence of the outer
leaves to the cane.

4th. Umapofu—The yellow—from its yellow color.

5th. Ihlosa—The prominent—from its growing generally higher than other
corn with which it is sown.

6th. Unfenkulu—The great Imfe—from its large size.

The names given in the list inclosed by you, are, I believe, repetitions ob-
tained from different tribes, many having names according to the dialect spoken.
‘Che names are also badly spelt.

(Signed, ) J. SHEPSTONE,
Asst Secy for Native Affairs.

Nos. 2, 3, and 4 of this list are new names, for they neither appear
in the list of names of Mr. Wray’s varieties, nor in that of the seeds
and panicles received by me from Natal.

List of Imphees returned by Miss Colenso.

‘‘Undendebule.” Not* recognized, but the word ukudendebuleka
means ‘‘ capable of being peeled straight down through the joints.”

‘‘Umkunyana.” Not recognized, but the word should mean ‘rather
hard.”

‘“‘ Unhlokonde,” ‘‘ Hlgonde,” ‘‘Slagonda.” ‘The first means ‘long
ead ;” the others are the same word misspelt.

-“Tbohla” probably means ‘‘ causing flatulence.”

“ Tyenga,” ‘‘EHenga,” “ Engha.” The first means “loose headed,”
‘Cwaving ;” the others are the same word misspelt.

‘« Umnyani-mude—‘“ with long flower stalks or head.” The head
in this variety is still longer than that of the ‘‘ Unhlokonde.

«‘ Boomvana,” ‘‘ Boom-ywana,” Booena.” The first means ‘‘ small
red” or ‘‘rather red;’ the last two are misspelt.

« Uzimumana,” “ Limmoomana,” “ Zimmoomana.” The first means
“close,” ‘ thick headed.” The last two names are misspelt.

\

SIGNIFICATION OF NAMES OF VARIETIES OF SORGHUM. 81

** Hlakuva.” Called so after the castor oil plant; the seeds being
thought to look alike. A very small headed, short variety.

**Zimbazana.” Called so after ‘‘Izimba,” a variety of “ Kaffir
corn,” because very like it. ‘‘Izimba” is used as grain in making
beer. ‘‘Zimbazana” may be used so, also.

** Thlosa ”—“‘ budding,” ‘‘ beginning to swell.” A variety which
looks young when already grown.

** Elwofla.” ‘‘ Ehahla.” Not recognized, but evidently the same.

** Koombana,” ‘‘ Koombanna.” Not recognized, but evidently the‘
same. :

** Ubayana,” ‘‘ Ukubane,” “ Ubehlane,” “ Jyangenbambi,” ‘ Din-
demuka,” ‘‘ Ugabane,” ‘‘ Umgatubanda,” ‘‘ Oomseeana,” ‘‘ Neeazana,”
*‘Sangokahea,” ‘‘ Vimbischuapa.” None of these names are recog-
nized.

The following plates show the ripened panicles of several of the
more characteristic varieties of sorghum—of those grown in the
United States, and of those grown from seed received from South Af-
rica, China, and India.

The labels attached to the engravings, which were made from pho-
tographs, were, in every case, two inches by one in actual size, so that
the dimensions of each panicle may be readily ascertained by this scale
of measurement.

The Black and Red sorgho, Plates I and II, are from Cawnpore,
India; Plates III and IV are two varieties from Northern China;
Plates V and VI are two of the new South African varieties, called
Amabele; Plates VII, VIII, and LX, are of the new South African
varieties, called Imphees; Plates X, XI, XII, XIII, XIV, XV, are
of characteristic varieties grown during the past thirty years in the
United States, being either the original varieties introduced by Mr.
Wray, or varieties which have proceeded from them. It is possible
that some of them may have had a Chinese origin, though they par-
take rather of the general African type.

The names given to these six American grown varieties, have been
those names by which they have been generally known in this coun-
try, although, as has been remarked, the same variety has been re-
ceived from several localities under different names; for example, the
Liberian, Plate XII, has been received under the names Imphee,
Chinese, Sumac, and Liberian.

The frontispiece represents a hill of the variety known as Honduras,,
which has also -been received under the names Mastodon, Sprangle
Top, Honey Top, Texas Cane, Honey Cane. It is possible that two or

6

82 SORGHUM.

three of the larger varieties introduced by Mr. Wray may be con-
founded under these several names, but, at the present, the identity
of each has not been established. The compact heads of the African
varieties is a marked feature; but that is not a characteristic of those
which are valuable for sugar, since two of these, Plates V and VI, which
are called Amabele, are practically worthless for sugar, although, like
the other African varieties (Imphees), they have compact panicles or
seed heads. The two varieties from Northern India have loose, waving
heads, but are very valuable for sugar, as the analysis, page 101, will
show. The presence of these two distinct classes from South Africa,
with their wide difference in sugar content, is highly interesting, es- —
pecially in view of their being recognized as belonging to distinct
families. It will be seen that the per cent of sugar in the juice of the
two Amabeles averages 4.90, while in the seventeen Imphee varieties
it averages 11.82 per cent.

SIGNIFICATION OF NAMES OF VARIETIES OF SORGHUM. 83

ji
i
}

BLACK SORGHO

Plate I,

84

SORGHUM.

RED-SORGHO.

ih

Plate II,

SIGNIFICATION OF NAMES OF VARIETIES OF SORGHUM. 85

SAN Sul
PAI LIANG

Plate ITI.

ee ie,

SORGHUM.

86

A x
9 nn. AY)
wi aeny 0

i top y\+
4)
enn’

ER CHIU

Plate IV.

87

SIGNIFICATION OF NAMES OF VARIETIES OF SORGHUM.

UMGATUBANDA

Plate V.

88

SORGHUM.

122 3%)
vad .

»?
t)

e
3

7

UKUBANE

Plate VL.

SIGNIFICATION OF NAMES OF VARIETIES OF SORGHUM. 89

JYANGENTOMBI

aay
Plate VII.

90

SORGHUM.

ii

Plate VIII.

91

SIGNIFICATION OF NAMES OF VARIETIES OF SORGHUM.

f
Cge

¢
AY

Oe ota fy

ue

HLOGONDE

Plate IX

92

SORGHUM.

EARLY AMBER

i

Plate X,

93

SIGNIFICATION OF NAMES OF VARIETIES OF SORGHUM.

Loy
(PAUL
Eon Om (8;

m0."
ne A
ONS
oot=aS

LINKS HYBRID

Plate XI.

94

SORGHUM.

vam OD

cs)

95

SIGNIFICATION OF NAMES OF VARIETIES OF SORGHUM.

¢/

SOG

enn”
),

\
ws

@

w ny

\
ul

Plate XIIL

SORGHUM.

96

~s

WHITE AFRICAN

Plate XIV.

SIGNIFICATION OF NAMES OF VARIETIES OF SORGHUM. 97

WHITE
MAMMOTH

Plate XV.

98 SORGHUM.

SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF THE VARIETIES OF SORGHUM CULTIVATED AT
THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DURING THE YEARS 1879-80-—
81-82.

The following table can not claim any great degree of botanical ac-
curacy, as it has been worked out from single dry heads, and without
a careful comparison of the varieties growing in the field. It is be-
lieved, however, that it will be of great assistance in aiding the prac-
tical farmer to distinguish, with the aid of the illustrations, whatever
variety he may have under cultivation.

It is based upon a similar table prepared by Mr. F. Peck, and pub-
lished in the Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, 1865:

The Ripe Grain.
I. Longer than the glumes (husks).
(A.) Panicle or head dense.
1. Glumes black.
a. Inconspicuous.
Liberian, or Imphee.

Head short, 6 to 7 inches long, dense, cylindrical, ob-
tuse; general color dark brown.

Glumes small, obtuse, black shining; outer one hairy on
the margin. .

Seed smallest of all varieties, round, obtuse, tapering to
the base; hilum or point of attachment of a lighter
color.and prominent.

b. Conspicuous.

Seeds brown; effect of head black. (Grain at times

hardly longer than the glumes.)
Oomseeana.

Head slender, erect, 8 to 9 inches long; branches closely
appressed, but not dense.

Glumes black, pointed; outer one keeled, smooth and
open.

Seed deep brown, and visible between the open
glumes; plane convex, acute at both ends.

Black Top.
Head larger and broader than the preceding, blacker
and more dense; seed lighter.
Bear Tail.

Denser head and longer glumes than in preceding, re-

sembling in some respects a compacted Karly Amber.

Iowa Red Top.
An Oomseeana cane, with large, prominent seeds and
smaller glumes.
Seeds white.

TABLE FOR IDENTIFICATION OF VARIETIES. 99

White Mammoth.
Head very dense, expanding toward the flattened top.
Glumes shining black, prominent.
Seed white, large, flattened ; hilum inconspicuous.

2. Glumes light-red brown.

Seeds white.

White African
Head slender, 7 to 8 inches long; branches closely com-

pressed but not very dense.

Glumes large, light red, shining.
Seed large, white.
Seed yellowish brown.

Neeazana.

Head 5 to 8 inches long, dense, cylindrical.

Glumes pointed, somewhat hairy; outer one gray: inner
one black, smaller, and inconspicuous.

Seed long, flat; hilum inconspicuous.

Synon. White Imphee, Early Orange.

‘New Variety (Salle), similar to Neeazana, but both

glumes are at times light colored and hairy.

Wolf Tail.
Head 9 to 10 inches long, slender, dense.
Glumes almost white, shining, somewhat downy.
Seed shorter than in Neeazana, long, round; hilum slightly

flattened.
Gray Top.
Head similar to Neeazana, but glumes brown, shining, ob-
tuse, short.

Seed short, long, large, prominent, round; hilum only
slightly flattened; distinguished by its brown glumes
and the prominence of the large round seeds in the
head.

3. Glumes gray.
Rice, or Egyptian Corn.

Head heavy, bending the culm, dense, obtuse, cylindrical.

Glumes gray, prominent, wooly, persistent.

Seed large, flat, white, round in outline, width greater than
the length; prominent in the head, and easily shaken
out.

(B.) Panicle not dense.
Glumes black.
Regular Sorgho.
Head loose, 10 to 12 inches long. :
Glumes black, shining, open. displaying the seeds.
. Seeds large, flat, obtuse.
Hybrid Sorghum.
Hybrid of E. Link.

Oomseeana of Blymyer.

100 SORGHUM.

New Variety of E. Link.

These are hybrids of the Liberian or Imphee vari-
ties with the Honduras or Chinese varieties, and
bear the characteristics of both races. Here,
also, might be mentioned— ;

African of Parks, of Kentucky.
Hybrid of Moore.
II, Equal to the glumes.
(A.) Glumes closed, or nearly so.
Red, and palet awned.

Honduras.

Head | foot long, thin, loose, spreading, nodding.

Glumes reddish brown, shining, somewhat hairy, acute at
both ends; inner one keeled.

Seed long, very acute at the base, obtuse at the apex;
plane convex; hilum conspicuous, with a prominence
at the base, and a rcund mark at the upper edge.

Synon. Mastodon, Honey Cane, Sprangle Top, Honey
Top. These all vary slightly, so as to be distin-
guished in the field; but not, however, by descrip-
tion.

Deep chocolate palet, awned.
Hybrid of Wallis, Collin county, Texas.

Similar to the Honduras, except in the deep brown glumes
and more compact head, showing its Imphee affin-
ities.

(B.) Glumes open.

Under this head might be sought Regular Sorgho and
Black Top, classed as having the grain longer than
the glumes.

III. Shorter than the glumes.
(A.} Glumes black.
Culm erect.
Early Amber.

Head slender, erect; branches appressed, pointed, 9 to 10
inches long.

Glumes large, smooth, shining, acute at both ends, con-
cealing the seed or open, flattened on both sides.

Seeds long, obtuse, light colored; hilum large, with a
prominence in the center.

Synon. Early Golden, Golden Syrup.

Culm erect, or often bent with heavy heads.

Goose Neck.
Head inverted on the bent culm; somewhat loose, 8
inches long. :
Glumes shining, downy at the tips, flattened.
Seeds smaller than Amber, long, acute at the base, obtuse
at the apex, somewhat flattened.

COMPARISON OF SORGHUMS FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 101

(B.) Glumes purplish.
White Liberian.

Head slender, erect, or goose-necked ; branches appressed,
pointed.

Glumes large, smooth, shining, acute at both ends, often
not covering the seed. Infertile ones often very
prominent and purplish gray.

Seed large, long, and similar to the Amber, but hilum
more prominent.

Synon. Sugar-cane (Barger).

COMPARISON OF SORGHUMS GROWN FROM SEED RECEIVED FROM
CHINA, NATAL, INDIA, AND FROM THE UNITED STATES.

These several varieties were grown upon the same plot of ground, in
Washington, D. C., in the year 1882, and the results obtained are,
therefore, comparable. |

The number of analyses made of each group, the average weight of
stripped stalks, the percentage of juice expressed, and the average per-
centages of sucrose, solids not sucrose (including glucose), and availa-
ble sugar, in the juices, are given, for several stages of development.

The poor quality of the Chinese varieties is seen in the light weight
of the stalks, the small percentage of juice expressed (though the
same mill was used in all the experiments recorded—a total of 984),
and in the lower percentage of sucrose and available sugar.

It is, however, to be remembered, that these Chinese seeds were
obtained from about Peking, while the original Chinese sorghum seed
imported into France by M. de Montigny, according to Dr. Williams,
was grown upon the island Tsung-ming, which lies at the mouth of the
Yang-tse-kiang river, some 700 miles south of Peking. It is not im-
probable that this warmer region had developed a variety richer in
sugar than those of Northern China, where, as Dr. Williams says, the
uses of the plant for grain and fuel may have developed qualities, dur-
ing the centuries of its cultivation, fitting it for such purposes, but at
the expense of its sugar content.

Comparison of 14 Chinese sorghums, 26 African, 3 Indian, and 20
American :

Percentage of Sucrose in Juice.

Chinese. African. Indian. American.

SOCOM TUE bo lactics © oop ecient. 6.90 8.72 8.07 8.91
SECU aU. GOUGH. fea carer ees nee ' 8.23 9.49 10.36 11.53 °
Seeds aang! has se Res Peo 10.20 9.52 a ay Aes
Sucker seed in milk.............. 9.57 10.83 12.03 12.01
Sucker seed in dough............ 9.61 12.24 11.85 12.80

BV EEAE Cltetie au seaipicteral> = 8.65 10.30 10.37 11.36

102 SORGHUM.

Comparison in Weight of Stripped Stalks and Juice.

Chinese. African. Indian. American.

WOE CEN Ge RadeppescpoocUlboGassd 136 384 50 414
Weisht) pounds.c4-5--5 eee 85 1.58 1.13 1.14
JUICE, Per GEOL. — eased. eee » 43.29 60.80 61.19 60.13

Percentage of available Sugar in Juice.

Chinese. African. Indian. American.

Seedan milke- soaseeee tet oo 2.10 3.66 3.28 3.43
Seed imidoushy ie. eo ecec yee >. 2.83 4.64 5.97 6.42
Seed Sarde eee. eee eeacje ce c= = 4.51 6.41 5.36 Ceilal
Sucker seed in milk..... .. ..... 5.18 6.70 7.68 7.69
Sucker seed in dough............ 4.98 8.46 7.75 8.91

AVCTAEC. ogee aiede ote 3.92 5.97 6.01 6.71

Percentage of Solids not Sucrose (including Glucose) in Juice.

Chinese. African. Indian. American.

Seed in milk......-......-......--- 4.80 5.06 4.79 5.48
Scedhinidoueleage ctr. «aetna 5.40 4.85 4.39 5.11
Seed, hard....... IHS Seem oe 3.79 4.16 4.46
Sucker seed in Milk esse 4.39 4.13 4.35 4.32
Sucker seed in dough............ 4.63 3.78 4.10 3.89

IVE OC tyctcivas eolees ytte-s 4.73 4.32 4.36 4.65

From the above tables, the general resemblance between the Afri- »

can, Indian, and American varieties is noticeable, as to their quality
of juice and its amount; but, while the Indian and American varieties
have about the same weight, the average of the African varieties is
much greater—the proportion between the African, American, Indian,
and Chinese, in weight, being as follows: 100: 72: 71: 54.

It will be seen, also, that the average content of sugar is a little
greater in the American varieties than in any of the others, and this
result may be due to the effects of our climate during the thirty-three
years of their cultivation in the United States; or, to the fact that some
principle of selection has prevailed during their cultivation, since, as
is well known, their value as sugar producing plants has been steadily
kept in mind.

Whichever view is taken of the matter, the practical conclusion is
most favorable, for it appears hardly probable, that, by chance, such
varieties only were introduced at that early day as were the best for
sugar. It would seem, then, possible that, by more intelligent and
systematic selection and cultivatjon, we might beable to produce a va-
riety heavier than any yet known, and with a higher content of sugar.

Similar results with other cultivated plants are, by no means, excep-
tional.

The following table gives the relative heights and weights of the av-
erage sorghums from China, Africa, India, and the United States ;
also, the average length and weight of the panicles.

COMPARISON OF SORGHUMS FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 103

Season of 1882.

10 Chinese. 20 African. 3 Indian. 18 American.

Average height of stalk....... ......... feet. 9.6 8.4 8.3 9
as weight of stripped stalk....pounds. .746 1.44 1.20 1.13
se x panicle...........0unces. 3.925 3.88 2.83 2.68
« length of SR eee cac dtc inches. 15.1 10.93 9.00 10.06

The following table presents in detail, for comparison, the analyses
of the four classes of sorghums, all of which were grown side by side,
in 1882, at Washington. Those analyses only are included which
were made after the seed had become hard.

104 SORGHUM.

*
Average Results in 1882,

' - or oO, Lo

s et Wea | joan 5
2 VARIETY. “2 Came st 68.

I ° eos Se se

5 3 pees, |e 52

mi | ZA = a aS |

1..| Hoong Mao Nien Liang (@)................-- 1 61 36.82 2.28
2. | Sa sw Moone Wivane()) —- sc ces oe -/!inre =\atern 13 44 40.19 ail
Scie fe se Me (Ui) ig Goae Son Abimpod extra i AY 3) 32.45 2.37
SerlPishnahtsiohid etry iiyey ola (oh ae AAG ae Gab egacon asset 9 .79 40.66 .75
OE iene GS Nitas Son eotcaancGadcihcits a: 13 .76 42.94 84
CASH dpe Olakqutals hbhs¥e, One hal=0( (6) Pacis aoiceepaDeOpue ee 17 58 38.68 65
Bee vs NOTING CTME TNO ae tot, caiefoloia cis Sralalnye ole ois 12 68 39.54 .60
Gre | ie ein) Se ey Mame) oo ore e cstoien'= site 15 .63 38.70 83
Sete LG EN (li) Pa eceoe nace eieroe il .85 39.11 1.93

Peet “s i 1.35 46 66 B Bet
7..| Undendebule 23 1.28 56.07 83
Sat UU] feel) 02) 02. (G7) Snes ear ec 15 1.31 59.27 1.18
re By iets tro teers etaeweee cee aes 9 86 53.75 BD
9..| Jyangentombi (a) 5 1.05 58 .23 .88
ee 1 1.24 65.72 1.30
IGP Nei baoy a Le ee ag Omen Jue cae meee Wa oe : 4 1.45 66.21 2.49
(DLS Tb yiri¥o (see bE Wee er aA Ona tee ccodsae San eOeT 24 1.28 60.82 1.01
US eye MUD O Via Si tote ein ae nicreto ratte cls role Sateioe sratoieiesete 20 1.85 62.06 1.72,
14) ims atubands.. 22. -c.. SERS poh ope tear ff 1.68 60.35 .97
SAEs | ees EAU aT ARE TCC =e ase ioia akc vctert arereletecsteleleveleseim: efo ues 14 ab zl 62.80 1.24
BEET) er oeeh ee tame ES Nog gh Oe 2 2.25 61.58 1.61

MG eal WaeubTIe (CD) tne on eerie erceinmistne cee cease mee 22 1.47 57 89 1251
eS D)ercnecteooctere cieaeioe cic iaisiels atiae ia oe cba sare 9 1.8: 60.90 98
Me NG) heeecc ortin wale ene eee coe stewie 9 1.65 58.96 1.20
7d MONASTIR Stas CC) ge mtele eet eterovs atstaiels riekeiaccrs AUT 15 1.43 52.89 1.96
ir Dy) bart oie Seis ee eee casera sie cate chem kee 10 172 62.73 1.71
ef (Qe OAD oUaA DOdeoos 11 1.58 60.57 1.28
isee\| Ven Voyegef VEN (Nel Bese Logee ot aaa. cuonHe acdneues a 18 1.40 57.54 1.35
=f Ua) ae Stet g POC er io ttle soe Acre eres 18 1.35 57.86 1.44
| Ubi alikoy dor kok Rater cosmo data anoceeoauouGode 5 4 95 59.93 1.84
2OPa| Vite wor pM etre attests tNes eleipe se ielats stele 3 1.05 62.08 1.34
DAM NVILEGE CA RICA ioe Seicitiac sie cielo caresieeaies tie sree 15 1.38 56 79 1.28
22> | ENV NIbe Ween OGbes as 2 eeits esis sce cine e loie'a 8 1.46 62.69 1.23
OSPUISAVES haa weet em et ee trent 6.c s.cicie'sse ee eit ae aly) 1.25 58.93 2.38
PASNEW EW AULLCUY) (Ss UULIEN PD) ai-)ofo)-tois's = ole) e\eleleralelelers tote 15 95 57.03 1.24
WN) AUR vu bias Mei) {ote pan Sen OMG Sane OOOU Eee Cee 22 .80 5F 53 1.15
DG Nc waVeBlety: (Eset Olls) Soc clioe sian cilnciielares- 21 se 59 95 Lay,
Dyas hea de n(les sey 5s hy eee AO Se RSC oDADaa se 23 97 57.03 1.85
COMP EL ON PMC CLO Yate erste telale lee alalelainta/aleiniete atelier 2 iC itz 64.82 1.58.
DOE ERE CSO LOE O mee meteieinels siaec\s wielacslsisninrepiziawi eye 3 18 1.41 57 67 1.45
Bi Se\ | BRCM Slopded Woy (09)? cig Ac oeatapebomoeaasone ose se 12 92 61.54 .97
ee & 2) ESS Os SAE CAR OPIS SORE LO Cae 1 1.28 65.75 1.15
Bak ol A Gah aled sit e Evel opts bie ais Nace = peor sion os 8 1.64 60 43 84
BAA sits oles (28 tye al bBo Ge Re ae nogadosoasa aanee 18 ibsayl 55.56 59
Ries) P khan iach ee we AAs oanomonpoSe ey abdae DEES Sonar. 26 76 3.69 1.92
Be Crithed WOES Soo Sooo) DERN GOD JOOTOA GE DeT CRS au or 21 .99 61.30 1.26
SHsal Wt LADCTIANES soe ete oe cien6 «aie ee esas an eutore 54 .82 56.11 1.25.
7a INE Win il Oly A (UEC) eter ctorrte ais eale nace ste cinicies 19 1.28 56.07 1.28
BShaleNew =Wallety CMVASWELL) jascc 2s <0 fis o- alee ote 19 1.02 56.79 1.54
39) S| eCOhines ell pHeEeh ey Ss os bse os ces sess ceil 21 1.06 53.48 1.16.
AGhe| New Variety (Bradiord) 7.5... 72s2see.sn-er 5 1.50 55.36 1.91

COMPARISON OF SORGHUMS FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 1095

After Seed was Hard.

"ep Y fe eae

Le he = ; ao On,
Fda stir BEC igs ian MOU ch ene Mie
2s Pa eek oes =e Coa: og oS OF:
ae = eS i a8 se FES) ze fS +=
= Os eo .os8 52155 os os Sa rs]
~2 erase Pate lace [aie S | ggo | Bs BS aS
3g Sg O25 25 sa | Bee | Se Be 5m
ae ae) eos D Pa Ay ae = 4 ss
9.63 2.87 4.48 1067 > \ile-.t 7) ee 3% 14% 9.3
9.13 3.80 4.62 1060 8.12 81 3% 14% 9.3
6.25 2.97 91 TD eee ss 314 1334
8.93 3.85 4.33 1060 8.15 97 4 16 9.6
9.45 3.94 4.67 1061 10.30 97 4 1234 9.6
9.79 3.84 5.3 1062 9.88 90 5M 13 94
8.97 463 3.04 1060 9.46 104 3% 14 10.0
8.56 4.07 3.65 1055 8.69 117 4% 15 9.6
9 64 1.95 5.76 1058 ce tl aA ne 4 19 0 eee
10.63 2 34 7.19 1061 10.96 4 1 As ca ete
13.64 3 29 9.52 1077 3.57 124 5% 13 9.6
11.98 2.78 §.02 1067 12.05 100 3 1434 9.6
5.97 3.20 1.72 1039 5.33 116 4 334 5.6
13.45 3.10 9.47 1074 13.41 116 21 103g 8.6
6.49 2 31 2 88 1042 6.52 136 41 814 7.0
9.77 2.37 4.91 1061 9.58 115 33%; 13% 11.4
11.05 2 54 7.50 1064 10.95 136 91, 8 8.0
11.16 2.51 6.93 1065 10.94 143 54g 11% 8.2
4.52 2 67 (88 1043 4.94 115 Au 8 70
11.82 271 7.87 1069 11.54 124 3 1534 9.0
12.57 2.03 $94 1069 12.31 143 1 9 83
12.09 2 66 7.92 1069 11.75 124 3 10 8.10
13.59 3.07 954 1075 13.68 143 5 8 6.1
10 85 2 68 6.97 TE oe A dae 5 114g 78
10.11 2 06 6.09 1062 9.32 143 24 1034 9.2
9 86 2 67 5.48 1059 8.50 136 5 14 10.6
11.70 2.47 7.95 1066 11.52 0). 748 4 8 7.)
12.44 2 81 8 28 1071 1163 | 129 6 13 8.9
12 99 2 64 8.91 1070 12.22 | 399 3 Th 7.4
11.99 ih 8201 1065 10.58! | 315 334 9.2
11.81 2.89 758 1069 12.01 | 107 3 8 8.1
11 62 2.92 7.42 1068 7)! a5 4 103, 9.6
11.58 3.14 7.21 1067 12.02 115 3 9 10.3
211654 2.61 6.35 1073 10.93 | 115 3 9 8.6
ey. | 3.22 7.41 1067 12.01 | 100 1% 9 9.2
13.08 2.97 8.96 1073 12.72 107 2 10 9.0
10.53 3.10 6.26 1063 10.99 100 1% 10 9.6
11.52 2.38 7.29 1065 11.24 115 134 10 9.4
11.07 2.19 7.3 1062 10.68 107 13; 9 3.4
12.27 2.91 7.91 1071 12.02 131 2 8 9.2
11.11 3.15 6.99 1065 11.21 110 3 11 7.6
11.70 254 8.01 1063 11.58 110 3% 8 8.0
14.21 3.10 10.27 1075 14.24 13 3 13 93
14.25 3.17 10.49 1076 14.35 129 3 12 98
13.11 2.86 8.33 1075 12.99 100 3 7 7.3
12 01 2.91 7.84 1068 11.68 107 3% 8% 8.0
12.40 2.96 8.19 1070 11.94 100 1% 11 9.0
13.60 3.00 9.32 1076 13.67 104 2 10 97
11.46 3.03 6.89 1066 11.19 95 314 9% 9.6
13.49 3.12 9.21 1076 13.37 97 3 12 10.3
9.97 2.43 5.63 1060 9.66 124 4¥ 13 8.6

106 SORGHUM.

Character of the Varieties of Sorghum as to Habits of Suckering.

Owing to the importance of having a uniform crop of cane without
any admixture of immature stalks, for the purpose of sugar produc-
tion, observations were made in the field upon the several varieties of
sorghum under cultivation in 1882 for the purpose of determining
their character in respect to throwing up suckers from the roots and
offshoots from the parent stalk.

The following different classes appeared pretty well defined; but it
often happened that one variety would have the characteristics of two
or more classes:

First class.—A single stalk from the seed, without suckers from be-
low or offshoots from the stalk.

Second class.—Two or more stalks from the seed, maturing with
equal rapidity, and without suckers or offshoots.

Third class:—A single stalk from the seed, with no suckers from
the roots; but with offshoots from the upper joints of the parent
stalk.

Fourth class.—A single stalk from the seed, without offshoots; but
with suckers springing up from the roots, and ASL much later
than the original stalk.

Fifth class.—A single stalk from the seed, with no suckers from the
roots; but with offshoots from every joint of the parent stalk.

It will, I think, be obvious that, other things being equal, the sey-
eral varieties of sorghum will, for the purpose of sugar production, be
valuable according as they belong to the above classes in their order,
viz, those of the first or second class most valuable; those belonging to
the third next, and so in order.

It was generally found, however, that each variety belonged to two or
more of the above classes; and below is given the results of observa-
tions upon fifty-two varieties, October 14th, one hundred and forty-
three days after planting, see page 121:

Class 1.—Nos. 8b, 10, 11, 16c, 17e.

Class 3.—Nos. 3b, 7, 8a, 12, 14, 16a, 16), 18a, 21, 22, 25, 28, 29a,
29b, 33, 85, 37, 39, 40D.

Class 5.—Nos. 2, da, 4,5, 6, 34:

Classes 1 and 2.—Nos. a 15a.

Classes 2 and 3.—Nos. 9a, 9c, 13, 17a, 17b, 19, 23, 30.

Classes 2 and 4.—No. 1.

Classes 3 and 4.—Nos. 20, 24, 26, 27, 32, 36, 38, 40a.

Classes 3 and 5.—No. 31.

Classes 1, 3, and 4.—No. 18.

COMPARISON OF SORGHUMS FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 107

Nos. 1 to 6, inclusive, were Chinese; Nos. 7 to 19, African; Nos.
29 and 30, Indian; and the remainder from the United States.

It will of course be understood that the above classification is only
relative; and upon other soils, and in different conditions than those
which prevailed with the plat upon which the above varieties were
grown, these sorghums would pass from one to another of the classes.

This classification, however, will show the relative tendency of these
varieties under conditions which were for each the same; and for any’
soil or any climate the choice would be fully justified of only such
varieties as stood near the head in the above classification. Of course
the relative weight of crop of each variety, its time for maturing, and
its relative content of sugar, are also to be taken into consideration
in selecting the variety best adapted to any given locality.

108 SORGHUM.

CHAPTER V.

(a.) Selection and preparation of ground, planting, and cultivation.
(b.) Selection and preparation of seed.

(c.) Time, from planting, to reach certain stages of development.
(d.) Time for harvesting crop.

(e.) Importance of an even crop.

(f.) Effect of removing seed, etc.

(g.) Effect of stripping cane.

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF GROUND, PLANTING, AND CULTI-
VATION.

In general, the sorghum crop, in its demands upon the soil and eli-
mate, and in its method of planting and cultivation, very closely re-
sembles Indian corn (Zea mais), with which every one is practically
familiar. But this general statement demands modification. During
the earlier stages in the life of the sorghum, the plant is feeble, and
liable to be easily choked by weeds. Although the resemblance in its
culture is so close to that of maize, and the expense generally regarded
as about the same per acre, it is to be remembered that it is a crop
which, for seed, forage, sugar, and syrup combined, far surpasses maize
in value, and that any increase in'the aggregate value of these prod-
ucts (which may be secured by greater care in the preparation of the
soil and cultivation of the crop), will be fully justified by the economi-
cal results.

It is, of course, hardly possible to lay down directions as to each de-
tail of cultivation applicable to every soil and locality; but, in gen-
eral, such soil and such culture as would secure a good corn crop will
suffice.

Like maize sorghum requires, for its best development, heat and
light; but, unlike maize, it is found to successfully withstand even
prolonged drought, provided only that it shall have secured a fair start:
and, in fact, the maximum of sugar has been found, in every variety
of sorghum under examination, to have been developed during a season
of drought (that of 1881) so severe that the crops of maize, in the same
section, were almost a complete failure.

This subject will be considered in another part of this volume in
detail.

For the growing of sorghum, then, good corn land should be selected,

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF GROUND, ETC. 109

with a warm exposure; and the crop, if in drills, should be planted
with them generally running east and west, so that the fullest access
of sun and heat may be secured.

If practicable, the field should be chosen so as to be sheltered from
heavy winds, which, by prostrating the crop, increase greatly the ex-
pense of harvesting, and injure its quality.

The character of soil and fertilization necessary, will be the subject
of a special chapter.

Preparation of the Soil.

Having selected the field, the aim should be to put it in a condition
of perfect tilth, more like a garden than a field, by continual cultiva-
ation, effectually destroying weeds, and thoroughly pulverizing the
soil, so that subsequent cultivation is rendered easy and rapid.

To this end it should be constantly remembered, that any additional
labor at the outset, in preparing the soil for the crop, saves more than
its equivalent in after cultivation, and greatly increases the value of
the crop. The main points are, first, to see that the weeds shall not
be allowed to get the start of the crop; and it is, therefore, to be ad-
vised strongly to run a cultivator over the ground, and drag and re-
diag the ground within a day of the time of planting, so that no weeds
shall have even a day's start of the crop. Next to secure at the outset
a good, even stand of cane, and avoid any occasion for replanting: not
so much on account of the trouble and additional expense, as that, by
replanting, it is impossible to have all the crop come to maturity at the
same time—a matter of the utmost importance in the production of
sugar.

Owing to the importance of having a field free from weeds, it would
be well to have sorghum follow some hoed crop (as corn, potatoes, or
tobacco); or, if such land is not available, to secure the destruction of

_ the weeds by fall piowing and continuous working of the land until

ready to put in the seed.

By deep fall plowing a deep tilth is secured, favorable to the full
development of the roots of sorghum, and assists it to withstand drought ;
also, it will tend to destroy, through winter freezing, those weeds which
may give trouble in the spring. Especially is this treatment necessary
upon new land. In the spring, after having thoroughly broken up the
ground by deep plowing, the drag, roller, or smoothing harrow, should
be used, after the ground is warm, until the soil is suitable for a
garden, free from weeds, lumps, and litter, smooth, and ready for
planting.

110 SORGHUM.

Time for Planting.

The time for planting will, of course, depend upon the locality.
The main thing desired, is that an even, uniform stand shall be se-
cured at the first planting, free from weeds as possible.

Since the weeds and foul seeds are always ready to start so soon as
the warmth is sufficient for germination, it is well to defer planting until
the growth, fairly begun, shall be stopped by the cultivator and har-
row, and the weeds destroyed.

By so doing the ground is made warm as well as clean. Nothing
is gained, and there is great risk, in planting too early. Asa rule, the
planting is to be done only at the time when the ground is so warm
and moist that the germination of the seeds shall proceed at once with-
out interruption. If planted at such time, the plants will make their
appearance within three or four days.

The testimony is almost universal, that the latest planting has se-
cured the best crop, and required the least care in its production.

By late planting, the crop has a better chance with the weeds, and
by proper cultivation for the first month, will quite overshadow and
destroy them.

Amount of Seed for Planting.

The number of seed, of course, varies with the kind, and with the
different lots of the same variety, but averages about 25,000 to the
pound.

Professor Henry found 27,680 seed of the Early Amber; and I found
in one specimen from Virginia, 19,000; and in another from Minne-
sota, 31,800 seed to the pound. Owing to the extreme importance of
securing a good stand of cane at first planting, it is always best to
plant two or three times as much seed as will be necessary in case it
all grows. By this means, of course, in most cases, it will be neces-
sary to thin out the plants, which involves little work, as it may be —
speedily effected by the hoe, so soon as the cane is about five or six
inches high. In the event of failure more or less complete to secure a
good stand, the choice is presented of either replanting the whole, if
there remains time, or to make the best of such as may have started.
In this latter case most persons will be greatly surprised to find how
large the crop is at the harvest. In any event, do not plant in the
vacant spaces of the field, unless the object is only the production of
syrup from the crop. For sugar, this second planting would practi-
cally be worse than useless.

Two quarts of seed, if fairly distributed, wouid be quite enough to
the acre; and if all the seed was good, there would be need even then
of thinning out the crop: but, as equal distribution of so small an

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF GROUND, ETC. 111

amount of seed is practically impossible, it is better to plant at least
three or four quarts to the acre, with the: expectation of thinning out
at the proper time.

Method of Planting.

Having thoroughly prepared the ground, the planting may be done
in drills or in hills, as in each locality may have been found to give
with corn the best results. Of course, no general rule will apply; for
not only is there a difference in the soils, but also in the several vari-
eties of sorghum. Of those who advocate planting in hills, some de-
clare that the crop is thus better able to stand up in the wind—a most
desirable result; also that, by an opportunity for cross cultivation, the
weeds are more readily kept down.

The several methods of planting recommended by cultivators are
given below, and for the convenience of those who may wish to know
the number of stalks to the acre, and estimate the weight of crop of
the several varieties of sorghum, from the table, page 74, giving the aver-
age weight of the stripped stalks, the following table has been prepared,
giving, according to the several modes of planting, the

Number of Stalks per Acre.

In drills 4 feet apart, ead 3 stalks to the foot = 32,670

S ae ott 3 ‘© == 36,300

ds 52 Bip ee a “ “« = 24,200

“ 3 2 paar hy es “< = 43,560

cs 3 = ae ti “s f= 20,040

Be jig“ skeet: baad k ‘ “« = 34,090
In hills 4 feet by 4 feet spark, and 6 stalks to the hill = 16,400
ny SR 2 ae « poy = EE oe
oy Eo (2 tt - SS: 24 895
Sy 3 “Ea £¢ oa vk 7) =o Te
ss 3 pi hoe ES * 74 ES ae ep ooo
“ 3 ere se a! x © = 2a a
ca 4 eae. - sili = sf == 21780
ce S18 ff 1h. sy . SS ee ee

Upon good, strong land the cane may be planted in drills three feet
apart, with stalks only four inches apart in the drill, giving 43,560
stalks to the acre.

{t is thought that, by close planting, the growth of weeds is more
speedily checked by being sooner overshadowed by the sorghum plants ;
also, that the growth of suckers is far less. On the other hand, the
exclusion of light and heat retards the production of sugar in the
plant; and, if the stalks are too close, their development is less, and

112 SORGHUM.

they are inclined to be long, spindling, and weak, with low content
of sugar. It is very much to be desired that careful comparative ex-
periments shall be made, to determine the relative effects of open and
close planting, since a maximum weight of stalks per acre may be at the
expense of the possible amount ofsugar, or even of syrup. Recent results
with maize give reason to believe, that, should the distance between
the drills or hills of sorghum be very much increased over that at present
given, the result would be found very satisfactory.

Marking the land may be done after the rolling, with an implement
consisting of a plank resting upon three or four ‘short runners at least
3 inches wide, so as to give a good track fixed at the proper distances ;
and great care should be exercised to have the rows as straight as pos-
sible, for the convenience of after cultivation.

The planting may be done by hand, or with the planter. The one
horse ‘*‘ Keystone Planter” is reported by Professor Henry, of Wiscon-
sin, to do perfect work, planting about an acre an hour, with the rows
four feet apart, dropping the seed regularly every ten inches, and cov-
ering it half an inch, three-fourths, or an inch as may be desired, and
at an expense of not over 25 cents per acre for planting. The ‘‘ Mound
City One Horse Corn Drill,” and the ‘‘ Union Planter,” are also said.
to give entire satisfaction. The price of the above planters is about
$18. In using them, it is necessary that the seed shall have been

em ; \ PSS
—=\ ‘i, | ff =

Plate XVI.

carefully cleaned and free from hulls. The depth to which the seed
should be covered will depend much upon the soil and its conditions
of moisture and temperature. Unless the soil is very dry, a half inch
is the proper depth; and deep planting should be carefully avoided.
The light one horse planter is much to be preferred to the two horse,
especially if the ground by thorough preparation has been mellowed,

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF GROUND, ETC. 113

since there is danger that the heavier-planter may plant the seed too
deep.
This planter is represented in Plate XVI.

Cultivation.

The main object after the planting of the sorghum, is to keep the
weeds in subjection until the crop has so far advanced as to be able to
care for itself.

It is now that the previous cultivation of hoed crops upon the field,
the fall plowing, the frequent cultivation and harrowing of the
land up to the day of planting, are seen to have been of great
value.

After planting, these last operations are continued uninterruptedly
until the plants are about two feet high. It is a common practice, a
few days after planting, to drag the field over once or twice with a
light harrow; and this is even done after the cane has made its ap-
pearance. But, if the seed was planted when the earth was thoroughly
warm and moist, and directly after a thorough cultivation, harrowing,
and rolling of the land, it will be found that the weeds will have made
no appreciable start before the cane is so well up that the hills or drills
are easily recognized, and then the work with the cultivator and the
hoe should begin, and be continued. So soon as the plants are about
six inches high, they should be thinned out, and this operation may
easily be performed with the hoe. After the plants have attained a
height of 12 or 18 inches, care should be taken to avoid deep culti-
vation, especially near the plant, in order not to disturb the rootlets of
the growing plant, which extend out near the surface. In short, the
eare of the crop, after planting, is practically identical with that of
maize, with this difference, that the young sorghum is more delicate
and requires. more attention than does maize. At the present, it

is hardly known whether hilling or flat culture is best}; but at the first ~

it is best to leave the land level, in order that the harrow may reach
the weeds. By many it is asserted that the hilling results in throwing
out of suckers, a most undesirable result, although it does not as yet
appear established as an effect of hilling.

It will probably be found, in each locality and season, that the course
to be pursued will vary with the conditions prevailing, and that neither
the one course nor the other will be found best for general appli-
cation.

In certain sections of the country, the best results have been se-
cured by what is termed ridge culture. Instead of marking, as usual,

8

114 SORGHUM.

for the planter, the land is thrown, up into ridges and the seed planted
upon these. This method is especially adapted to a wet, backward
season. On the other hand, in Southern Kansas, where there is a lack

of sufficient moisture, the opposite system, known as “listing,” is said

to give excellent results with both sorghum and maize. In this method,

by means of the listing plow (sub-soil), furrows are laid in the field
_and the seed is planted in these, where is found moist earth, and where

the roots, going deeper, are able to reach the necessary supply of
moisture.
SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF SEED.

The first thing to be considered in the production of a crop of sor-
ghum, is the selection of that variety which has been found, by actual
and continued experience, to be suited to the particular locality where
the crop is to be grown.

Since, practically, there is no difference in the demands upon the
soil which one variety makes as compared with another, the main thing
is to select that variety which in the given locality will mature long
enough before frost occurs to enable the crop to be worked up.

By consulting the tables on pages 121 and 122, it will be seen that
the period from planting to maturity varies with the different varieties
from 90 to 170 days, and that between these limits all those cultivated
will mature their seed.

The farmer generally has a choice of several varieties, all sufficiently
early for his climate and locality; and, in such case, it is desirable to
make actual test of several, in order to learn which he had _ best
adopt.

Owing to exposure, the crop may be liable to be prostrated by heavy
winds, in which case those varieties best able to withstand such storms
are much to be preferred. A short, heavy stalk, with a relatively
small panicle, is then to be chosen, and reference to the table upon page
74 will be a guide in such selection.

More frequently it may happen that, owing to the length 2 season
in certain localities, several varieties may be planted, which, by reach-
ing maturity in succession, will enable the farmer not only to secure
his crop of seed from each, but to prolong his season for working up
the crop for sugar, having each crop ready for the mill when it has
reached its best condition. For example, one might select the follow-
ing varieties: Early Amber, Link’s Hybrid, Early Orange, Liberian,
and Honduras, the number of days required from planting to matur-
ity being, respectively, 90, 105, 116, 130, and 140; or, for the Early
Amber, the White Liberian, and for the Early Orange, the White

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF SEED. 115

Mammoth could be substituted. All the above are among the best of
our varieties.

Other things being equal, it is glesirable that those varieties be se-
lected which shall give the heaviest crop, since, if worked at their
best, the amount of sugar or syrup produced is proportioned to the
weight of the cane; and, by reference to the tables on pages 74 and
75, it will be seen that, generally, the weight of the crop is nearly pro-
portioned to the time necessary for it to mature. For example, we
find the average weight of the stalks, of the above varieties, as cut
in the field, and after stripping, to be as follows:

Average weight of Average weight of

stalks as cut. stripped stalks.
arly Amber: >.<: .--.<- 1.39 pounds. -96 pounds.
Link’s Hybrid .-....-.-- 190) «* gL S50) ae
Barly Orange.. /--.-<--=- a es t 7 Mit as
Saherian <-25-2°45.6 ae pte tela i Ws
Hiond@ursis-. 0 ys: 52-5 -5-- ys” SEES p ALE oie

A field, then, which would produce a crop of ten tons of Early Am-
ber stripped stalks, would produce over twenty tons of Honduras
stripped stalks. But the advantage of a prolonged season for working
up the crop would prove so great that the difference in yield of crop
would be more than compensated.

The Choice of Seed.

Having selected the proper variety for cultivation, the selection and
testing of the seed is of first importance.

It is by many urged that, for cultivation in any northern locality,
seed should be obtained further south ; not that earlier maturity is thus
secured, but a heavier crop. It being asserted, as the result of experi-
ence, that, after two years’ planting, there was a marked falling off in
the weight of the crop. The general opinion prevailing among those
who hold to this view, is seen in the following from the proceedings of
the Minnesota Cane Grower's Association :

The weight of opinion was decidedly in favor of seed brought from the lati-
tude of St. Louis. Some cane growers had sent their seed to Missouri and
Kansas, to have a crop grown and its seed returned. Among the decisive facts
reported, Mr. Miller stated that his seed, imported from Southern Indiana 11
years before, had produced, on its first sowing, stalks from 12 to 15 feet high ; but,
by planting the seeds of each crop, its successors showed a declining height of
cane, util it grew but 7 or 8 feet high. Mr. Wylie had averaged, with seed
brought from the South, 273 gallons per acre; the following year, using his own
seed, he obtained but 223 gallons, a falling off of 50 gallons. The president of
the convention had found, as a general thing, that the deterioration of seed was

116 ; SORGHUM.

not very marked till the third year. The southern seed did not excel so much
in an earlier ripening of the crop as in its increased product, the excess, in some
cases, amounting to one-third. The sentiment of the convention was expressed
in the following resolution: 3

Resolved, That Early Amber cane seed, grown in the latitude of St. Louis, is.
the best seed for Minnesota for two years.

If every statement in the above be accepted withont question, the
conclusion expressed in the “ resolution” appears by no means estab-
lished, since we might expect a falling off in crop, as with Mr. Miller,
if the sorghum was continuously grown upon the same land, and espe-
cially as nothing is said about any means for keeping up the fertility
of the soil. :

In the case observed by Mr. Wylie, a difference of less than 20 per
cent in the product, and that but for a single year, is a result which,
in one place or another, is experienced every season with all our crops;
and often, as in 1881, over nearly the whole country, and with almost:
every crop grown. Such differences are readily explained upon other
grounds.

In a matter of so great moment as this—the proper selection of seed—
it is most unfortunate that such questions are settled by ‘ resolution,”
rather than by careful experiments. Hasty generalizations are the
bane of science; and the history of this sorghum industry during the
past thirty years, well illustrates the fact, that the extent of our
knowledge is not always measured by the amount of our experi-
ence.

In connection with this matter, the following results with seed of ap-
parently the same varieties, grown in all parts of the country,
planted the same day and upon the same plat of ground, are of in-
terest.

Variety Honduras (planted May 6th, 1880, at Washington, D. C.).

: x ‘ae mes Days to '|Average weight.
Source of seed. Local name. | May 11th. | May 14th. maturity. | stripped stalks.
South Carolina......|Mastodon .....| Few up. All up. 128 1.99 pounds.
Louisiana. Honey Cane... FS is 133 2.24 ss
Maryland.... Honduras..... fe ie 148 1.24 ss
TNIGY) of: 8 00 Wate nea ae Sprangle Top. All up. gs 153 1.87 &
Tennessee Honduras..... More up. ie 157 2.11 es
IMTSSOUN © i200). yee =r Honey Top....} Few up. J 163 214" Sas
PLO AS ehh petite eee Honduras.... ¢ id 164 2.16 4

_— ~~ =r

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF SEED. 117

Variety Liberian.

Souree of seed. | Local naine. | May 11th. | May utn.| Daysto, [Average weight

'
Mennessee. =.=... poaeeens = a<2.| Few up.

|

All up. 17 ' 1.77 pounds.
oT ae Liberian . : * 131 1.88

2 ee hs eee Rt Se A | wise : ‘ “ 134 135 ‘
PRE = 2 = 2+: - iChinese. % a 137 1.36 :
Alabama...... . =4-¢ | SUMRE? <2. S 2 152 1.64 <
South Carolina... --|Imphee ..-....- } Allup: | < | ie ie
Alabama...... .---. |Sumac..--. at Few up. “ ) 168 if - i>
Variety Early Amber.

May 1th. Days to | Average weight

Source of seed. | Local poeew | May llth. maturity. | stripped stalks.

Virginia -.-. ...- - Early Amber. - | All up.

}
| :
} All up. 77 10% poonds.
CS a, ee eee ’ « es Le
Minnesota. ----.--.-- |} “© Golden.. “ : « 30 10° a
LTT ae Golden Syrup..| Few up. |. rs) j 87 | 10 «
: SS) i 39” = *e

eee |Early Amber | Allup. | a

From the above it would appear, that there was no difference notice-
ably due to the locality whence the seed was obtained, either in the
rapidity of germination, in the weight of the crop produced, or in the
time required for maturity.

In this last particular, there is a great difference, as, for example,
in those varieties classed as Liberian and Honduras: but it will be ob-
served, the specimen of Liberian requiring most time to reach maturity
came from Alabama; the specimen of Honduras which required the
longest time to mature came from Texas; and the specimen from Mis-
souri was practically identical, not oyly in this respect, but in weight
of crop. ;

The Testing of Seed.

Owing to the fact that, through lack of care in the harvesting and
curing of the seed, its vitality may be destroyed, it is a precaution
which should never be omitted by the farmer, that he should,
shortly before the time for planting, make a careful test of his seed, in
order to determine its vitality ; otherwise, he may find, when it is too
late, that his fields require replanting, the season being too short to
permit this with any assurance of a mature crop of cane.

In order to test the seed, it is only necessary to take a shallow box,
with a cover (an empty blacking-box will do, but it should be carefully
washed clean); the box should be half filled with clean sand—not
earth nor gravel, but sand—and this sand should be saturated with

118 SORGHUM.

water; then allowing the excess of water to escape by inclining the
box. Into the box, an average sample of 100 seed should be dropped
upon the moist sand; and, being covered, it may stand in a moder-
ately warm room, at about 70° F. Every day, the cover should be
removed, and after from three to five days, those seed which retain
their vitality will have germinated, and may be counted. By this
means, one may easily learn the per cent of vitality of his seed, and
it will be found that fairly good seed will give at least 90 out

of 100.

Of course, if the percentage is less, a proportionally larger amount
of seed must be used in planting. Owing to the importance of secur-
ing at the start a uniform stand of cane, and to avoid the danger of
re-planting, as well as expense, it would be well, in every case, to du-
plicate the test of the seed, to be assured against failure from poor
seed.

The Preparation of Seed for Planting.

According to the testimony of many, the plants will come forward
more rapidly if the seed is soaked in lukewarm water for twenty-four hours
before planting—and, indeed, it has been advised by some to sprout the
seed before planting; but even the advocates of either soaking or
sprouting seed admit that there is risk of losing the seed, if the ground
should, at planting, prove too cold or too dry.

By reference to the tables just given, it will be seen that, of all the
varieties planted, and of the seed received from so many sources, there
was not one which was not fully up within a week after planting; and
the same was true of all the forty-eight varieties planted at that time.

If properly planted, and with the ground in good condition, it is
questionable whether there is arly gain in soaking or sprouting the
seed, while there is far more danger of losing it if the weather is un-
favorable.

It may happen that the seed is liable to be destroyed by wire-worms,
as was the case in one of the fields of the Department of Agriculture,
at Washington; and, in this case, a stand was only at last seeured by
rolling the seed, first in coal tar, and afterward in plaster (gypsum)
powder. Whether this remedy was efficacious can hardly be affirmed,
since it may have been, that, by the time of this planting, the worms
were either dead or had secured other subsistence.

It would appear best to plant the seed in its ordinary condition, and,
in case the ground is very dry, but warm, to plant a little deeper than
usual, and to take care to press the earth firmly about the seed, with
roller, hoe, or foot.

TIME FROM PLANTING REQUIRED, ETC. 119

TIME FROM PLANTING REQUIRED BY THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF SOR-
GHUM TO REACH CERTAIN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT.

The following table will give the number of days required by 31
American varieties, and 3 received from France, to reach certain stages
of development. This table can be only regarded as relatively true
for the several varieties as the season of 1881 was in Washington
(where these were grown), one of almost unprecedented drought, as
will be seen by reference to tables giving the meteorological data for
the several years of experiment, the results of which are largely re-
corded in this volume.

For the purpose of accurately recording the observations in the field
from day to day, the following list of stages was made out:

Stage. : Development of Plant.

About one week before opening of panicle.
Immediately before opening of panicle.
Panicle just appearing.

Panicie two-thirds out.

Panicle entirely out; no stem above upper leaf.
Panicle beginning to bloom on top,
Flowers all out; stamens beginning to drop.
Seed well set.

Seed entering the milky state.

10 | Seed becoming doughy.

11 | Seed donghy, becoming dry.

12 | Seed almosi dry, easily crushed.

13 | Seed dry, easily split.

14 | Sucker in bloom.

15 | Sucker seed in milk.

16 | Su2zker seed in dough.

17 | Sucker seed hard.

18 | After sucker seed hard.

WODNIMUNP wre

By the sucker in this case, is meant the offshoot from the upper joints
of the parent stalk upon which, if the season permits, panicles will
mature. It will be seen, by consulting the table, that the Honduras
variety was a month later than the Early Amber in showing its pani-
cle, and that before the Honduras was in bloom the Early Amber was
quite ripe.

120 SORGHUM.

DEVELOPMENT OF SORGHUM — DAYS AFTER PLANTING—SEASON OF 188], art
WASHINGTON, D. C.

> : =

g" 2 HEIGHT. ;

@ 8 high dee

Bue We eee ly,

oh Poh eae eS

o,6/2 2 a - S| 544 n S

Peal ies a | 2) 844 ays | 69 days | 88 days | 108 days

= Sl3e) S| gigi after after after after

EZIS=e| =} S|] } |planting.|planting.|planting.|planting.

co] ont [= 3) oO 7]

= ou KB (7s) Weal oan Wee}

; Feet. In. | Feet. In.-| Feet .In,.| Feet. In.

Barly Amber. 4. .-.:.- 72|..77| 82) 90) 97) 105 2.9 5.3 8.0 9.0
Barly Golden... 322.262. 70| 76) 82) 90) 97| 105 3.4 5.9 '8.8 8.9
White Liberian....:... 70| 76} 82) 90} 97] 105 3.2 6.3 8 6 8.6
BIgGiky TOD yon cec en oe 72) 77| 80) 82)’ 92) 105 3.0 5.10 6.0 6.6
SATTUGRM Mean ues eat ee 72| 7a| 81}, 87). 97] 108 2.8 By Py 6.0 8.0
White Mammoth..... 77| 85} 105) 115} 131] 139 20 4.6 80 979
OomiseGanay. ere 72} 76) 82) 87) 97| 109 2.6 5.8 8.0 8.0
Regular Sorgho....... 72! 77) 82: 87] 97] 109 2.9 6.2 9.6 9.6
Link's Hybrid......... 87; 92} 97] 103} 109} 118 ee? 5.6 9.6 11-2
SUgaraC ale sitet. aro $2} 87} 92] 102} 107) 112 2ko 5.6 9.6 11.0
Goose Neck. 7.2 se) eel) VOI 19} oe) 90) 1O2n 112 2.6 5.10 9.0 9.6
Beare Lailir.. ssc ester 72) 75| 77) +82) 102) 109 2.9 6.4 8.6 9.0
Iowa Red Top Sale| 02) eT Oo np oe LOD Og 2.8 5.10 8.0 9.0
New Var., Stump’s..... 72| 75} 79) 82) 92).105 2.6 5.8 9.0 9.6
Early Orange.........:. 82} 90) 97] 105) 112) 122 2.0 4.6 8.3 9.3
Orange Cane. i... atin: 80} 85} 92) 102] 112} 118 2.4 4.8 8.4 9.0
INGE A ZAMS Ecotec cee. il, (S282. Op he 2.8 5.2 7.6 7.9
Wo lean tae eo ates, 92; 102] 105 ; 2.3 5.2 8.6 11.0
Gravelophas- (ace sacrns 97| 102) 107) .. 1.9 4.2 7.3 9.0
WU DEDTAN st teen ence eee 92} 102] 108) 112 1.9 44 7.6 9.6
IMaistod One ess seems. 92} 102} 109).. 2.4 4.8 8.6 11.0
Ue loreVS OSES) Ga nwo cantod 102; 109 Be: 1.10 4.0 7.6 11.0
DULPAL-CaANe Lis s2ce2 A.) sor 72| 76] 80) 87| 97} 105 2.6 4.10 7.0 7.6
Hybrid, Wallis.........] 72] 77| 82! 90) 102) 112 2.6 5.10 O20) 9.0
White Imphee......... 82] 90} 97} 109 1.8 4.0 7.10 8.6
GOGSEINCCk tas see... 82! 87] 92) 102] 112 LEG: 4.2 8.6 9.0
Wihite sAtirican. 22.5... 75) 79) 82) 90} 97} 105 2.3 5.0 8.0 8.6
WiestrinGiaie sc.-cn. 4. 95) 102) 107) 112] .. 1.8 4.4 7.0 8.6
Sugar Cane... eeepc | fae An wv ZCAl Weiecor2. umes 2.6 5.4 7.0 7.6
Hybrid Lib. & Oom EAN CHAN cP ee 2.0 4.8 6.3 6.6
Holeus Saccharatus...| 82} 92) 102} 112 2.3 5.4 8.6 10.0
Holeus Sorghum... 80) 85) 92). cess. 3.0 5 6 10.6 11.0
Holeus Cernus........ 87| 93] 99] 112 2.8 50 9.3 96
Honey Cane ....... _..} 102} 107]. 112 20 4.8 86 | 12.0

The following table is similar to the last, and gives the time required
to reach certain stages of development by several new varieties received
from China, Africa, and India, for purpose: of comparison with sey-
eral American varieties. These results were secured in Washington, in
1882, and these results are to be compared fairly with only those obtained
the same season, since, as will be seen upon page 147, the climatic con-
ditions of 1881 varied greatly from those prevailing in 1882. This
matter will be again discussed.

TIME, FROM PLANTING, TO REACH CERTAIN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT.

The following table gives the number of days, after planting, re-
quired by the several varieties to reach certain stages of development.

TIME FROM PLANTING REQUIRED, ETC. | 121

» This table can be regarded as only relatively true, for these varieties,
during the season of 1882, which season was remarkable for an
unusual rain-fall during the summer months, thus retarding the devel-
opment of the plants, probably, beyond the period they would require
under ordinary conditions of climate.

A reference to the meteorological data of this year, as compared with
1881, will make the difference in the two years manifest:

>»

TIME, FROM PLANTING, TO REACH CERTAIN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT.

!
ab | 9° ° ° ° °
a ~— z ~ ~ ~- ~
at | eee ee ep be e
ES uli Sees a4 | 82 | 3
o Fa es fey ars ao
3 VARIETY. 2 | gs se 8 ge ee
. He | BS | Sea) ese r ecole
5 Sas au | e2 am =a an
oe a A \.2 A A A
a |
la | Yellow Cap Glutinous.......... 93 74 OF SSA oss Neceey ete lev acse
1b or ke ee ght hit Oe PS, A aes 5 | eres Fy (SRR 1 hog Goel
2 | Separated Head-Stalks Red.:.......| . 9.3 7 53 60 7. 81
3a} Separated Head Stalks White 9.6 7 67 77 88 97
36 ag =< st ards Og te 9G, 1S oh eicerate, LeE toads gee Se 7
4 | Second Autumn Red............... 9.4 67 60 74 81 90
5 Horse Tail Glutinous.. ..:. ....... 10.0 86 72 79 90 104
6 | Laree People’s Bed: 2.22... 2... .: 96 74 7 88 95 117
7 Undlendebwless:- $5.47: 2tiaii.- 96 93 90 107 115 124
SALA UEST Oy OC Gas een See 96 93 79 86 93 100
8b So VaR AS See a6 ! 93 86 100 107 116
9a | Jyangentombi........... ~SeS3t S3cce 86 | 86 93 107 110 116
9b E F. i : 3 86 | 100 114 136
9¢e Bo a a ee Se S30 entes ay Snes
SERV ah a fe ee ee ee ape Na :
11 ELC ee ae eh One oe Re ee 11.4 100 97 107 111 115
[boy AC EYOT Ce (2 Yo: We ie eee eae 8.0 100 86 93 124 | 136
13 WED G VAM oe eA aris blanch ten oh eee ect 8.2 109 1007 fee 124 143
Hee Neat DANGAS..). 22 oo. sco es. 7.0 100 86 100 107 115
Meweel I DELAMIES vee cia = se bene oso cc cee. suites 9.0 93 93 107 115 124
15b RN Ore Hic cic ete wrcc.coee ase 8.3 ey eee ISS Root Reowtleme ene ae
EDM MAT TAGRTUO Gomi e ccm onic’ ays cvejaiaevle olde woo as 8.10 100 93 107 115 124
16d os AR SSR SOA Sea Je eee ee 100 93 108 124 148
16e EER s feos Foden tebe seen : ” fe 100 93 108 124 143
aie UR UNG RI aoc, a = siswa Ios 2 eG 9.2 100 93 | 107 124 143
a bs Sebel sae LA Saeae ee 10 6 OO Sek 3 | 115 124 136
7c SRO Pe ore acm ene sme -ocatn wap 7.5 100 115 124 143
ABIeg TATOP ONG Gre selec sce. accel. oom oe 109 93 | 107 124 | 129
185 2s 395 Se Ome Ree ror 7 AGS AL eee | 108 124 129
19 | Unhlokonde....... Bn pe eae ed 9.2 7 yo ae 107 115
20 Mihite Timphees so i... 53255... 8.1 79 | 79 93 100 107
21 | White African. -°...-/.:. ste os ode 96 93 86 100 107 115
22 | White Mammoth........2........... 10 3 93 86} 100 107 115
23 West India anya Cape eh cigs sears 8.8 100 100 105 110 115
24 | New Variety, Stump................ 9.2 86 65 86 93 100
a UAT AIM DOP. 2 oo pecs Su cei ops 9.0 Shy os 93 100 207
264) New Variety, B.S.Coll.. .% .22.....%. 96 86 65 79 90 100
27.1 Bear Tail «~ .4s;-. Me ET 9.4 102 79 100 107 115
28° | lowa Red Top...... Mie Sete eee viewtos 8.4 86 79 93 100 107
118s [SEAN 6) oo 1 9 7.6 81 74 88 99 110
a! a 5 eee ore eee 8.0 co 1 Ee |e ae 99 110
30 | Red Sorgho...... "tg, SS ar oe SS 9.2 95 88 102 110 13
31 LETC G8 3 E70 ot Re air ge eee ae aa 9.3 93 93 107 115 130
32 | Standard. Harrall........... -:2 pees 9.8 110 93 107 124 | 129
IRC HUATIN S62 oon ns eset cde ho 1:3 86 75 86 93 100
Sab A eR) ee ee ee eae 8.0 93 79 93 100 107

122 . SORGHUM,

Time, from Planting, to Reach, etc.—Continued.

Fis ° ° ° ° °
a Ss ~- ~ _— ~
are op op Et) 2)
2 Se. |. S & = S
Sp ~~ 3 ~ S| ey
pe a) S luxe ec =
B g oe CER Been y=
) = ae A, as as Pug
5 7 & a
5 VARIETY. de. gE 5 eg ge gc gig
: a3 | £8422) Be | seas
r= ES ZB se. co) Ko}
: Ha | Bel BS (eo seo
° as a=! Bo er ay a ars
fa P=) a A A =) =
SO [ OBERT DT UAUNG SMe lp con] ce Blatohs Ai 9.0 93 65 79 90 98
36 oh Ug Bip otal dte sis ate aercles 8.8 86 72 56 93 100
Sf SWwNewe MATLELY SOIC) rt) .loc..n2ecals SOee 81 81 88 95 104
38 New Variety, Haswell....... ...... 9.6 74 67 81 88 95
Sos |POninese: TMpPHGe sto c cts cie.centeoese 10.3 74 67 81 88 97
40a | New Variety, Bradford.............. 8.6 74 74 88 104 124
405 s« a A) esa ee enn a ae ie Tia nets 104 124

TIME FOR HARVESTING CROP.

When the Maximum Content of Sugar is Present in the Sorghum.

No conclusion established by the work of the Department of Agri-
culture, practically considered, is of greater importance than the pos-
itive ascertainment of that period, in the development of the several
varieties of sorghum, when their juices contain the maximum of cane
‘sugar.

Conflicting Testimony Before this Investigation.

On this point, there has existed, during the past twenty years or
more, the greatest discrepancy in statement; and the general opinion
prevailing has been very wide of the truth, as established by all these
experiments.

As evidence of the great diversity of opinion concerning this impor-
tant matter, which existed previous to the experiments at Washing-
ton, the following quotations are made from the reports of various
experimenters:

a. In his report on ‘‘ Early Amber Cane,” by Dr. C. A. Goessmann,
of Amherst, Mass., 1879, he says, page 9:

The safest way to secure the full benefit of the Early Amber Cane crop, for
syrup and sugar manufacture, is to begin cutting the canes when the seed is full
grown, yet still soft.

b. In the ‘‘Sorgho Hand-Book,” published by the Blymyer Man-
ufacturing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1880, it is directed, upon
page 8:

The cane should be cut when the seed is in the dough, and several days

TIME FROM PLANTING REQUIRED, ETC. 123

before grinding, as it will be more free from impurities, if cured for a few days
before going to the mill.

c. In a pamphlet entitled “‘Sugar Making from Sorghum,” pub-
lished by the Clough Refining Company, page 5, directions are
given to

Harvest as soon as the seeds begin to form, and before they get hard. Grind
the cane, if possible, soon after it is cut.

d. In a pamphlet entitled ‘‘The Sorgho Manufacturers’ Man-
ual,” by Jacobs Brothers, Columbus, Ohio, 1866, page 4, it is stated,
that—

The cane is in the best state for harvesting when part of the seed is begin-
ning to turn black; or, in other words, when the seed is in a doughy state. The
cane should be cut and shocked in the field, with tops on; and in this condition
it may remain several months before being worked up, for the cane matures
and forms more saccharine matter.

e. In a ‘‘ Report on the Manufacture of Sugar, Syrup, and Glucose
from Sorghum,” by Professors Weber and Scovell, of the Dlinois In-
dustrial University, 1881, page 22, they say:

The proper time to begin cutting the cane, for making sugar, is when the
seed isin the hardening dough. The cane should be worked up as soon as pos-
sible after cutting. :

f. J. Stanton Gould, in a ‘‘ Report on Sorghum Culture,” made to
the New York State Agricultural Society in 1863, page 752, says:

The seed of the cane (sorghum) continues in the dough for about a week. It
is the general impression the cane should be cut during this period, as it is then
supposed to have the greatest amount of saccharine matter; at least, this is
thought to be true of all the varieties except the White Imphee, which is usually
cut just as it is going out of the milk or just entering the dough.

g- In conclusion, we quote from Mr. Gould’s paper, as illustrating
the chaotic state in which our knowledge was prior to the work at the
Department of Agriculture. Upon page 740, he says:

These conflicting opinions might easily be reconciled by a few well-directed
experiments.

Again, he says, same page:

After the most careful inquiry, orally and by letter, 1 am unable to find that
any such experiments have ever been made.

Again, he says, page 747:

These experiments are not conclusive, and the whole question needs a care-
ful and accurate investigation.

As the result of such an investigation, we call attention to the aver-
age results of the past years, as shown in the tables given in this
volume, from which it will be seen that, during each of the past three

124 SORGHUM.

years, it has been demonstrated beyond any reasonable doubt, that the
value of the sorghum for the production of sugar increased, upon an
average of the 35 or 387 varieties. tested, fully 500 per cent, and in
many cases 1,000 per cent, after the period when, according to the
authorities cited, it was recommended that the crop should be eut up.

It will be observed, also, how completely at variance the above
quoted authorities are in reference to the subsequent treatment. of the
crop after cutting it up, the one recommending that it be stored, even
for months; the other, that it be immediately worked up. The im-
portance of this latter course of treatment can hardly be overesti-
mated, as appears from data herewith presented.

I remember, in 1881, that an Ohio farmer, who met me one day as I was
looking over my sorghum plat in Washington, and who did not know that I had
any interest in it, told me that the crop ought to have been worked up long be-
fore, for it was suffering. He also told me that he had grown sorghum for 20
years in Ohio. Now.this was during the latter,part of July, when, according
to his twenty years’ experience, he was sure that the crop was deteriorating.

Well, that plat contained some 35 varieties; and it had been daily examined

for at least two months before this, and it was examined Be for at least three -

months after the time when this farmer, with his 20 years’ experience, was con-
vinced that it was suffering.

The results of all these examinations are published, and are accessible to you
all. Ifyou examine them, you will find. that after the time when this farmer
would have it cut up, and worked it, this crop increased in the amount of avail-
able sugar at least 200 per cent.

Length of Period for’ Working Sorghums.

Reference has already been made to the very great difference exist-
ing between the different varieties of sorghum, as to the length of time
needed for them to reach maturity. It is not known that experiments
have been made to determine this difference accurately, until those
lately made at the Department of Agriculture. It has also been
shown, as already remarked, that those varieties requiring long periods
for their complete maturity, have been the varieties largely cultivated
in the Northern States during the past thirty years.

The results given in the Annual Report of the Department of Agri-
culture, page 130, Table 96, show not only the number of days from
time of planting, to complete maturity of each variety, but also the
number of days Audie which the several varieties were in a condition
for working in this latitude.

By this table, the farmer in any section of the country, may be able
to select such varieties as the nature*of his climate will give him reason
to believe may be successfully grown; or, if his season permits, he may
select several varieties, which, Coming to’ maturity in succession, will

TIME FROM PLANTING’ REQUIRED, ETC. 125.

enable him to extend his working season, and yet have his cane of each
sort in the best condition for sugar or syrup production. Planted, as
these several varieties were, side by side in the same soil, and on the
same day, the comparative results given in the table referred to are
fully trustworthy, and could have been secured in no other way.

These results are of direct practical value to the sorghum grower,
and were confirmed by the experience of 1881 and 1882.

Period for Working the Sorghums.

In the following table is given the working period for the different
varieties of sorghum, the number of analyses made during this period,
and the maximum, minimum, and average per cent of available sugar
during this period.

The average number of analyses of each variety is 15, so that these
results may be relied upon with confidence. The entire period is from
July 30th to November 17th, thus allowing 110 days in the latitude of
Washington for working up the crops, which may be so planted or
selected among the different varieties as to enable each crop to reach
its maximum value at the time of being worked up.

The average minimum of available sugar of the thirty-five varieties, is
6.44 per cent, while the average maximum is 12.51 per cent. The
average of the best half of the thirty-five varieties, during the entire
period, is 10.97 per cent, while the average of the poorer half during
the entire working period, is 8.63 percent. The average of the entire
number during their entire working period, is 9.77 per cent of avyail-
able sugar.

It will beremembered that these varieties were planted April 29th; so
ihat the length of time for each to reach the condition represented by
these averages may be readily determined, and are given in one of the
columns.

As will be seen, this period varies from 92 to 139 days, and several
of these later maturing varieties appear even in this latitude to have
failed in reaching their best condition, as will be seen in the fact that
their maximum of available sugar falls far below that of other varieties
of shorter periodsof development. In fact, many of these varieties can
not be successfully grown for sugar, perhaps, except in the Gulf States.

Owing to the fact that the amount of syrup which may be produced
from.a juice depends upon the sum of the sucrose and glucose, it is
obvious that syrup may he produced from the canes in any condition
of maturity; but even for syrup production, it will be seen by reference
to the tables of analyses of the several varieties, that the maximum of
syrup may be produced at the same period when the sorghum may be

126 ' SORGHUM.

most profitably worked for sugar, since at that time the sum of the two
sugars is also at its maximum. For the production, then, of either
sugar or syrup, it is desirable that only such varieties should be grown
in any locality as may be able to reach full maturity. ~

PERIOD FOR WORKING THE DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF SORGHUM.

a| | ate |
S| ¢ Bo) 8 | lee
m= = oan
Sales ee | ee | eee
F ees) wae aa as Pet tees
Variety. BS lee From To &p g bo Xo |. kp
Bo we 5 es 5 = ae Ais
ocd oO =
ono 5g 8 s mH
8 8 = fs 2 ae
3 =} 5 3 5 ae
Z A = =
Pr. ct. | Pr.-ct. | Pr. ct. |Days.
HarkyPA MDL ses 6 cei eio- 241 106] Aug. 3] Nov. 17 6.06} 14.62] 10.12 96
Barby Goldens 33 seca e-<- 26; 110) July 30} Nov. 17 7.06! 14.00) 10.02 92
White Libertan:..22.o.:--- 25 310} July 30 | Nov. 17 6-71| 14.77 10 41 92
oa BOP. ys taxes Ryo E 25} 110): July 30} Nov. 17 6.71 15.12} 10.61 92
IBIACEMLOP ieee tenet <tssete oo s 15 76| Aug. 15 | Oct. 30 7.70), 15:15) 2108p ee aes:
TAS TUCOTU pe erat see ee 20 85| Aug. 24 | Nov. 17 5.16} 14.00 9.82) 117
White Mammoth.......... 9 42) Aug. 29 | Oct. 10 8.46 12.51 10.60 122
MOMBCECAN Skee se =e e el ote 15 75| Aug. 16 | Oct. 30 4.37| 13.46) 10.76} 109
Regular Sorgho........... 7 18} Aug. 25 | Sept. 12 8.90} 11.76 9.78 118
ini SvRLy Ts 2 a 5 oes 21 106} Aug. 3] Nov. 17 7°39) 453i "702 96
as EN CSUR ier ee sce 23 97) Aug. 12 | Nov. 17 7.98} 14.87) 11.36) 105
SUP AACA Gr eta te ais ae ates 23} 103} Aug. 6 | Nov. 17 8.17) © 12.81 10.86 99
GooseINeCk: foo) c2c e017.) 6 16| Aug. 29 | Sept. 14 10.09 11.90), 11.34) | 122
Rear Valen 226s saz, eit 10 56| Aug. 16 | Oct. 10 7.43) 11.59 9.76| 109
Towa Rede LOpas- shee sate 3 70| Aug. 11 | Oct. 20 9.26 14.17 12 64 104
INGW Vianletyin ta2- coe be 19 92) July 30 | Oct. 30 5.63} 14.56) 11.63 92
IDA OREN Of RARE E octet: 14 72| Aug. 19 | Oet. 30 5.26 15.05) 10.73) 112
as (Oo Dai eames 19} -86] Aug. 23 | Nov. 17 6.83] 12.35 9.91 116
OrancerCameven tf... 14 71| Aug. 20 | Oct. 30 4.95} 11.44 9.56} 1138
INGHAZATID: Sesto che ae oe 20 89| Aug. 20 | Nov. 17 2.52 9.07 6.78] 113
WY OL yal 25 tie = Ue eos Nea 24 94] Aug. 15 | Nov. 17 Al 9 67; 108
Gray MODFsss=s - oe accet ue 21 90} Aug. 19 | Nov. 17 3.32 9 90 6 79 112
PD EMI A Meise he nee eer aise 7 38] Sept. 2 | Oct. 10 4.64, 11.89 8.55) 126
IMEASTOCOMN 2 oes vicieie.wisarete ate 9 41| Aug. 3 Oct. 10 3.64 11.87 8.66 123
FR ONGIUGAS HE. 6: Aeliiotcw aie 7 25| Sept, .2 | Sept. 27 1.80 8.39 6.56] 126
SUPA OCON cross Saat 11 62) Aug. 19 | Oct. 20 2.96 10.31 7.82 112
ELVpTIG WNOWAS. soo ee gets - 4 8} Aug. 26 | Sept. 3 8.85}. 10.20 9.45) 119
Wihite Munpiiee.ins -.. 10 5- 8 56} Aug. 15 | Oct. 106 8.08} 15.36] 11.90} 108
Goose Neck: 222.8 .cecsesc0 13 72| Aug.19} Oct. 30 6 78 WL, 9.29 112
Wihite African 5 .<2.2-) << 20 97} Aug. 10 | Nov. 15 4.93 12.04 8 21 103
West India Sugar Cane... 8 49) Aug. 14] Oct. 2 7.6%{— 14.10) » 10270) 07
Sugar Cane Lae 4 23| Sept. 7 | Sept. 3 (afaisrall Deak Cag 8.76] 1381
New Variety of Liberian
and Oomseeana..... ... 10 51| Aug. 8 | Sept. 28 6 81 9.84 8.30} 101
Minnesota Early Amber.. 10 53) Aug. 8 | Sept. 3 8.23) i 1217)" 10s 101
Honey Cane ..... 2 15' Sept. 15 * Sept. 3 We22, 15 7.68! 139

IMPORTANCE OF PROMPTLY WORKING THE CROP AFTER CUTTING.

To this point, also, reference has been made already. Its importance
can hardly be overstated. If departure from this rule is at any time
admissible, it is at least safe to say, that the conditions which would
warrant such departure are as yet not determined. Prompt working
of the cane so soon as cut is always safe, and any delay is fraught with
unavoidable risk of loss.

This conclusion is established, as well by the work of others as by
that of the Department of Agriculture.

TIME FOR HARVESTING CROP. 127

The following results are reported by Professors Scovell and Weber,
of Illinois Industrial University:
Change of sugar after cutting the cane.—On October 23rd, 1880, an analysis

was made of the juice of the Orange cane, which had been cut, stripped, and
topped October 2nd, and placed under shelter until examined. Juice whitish.

Specific gravity...-----0+-sseecseee ceeeeceeees eeeeeecetees eeeeeeese tenes 1.091
GAPE SUZAT......02..2nee coeeerecceeeene seeeteeesenceeeees per cent..-. 14 66
ANG BUS ATA coon stone enews swe eoncececcicenesnnneaebnnncnmens per cent... 3.55

A sample of cane, cut August 25th, 1880, without being stripped and topped,
was preserved in a warm room, where it had become dry long before it was ex-
amined. On April 3rd, 1881, it was analyzed, and showed 12 per cent of grape
sugar, and no trace of cane sugar.

Professor Swenson and Henry, of Wisconsin State University, give
the following report of experiments in this matter. It is to be regretted
that the percentage of juice expressed in each experiment was not
given, in order that the real loss of sugar could have been determined,
as it was doubtless much greater than the several analyses of the juice
would indicate:

Effect of leaving Cane cut in the Field.

A number of stalks still in good condition, the juice of which contained 2.50
cane sugar and 3.25 glucose, were cut and left in the field ten days, during
almost constant rain. At the end of the ten days the juice contained 5.98 cane
sugar and 6.15 glucose. Some Early Orange cane was also cut September
20th, when the juice contained 10.50 cane sugar and 4.95 glucose, and was left
in the field till November 2nd, when the juice contained 13.80 glucose, while
not a trace of cane sugar was present. These experiments show conclusively,
that if cane is cut or injured and left exposed to rain, the destruction of cane
sugar goes on very rapidly, being in time entirely changed into glucose. The
rapidity of the change depends, of course, in great degree, on the weather.

Effect of leaving Cane cut under Shelter.

In order to ascertain the effect of leaving cane under cover, two tons of
Early Amber cane were cut, the juice containing 10.02 per cent of cane sugar
and 3.23 per cent of glucose. One-half was topped and stripped, and both lots
were placed on the floor of the barn. The change taking place may be seen
from the following table: :

Cane sugar.| Glucose.

SEPTEMBER 20TH.
MN CSCANC TCR Y Clg cen bees es sa We aoe tow se tess e ae see Steer 10.02 3.23

OCTOBER 4TH.
After two weeks:

ISLE EU a pee mee Oe on oc Se onsen Oe onset wn taess, Seek 8.25 6.21
PRANAB ICE sete trate te tan on ais wa SOR ANON Sloan's uioela shee” 8.17 6.
OcTOBER 19TH,
After four weeks:
(Stripped). Se ee Sen se a Sota» cewewe otis ee, Oke 7.41 3.41
GUMSEDIPHEG) 2 sae eas «tea ee sc sndaet ic ocive spanwise ceils 7.64 3.74

128 SORGHUM.

Cane sugar. Glucose,

NOVEMBER 2ND. ; |
After 6 weeks: °
(Stripped)........... Paap Rs eens 2 Re, eee 8.26 3.74

After 13 weeks:
(SEIDEN Sere ee ae tae Soe a ee eee ae 8.45 6.80

To judge by the table, the cane changes very slowly, but in reality the loss
of sugar is quite rapid. If no loss of sugar took place, the juice would of
course become richer in sugar, on account of the evaporation of part of the
water. In reality this is not the case. The cane sugar becomes gradually
changed to glucose, which in turn is destroyed by fermentation. In this way
the juice may become even richer in sugar, but the quantity of juice is greatly
diminished, The juice becomes also veryacid. The effect produced by shock-
ing the cane in the field was tried, with very unsatisfactory results, the cane
sugar being destroyed very rapidly.

In the following table is given the comparative results obtained in
the manufacture of syrups from several varieties of sorghum. In the
one case, the crop had been suckered, and the stalks were cut and
promptly worked; in the second case, the crop had not been suckered,
but was promptly worked after cutting; and, in the third case, the
crop had been unsuckered, and was allowed to remain from one to four
days after having been cut, topped, and stripped, before it was brought
to the mill for pressing. In each case the juices expressed and the
syrups made from them were analyzed with the following results. The
amount of any single lot of stalks was generally too small to permit
a lot of syrup to be made from it, but each lot of juice and of syrup
was so near alike in quantity, that the average fairly shows the effect of
suckers, and of lack of promptness in working. It will be seen, that,
of the sixteen varieties of sorghum experimented upon, the presence
of suckers had, in five cases, lowered the available sugar to a minus
quantity, while the average of the sixteen juices showed a loss of over 48
per cent of the available sugar, and of nearly 42 per, cent in the syrups.
made from their juices: also, that, in none of the eleven syrups, and
in but one of the sixteen juices from the stalks which had been kept
for a few days before working, was the available sugar other than a
minus quantity.

TIME FOR HARVESTING CROP. 129

EFFECT ON SORGHUM OF LETTING IT LIE AFTER CUTTING UP.

Per Cent of Available Sugar.

Suckered and promptly Unsuckered and promptly Unsuckered and worked

worked. worked. after one to four days.
SS Se Ge —— SSS SS SSS
Juice. Syrup. Juice. Syrup. Juice. Syrup.
10.87 35.90 12.05 28.16 — 9.90 —45 50
10.63 35.18 12.76 23.90 —10.10 25.72
11.20 37.40 9.61 16.19 —13.43 —68 .60
8.10 20.20 .09 21.56 — 1.49 —28.40
Yip) ai a er ee 2.22, 6.26 — 65 —45.78 ry
8.18 sear 1.84 30.12 — 7.27 —12 20
ie GAM ee Ee —1.05 18.30 — 9.68 — 2.50
1/3 Ng 5G — OL 6.36 — 1.67 —11.34
TeLOe bet Net awes 3.16 4.50 — 2.98 — 5.68
OEGIrr Sf tre ers 5.97 25 06 — 2.24 — .04
CSE natal OE Seg 8.02 20.34 —3 4 — 3.82
AESOM OP en eae an SGn ptt | Meee = (6540 WANA
Tae ee Cate es — .99 =e ee ee Magee aa
EDU are, boat's — 33 aes ASO) uh, ek! comes
GeOeye fe Pwo Bg Ol aoe Pyrat a BE oie Ee GTS
ie) So Jhoth omg MLE OR pase — 9.12
Average, 6.87 |. 32.17 3.55 18.71 — 5.15 —23 .60

Experience of Dr. C. A. Goessmann with Sorghum cut some time before
Working.

Dr. Goessmann, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, in his
report of experiments upon the Early Amber Sorghum, gives a similar
series of results of analyses of juices entirely comparable with those
just given. (Vide, report on ‘‘ Early Amber Cane, by Professor C. A.
Goessmann, 1879.”) His results are so valuable, as fully confirming
our own, and establishing the fact, that, what has been found true
during the past four years in this latitude, is equally true in Massachu-
setts—viz: that certain of the varieties of sorghum may, even in that
high latitude, attain a content of sugar fully equal to that of the sugar
cane of the tropics, that his analytical results of examination are here
appended. Of these, there were but eighteen complete results; and,
for purpose of comparison, the results here attained of the average of
juices having the same specific gravity as those analyzed by Dr. Goess-
mann, are given in the table alongside. It will be observed that the
results attained by him, from August 15th to September 18th, in-
clusive, are almost identical with my own, showing, from the first, a
gradual increase in the sugar:

9

130

SORGHUM.

COMPARISON OF RESULTS OBTAINED BY DR. GOESSMANN, AT AMHERST, MASSACHU-
SETTS, WITH THOSE OBTAINED AT THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Aug.

Sept.

Sept. :

Oct.

1878.

GOESSMANN.
oO Oo
| as
oO Hh op
2.48 1.017
4.06 1.023
3.47 1.032
3.70 1.035
3.65) 1.040
4.00 1.088
8.85} 1.043
3.21 1.048
Sta ek 052
3.57| 1.054
3.16 1 056
3.16 1 046
10.00 1.052
eee 1.053
bate 1.061
3.61 1.060
11.91 1.082
SAS ¢ 1.060
16.60 1.073
apd 1.072
Bea oe oe 1.061
8 62) 1.066
4.16 1.969
516 1.052
7.57 1.076
eactices 1.062
Bee tee 1.070
10.42} 1.075
BSE a 1.062
1.071
Aca 1.074
Tot 1.061
9.22 1.063
1.071
8.30 1.067
11.30 1.075
8.63} 1.068

2

ro)

H

oO

3

n
Lie eee 0.00
AGisactsccs 0.00
DU rerevorees 2.15
DAY oso tts 3.00
Dee ye rds see 4.13
Be weaneee 3.81
Diss Fsee 4 41
t Reames 6.86
Ove TS Ae 6.81
PS ccieoe 1205
d teers 8.49
aI So epee 5.85
i bs need or fae .60
Die aka acelieees Sate
area eee hall eter sie dee
| ee 8.16
De) a asnseiagets 6.27
Oi. 32 ee sae
28 ....|Not det’d
Maka: all weet ase ie
Sant wake Bre
Aye 6.16
WegaGiere 9.94
ins eve §.27
ee ae Not det'd
MO Ste eee ieee caeee ee
i ears | \Poe AUR OS
TAPES N IE Not det’d
HAS mete er eile ties
NG eRe: cera rere
i eeerie oh mecha mete Hog
ISR tLe Not det’d
Os ee ae Not det’d
DO ether nla ceenee eal nae) A
DPA ened Not det’d
Deine) Se Fe : 5.50
At eee Not det’d

COLLIER.
o o
paged H o 3
a Ler lire} :
Ho Ser) mn oO
DAS Sere se ae [etree case ih eiiteraers
4.06 4.42 als Sri
5 62 6.11 2.16 3.95
6.70 7.40 3.29 4.41
7.78 8 35 4.41 3.94
7.81 7 86 3.43 4.43
8.26 9.21 4.95 4.26
10 07 10.07 6.08 3.99
10.58} 10.82 7.64 3.18
11.22} 10.86; 7.74 3.12
11.65} 11.57 8 61 2 96
9 01 9 48 5.72 3 76
10.60}. 10.82 7.64 3.18
EH 11 00 7.58 3.42
eae Ae 12 61 9.88 De
11.77 12.45 9.80 2 65
18 .18 16.20} 15.06 1.14
ce 12.45 9.80 2.65
Bes 14.68) 12 88 1.85
fate 14.62} 12.94 1.68
Rote 12.61 9.88 2 73
14.78} 13.54 11.46 2.08
14.10 14 11 12.30 1.81|
10.43} 10.82 7.64 3:18
ae ere 15:13 13.66 147|
bat wera 12.75] 10.24 2 51)
per see. bate 14.43) 12 59 1.84
oes ros Boag 15.18} 13 47 Lrg
aan oe 12.75] 10 24 2.51
ries cus 14°35) 9 12.54 LFS
A ae 14.91 ove, 1.69
a a 12.61 9 88 Ze
gh steicpe aed 12.81 10.16 2.65
ree eane 2 14 35} 12.54 1.81
Te ator 13.79} 11.80 1.99
16.80} 15.18) 13.47 1.71
ere 13.81 11.84 1.97
947.56] 43 52
Average} of (21) 11.79 2.07

Specific
gravity

No. of analyses.

After the first analysis, under date September 18th, the results, as
In explanation of this, Dr. Goess-
mann has given ample reason in hisreport accompanying these analyses.
In regard to these early analyses (before September 18th) he says, the
juice from the freshly cut canes grown upon the grounds of the Agri-
cultural College, was ‘‘ treated without delay ;” and of those subsequent
to September 18th he says: ‘‘A part of our cane, after being cut,
was left upon the field for about ten days before being ground and
pressed.”

will be seen, are widely different.

TIME FOR HARVESTING CROP. 131

He says, that the results of these experiments ‘“‘admit of no other
explanation, but that the best course to pursue consists in grinding the
matured cane as soon as it is cut.”

In regard to the remainder of the experiments recorded by him, he
says:

Some of the cane sent on (by farmers growing it near the college) was ground
soon after it had been cut; other lots had been cut weeks before their turn in
the mill came round.

It will be observed, then, that only those analyses made previous to
September 18th, are of freshly cut cane ; and these analyses fully agree
with the average of my results with all the varieties of sorghum ex-
perimented with.

It will be observed, also, that, just as he found in those canes which
were brought in some days (or even weeks) after they had been cut,
so, too, my results show the inversion of a large amount of sugar; and,
except in the sum of the sugars present in the juices, these results are
not at all comparable with those secured by analyses of juices of the
same specific gravity from freshly cut canes. It will also be of interest
to remember, that the last examinations made by Dr. Goessmann of the
canes grown under his supervision, were made only nine days after he
describes the ‘‘seeds as still soft;” and, by reference to the tables,
p. 000, it will be seen that, during each of the past four years, I
found that it is just at this period of development of the plant that
the sugar in the juice becomes practically available, and that there-
after it rapidly increases in quantity.

Inversion of Sugar in Cut Canes.

The effects of this inversion of sugar, due to allowing the cut canes
to remain some time before working, will be seen in the following re-
sults with three varieties grown on the department grounds and promptly
worked; these same varieties grown by Mr. Golden and not prompily
worked ; and three of the results of Dr. Goessmann, of which three he
reports that the first analysis was of canes which, ‘‘after being cut,
were left for three weeks upon the field,” the second analysis of ‘‘ cane
several weeks old when ground,” the third analysis of canes topped,
cut up, and ‘‘left upon the field nine days.” These are the only cases
mentioned in his report in which the time is given during which the
canes, after being cut up, remained unworked.

The close agreement of results attained with those from Mr. Gold-
en’s canes is obvious, and the great difference between these and the
results from canes promptly worked up, show the great importance of

132 SORGHUM.

this matter to those hoping for good results in the production of

sugar.
INVERSION OF SUGAR BY CANES NOT BEING WORKED PROMPTLY.

Department ground. ' Mr. Golden. Dr. Goessmann.
= = +

a a > i = -

ee Sinc 3 Hy 3 z 3 w

Varieties. zs Ss ah : 3 eh ; 3

© o a) 5 S J D 5 S) o}| @ =)

Ca] n n mn as] n S na ce na na n

BSI ° ° ae = ° = = oat ° ° =

(Ss) wu Oo a o mH = 3 oO id 7 3

a/eB/e) Ss S18 \e)s | 2 | 3) eae

mn nD o a nD mn oS | H 1 an| © a
= | eases 23S
Early Amber, ...| 1.087| 16.06} 1.38 | 17.44] 1.063] 3.75 | 10.85| 14.60] 1.082|6.27! 11.91] 18.18
Early Golden....} 1.088) 15.93] 1.37 | 17.30] 1.069] 3.66 | 11.69] 15.35] 1.075] (?) | 10.42|......
White Liberian .| 1.083] 16.03! 1.37 17.40} 1.070] 2.30 | 13.25) 15.55) 1.052) .60} 10 Mi 10.60

It is possible that there may exist certain conditions of climate and
crop, When the cane may be kept even weeks after cutting without
great loss of sugar, but the above experiments conclusively prove that.
such a course is extremely hazardous, and that the only safe course to
follow, is to work the cane as soon after cutting it (never more than
twenty four-hours) as possible. In harvesting the sorghum, it is often
the case that those stripping the cane may get ahead of those cutting,
or the mill in pressing the cane, and it is to be remembered that so
soon as the plant has been mutilated by stripping off the leaves, or by
being broken down by the wind, there is opportunity for the air to have
access to the juices of the cane, as is the case in cutting it up, and that
fermentation and consequent inversion of the sucrose is liable to at
once begin.

A single experiment appears to have been recorded, showing this ef-
fect, by Professor Swenson.

Effect of Leaving Cane Stripped in the Field.

One part of a patch of Minnesota Early Amber cane was stripped of leaves
and left standing in the field from September 15th to September 22nd. It was
then cut, and the juice, together with some that had not been stripped, was an-
alyzed, with the following result:

Cane sugar.| Glucose.

Cane siripped LOL. ONE WEEK. occ ceicsievielen's | tleee einistenaenrictes! feats 11.05
Bante Care NOt SULLpPeGs seer: —- cececsnene 7-0 (cin ele sine aiclaneoconcse 12.98

The diminution of sugar is undoubtedly due to the fact, that the latent leaf
buds found under each leaf begin to develop into new leaves. These new leaves
are formed partly at the expense of the sugar in the cane.

-
IMPORTANCE OF AN EVEN CROP, ETC. 133

The following analysis is given by Messrs. Scovelland Weber, show-
ing, that little if any inversion could have taken place in the cane
while standing two weeks in the field, after having been stripped:

Effect of Stripping and Allowing to Stand.

On October 2nd, 1880, an analysis was made of the juice of cane which
had been stripped on the 18th of September—the cane not otherwise disturbed—
with the following result:

Specific. gravity of juice........ - eee eee. ley ee 1.074
RRMNEIES RIDER cite 3g Scrota nt a avis), axa enes aoa aR per cent... 1.82
Cane BUP APs. scces0e sacncscon econenceacseccoec subacasee steens per cent... 13.11

This subject needs further investigation.

THE IMPORTANCE OF AN EVEN CROP, WITH NO SUCKERS, IN THE PRO-
DUCTION OF SUGAR.

The experiments at the Department of Agriculture, in 1881, have
fully confirmed the practical wisdom of a course which is pursued by
the sugar planters of Louisiana and Cuba, viz., the exclusion from the
matured crop of all immature canes, if the production of sugar is con-
templated.

This point, if previously recognized by sorghum growers, has never
been properly understood and considered as it deserves to be.

Danger from Suckers.

It is important also to remember that, owing to the tendency of sor-
ghum to send up suckers from its roots from time to time during the
season, there is the liability of having in the crop canes of every stage
of development, and the injurious effect already shown is sure to result.
It is, therefore, necessary, in order to secure the best results in the pro-
duction of sugar, to see to it that either the growth of these suckers be
prevented, by removing them from time to time during the season, or
that they be thrown aside when the crop is harvested as worthless, ex-
cept for the production of syrup.

To demonstrate this point, the plat of sorghum, grown upon the
grounds of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, in 1881,
and containing 34 varieties, was divided into two nearly equal parts,
one portion of which was carefully kept free from suckers through the
season, and the other portion, after having been thinned out like the
former, was allowed to send up any suckers which would grow; and,
when harvested, these suckers were included in the crop, weighed,
stripped, and worked with the other stalks of the unsuckered portion.

The difference in the results of the above treatment is manifest in
the following table, which gives the weight of crop, and the analyses
of the juices from the suckered and unsuckered canes:

ee eed

6L°S 66°8 RO"s ols SL C6 3% 690° T CLOT 6 6F 6° SP GSGrccmCaecgen| ti. as eae
GO col {GL 186 j0O% STL {LE COL LER jes O0T 400° 98 |Z6¢°98 ]6 9FOL 10 F99T |IS0‘OL8 |9z8*eOL Se
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CSAS &¢ 6 66 T $e § PL CL$ 040° T GSO T 6 6P 6° LS 660'LT JOOS‘EL [es
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mi fies fee lis fee Pier ee ie ieee ieee
Goalie 4 CES ge } CBL'8
G8 0) 166 § 90 & €L 69 T i 9° FS G OG GZE'ST
cc Ls &G 0 G 481 L L6 P [ 9 1¢ 0 -¢¢ 9£0°9% $
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2, 4 36 G 3 G 9 F @ 0G OFO'6Z
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134

“OSTIODAWV
"* [8j0L

- --loqury AyIRT RIOSOUUTIY

“ULOO PUB 'qVyT X ‘A OBA MON

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‘"NOHDUOS CAYAMOASNDA GNVY GaUYAMNAS WOUd SLTASAU AALLVAVAWOO

THE IMPORTANCE OF AN EVEN CROP, ETC. 135

From the preceding table, it will be seen that, while the average
crop was the same from the suckered and unsuckered plats, and the
percentage of juice also practically the same, the composition of the
juice varied very widely, and, in every particular, was strongly in
favor of the suckered stalks, so far as the production of sugar is con-
cerned.

The average results of the thirty-four varieties show the relative
composition of juices to be as follows:

Suckereg.| Unsuck-

’
: ered Ratio.
PRS POMUIOY ao. = Coe cb oe ak pee aka. per cent... 1.075 | 1 69 Dw: 7 100: 73.7
| USS 3 lial ahd a Sainte Ie a eae =| is%% | 10.5 100: $0.1
Glucose... .--. oR ye EE OO ee 2.14 2 = 100 : 137.9
(ODS eee eno oe 3.10 33 100 : 115.5
Available sugar... .-.-.-..-- a eA et Bes § 29 3.79 10: 457
Stripped stalks, per acre...............---- pounds. . Ps | 7 100 : 100 3
43.9 49 100 : 102.0

0D Sted ee ee eee per cent.

It will be seen that, although there is a much greater amount of
glucose and solids in the juice of the unsuckered canes, the specific
gravity is less, and the sucrose is a fifth less, while the available sugar
is only 45.7 per cent of the amount present in the juice of the suckered
stalks.

By reference to the table it will be seen, that several of the varieties
show no difference between the suckered and unsuckered portions, while
in fact, some of them, as Nos. 1, 2, 18, show an amount of available
sugar greatest in the juice of the unsuckered canes. The explanation
of this is probably that, owing to the fact that these varieties had so
long reached maturity, while the more advanced suckered canes had
begun to fall off in their content of sugar, the unsuckered portions of
the cane were largely composed of suckers, which had themselves had
time to reach their complete maturity, and, consequently, they had
brought up the average of the juice, rather than to have lowered it.

It is also to be observed, that, in the case of several of these varie-
ties, we have results fairly comparable with what might be expected
upon a large scale; for, although, as has been already stated, the anal-
yses made during the season in the laboratory were of stalks taken from
the suckered portion of each variety, and although exactly one-sixth
part by actual weight, on an average, was taken from each variety,
and that, wheneyvera stalk was cut down there would spring-up suckers
in its place, which were included in the final cutting, generally, as we
have seen, with the effect to lower the average sugar content, it is yet true
that many of these, as we may term them, culled rows, gave averages

136 SORGHUM.

in sugar fairly comparable with the average results from our Louisiana
sugar-cane.

The averageof Nos. 1, 2,3, 4,10, 11, 12, in available sugar, is 12.53
per cent of the juice. The average crop of stripped stalks per acre
actually obtained of these seven varieties was 26,667 pounds.

A good mill would give 60 per cent of juice, or 16,000 pounds, and
12.53 per cent of this amount would give 2,005 pounds of sugar per
acre, as the average product to be expected from the results obtained.

The following table gives the results obtained in working up the
Juices from these several lots of suckered aud unsuckered sorghums,
and the available sugar produced from each in the syrups, as also the
available sugar present in the juices, for purpose of comparison.

By available sugar, is meant the difference between the sucrose and
the sum of the glucose and other solids. Sucrose—(glucose, plus solids
not sugar)—available sugar.

It will be seen that the average available sugar from the thirty-four
varieties of sorghum which were suckered was 8.29 per cent of the
juice; while from the unsuckered plat the average of thirty-seven va-
rieties was only 3.9 per cent of the juice. Also, that while the former
gave syrups averaging in available sugar only 52.17 per cent of their
weight, the latter gave syrups averaging in available sugar only 18.71
per cent of their weight, or 58.2 per cent of the former. It will also
be remembered, that the amount of’ stalks grown per acre was practi-
cally the same, whether the crop had been suckered or not. Also, that
the suckered portion had been, during the season, culled of exactly one-
sixth of its weight of stalks for purpose of analysis, and that these
stalks, after being cut, sent up numerous suckers, which really lowered
the average per cent in available sugar which would have been other-
wise attained.

J
.

THE IMPORTANCE OF AN EVEN CROP, ETC.

137

PER CENT OF AVAILABLE SUGAR IN JUICES OF SORGHUMS AND IN SYRUPS.

DEPARTMENT GROUNDS.

No. VARIETIES. Suckered. | Unsuckered.
Juice. syrup. Juice. | Syrup
1 | Early Amber........ eansicaviilec cesses = eee GSU ye bog i a FAT Sq ees -
2 | Early Golden....... th Oeeeeee es | et roe sl FUT st | pene TOG alice ee
a PPAR EE PED LCA Coe Ce ee eS cee ih Oh eee 9.61 a
4 GUL ens in, Rules AE Tne tie Ba ee re Soe ee Rees = BOAT oe 7.38 28.16
BEC U Ea yA ere ea? yo Fes tees OS. Seo ae Sil lessaoe 09) Week.
ROMA TREC HIER TOMS So eee oe eo OS n Poeinc nil s pistons Deon 7.81 35.90 2.22 fae
7 | White Mammoth. 371m eee 3.51 23.90
SrNGumaseeannari.- 2.2.22. nce SAS eee. 1.84 Hel!
9 | Regular Sorgho pe SY [ee —1.05 16.19
TOE pals hil oh 3 87 I ne LAs Seed 15.49 |<. <2. COGS ech oe
11 ERR hate ete hs Sok 2 hoe Soc pees nee 13.10 | 9.10 | 21.56
ig SST NC ae te ee De ADAP es 200) « 15 aeeeee Bee
ee MEO DIN CC east to wists 6 ok Son's cise S sadly ds oe ease eee EL Soe ae 6.26
oy | CAVE TR ACS SR SE ae Se a, ert ae ANd eae SR ha | Ul eee SHG its 2
15 | Iowa Red Top ........- Sat eee eet eee! 9.91 | 35.18 5.97 | 35.12
SP UNEDDW Te Re fee) re OR ed eee S202) tes
2A) ) ER ESLNZo, 9 go eon RAS de Ee Bra DGPAB ons Blane AIF i\o2 5 ce
18 “il pjnn eal Oe Mpaete Se hn HLS ee as SR ee a eas GT See Us ee ee
WRNUED ORL SENAP a Com) Ghd we oe ere ek So EL iy (Ceres 5.18 ic
20) PS PEG STATIS 0S ae ee A eee eee reer. ae 6.95 | ee ae 3.42 18.30
EMER OLE RP AIN Seno er Soe sed As sane cot doe lass : TRS heen Ae Te? il eee ee
AMET DOL n as, |cclnd owe ooh ec oe suns ois 0scactp Seeeeom 6.56 | : Sead ete
2) 7 BUSH Sy ao Re Une a a RMI RC NN 1:97 | 37.40 78 | 6.36
ee eM ANLOO ON etc oe wa cee ena cost eninc paves casos eek a Ea iy Ai aA ane
al) TEV ERTS ee eee he Ae eae PR ee 8 See 50 | ...[| — .33 4.60
w2k"| ESTERS DP, G0 ee se ea ee Parad oa esos SAO hire — ae Ne ae eee
SOA SMU TENS 2 6g 130 epee See oe mp) eee —1.55-]........
Ae 2 ry 2 2 ee es EE ee nA SS tire ee 2Oe Npoaaoets
IMNCREMINO NEI RUk 2 Sak hss nds Toe Peso ald aa Sele eee e eee ease 6:34} 20.20 | —2.67 |. .. 2...
Soi Winite Airican.... ...2..-=<.: cor an eee tesa ee RST Ad oe 6.22 | 25.06
SIP eND LBM Ins... = cl. 5. sto) we aeitec BOR Peon Ocean 9.96 y tj a pre eee
SEE SEROSE PCS L SNES roe Petts nt aw es ws Sika Se ee eas were) Meee Ge sees ee pS gl bak Se See
33 | New Variety.. ... SE COR OO ee ieee cer 9.53 Sil 0 Bea tence
34 | GUS CD) PR eee OS Se ee oes eee per ees a 9.93 eC ieee
35 | Holcus Saccharatus .......... REA Urea he Eft eran ety f= ore St | — -94
37 | SECURE) (ODT Sh ae 8S AP ER ath gee pry Merete (BOC od ieee: he | I ree a=
aU TEPEVECD I CET CS op ee a = oe opie ee RE A Op beret 6.71 | 20.34
Lin) TENSE CEN SSS RE A en ee ey See ee re ree e| (me A (AE OE A RY ae ee
IE UINRSTIMN OAL Vin es ok oo a Sus cunicee ae Se wae hy es ae ee) ho Boe. Fy lle ee
Pe IBITIE VERT As eon were Se oh as Seen hoes Cece bate See ome Bead (BP eFC ep ee oe
| ORAS ES ore tin re Sec oe) acces wins Sa Sed aioe oe 8.29 | 32.17 3.90 | 18.71

The suckering then of the crop, or at least the careful exclusion

of suckers from that portion of the cane which is intended to be worked
for sugar, is of the most imperative importance.

For sugar production they are far worse than worthless.

But they may be used for the manufacture of syrup, since both
glucose and sucrose enter into its composition; and, in fact, the pres-
ence of the suckers in the crop would very easily prevent the crys-
tallization of the syrup which the manufacturers of syrup frequently
find a serious disadvantage.

It is not shown that the growth of suckers has any injurious effect
upon the cane, their presence being largely due to the rank growth of

138 SORGHUM.

the crop on strong soils, and in favcring circumstances, and it is not ad-
vised that they be thrown away, but that they only be used in the
manufacture of syrup.

EFFECT OF REMOVING SEED DURING DEVELOPMENT OF PLANT.

During the experiments upon sorghums grown on the grounds of
the Department for the past five years, much annoyance has been oc-
casioned by the multitude of English sparrows, and it was almost im-
possible to save any seed from the crop, except of such varieties as
‘appeared less attractive to these birds, or from such panicles as were
protected against their invasions. It was at least a matter of doubt
whether this removal of the seed during the plant’s development had -
not had an effect upon the sugar content of the juices, since, as is ob-
vious, the production of the seed is at the expense of constituents of
the juice of the plant; and if this process is arrested by any removal
of the seed before reaching maturity, it would appear natural to expect
some result upon analysis of the juices of such plants.

That such a view has widely obtained, among those engaged in the
investigation of the production of sugar from sorghum and maize stalks,
is clear from the advice frequently given to remove the ears of corn so
soon as they appear, if the maximum amount of sugar in the juice from
the stalks is desired.*

For the purpose of securing the seed of the new varieties from
Africa, India, and China, as also to learn whether to any extent my
results in past years had been vitiated by these depredations of the
birds, care was taken, in 1882, to protect certain panicles of each va-
riety grown, so soon as they came into blossom, by enveloping them
in bags made of tarlatan. In this way I was able to secure well
developed heads of each, fully set with seed.

* Professor Weber reports the following analyses made of two stalks of sor-
ghum, which had been planted at the same time; but the one, A, had been
topped while it was in blossom, while B, had been allowed to retain the pani-
cle, and the seed was in the condition of “hardening dough:

A. Sucrose, 12.62 per cent, Glucose, 2.68 per cent.
B. Sucrose, 7,80 per cent, Glucose, 4.80 per cent.

There was a corresponding increase in specific gravity.

This is an important result, and apparently indicates that the production of
the highest content of sugar is incompatible with the production of grain; and
since the grain is alone sufficiently valuable to pay all the expense of culti-
vating the crop, it will be admitted, as most desirable, that this question, as to
the practicability of the two crops of grain and sugar, be set at rest by decisive
experiments.

|

y

EFFECT OF REMOVING SEED, ETC. ; 139

In the examinations made there were taken for analysis one stalk,
the panicle of which had been thus protected, and another at the same
time, of the same variety, and, so far as other indications showed, at

-the same stage of development, but the seed of which had been taken

by the birds.

There were made during the season, in all, 136 pairs of analyses of
most of the varieties under examination. The results of these analyses
are given in the following table.

In the first table there are given 92, and in the second 4, pairs
of analyses.

Tt will be observed, that in the 92 pairs there is a result indicating
an earlier stage of development in those stalks upon which the seed
was kept, while in the 44 pairs this difference is not marked.

EFFECT OF REMOVING SEED.

“removed. Seed on.| Per cent. Beas Seed on. Per cent.
|

Stage of development |) 10.42 | 835 sso || 57 |! 1036 | 89.5
Per cent juice......--.-.--.| 35.775 | 58.063 104 1 36.569 | 36.458 99.9
Specific gravity .....-....-- 10717 | 1.0607 8.7 |i 1.06614) 1.0673 | 101.7
Per cent glucose Spas fae 9S | 1-403 44 9- |] 1.27 | 1.083 "S897
Per cent sucrose.... ._.--- 12.659 9.38 | B7 i ness | 12.06 106.5
Per cant songs... ...>2.... ~- 29938 | 295 | 98.9 2953 | 2.75 973
Polarization .. ae 2 7 9 S83 7.6 i1.48t | 11 S& 168 3
Per cent available sugar.. $60 | 5.670 65 | 7076 | 8.32 117-9
Number of analyses.... --- 2 2 ee 44 ct tl wet eee

In the third and sixth columns is given the per cent of the average
results secured from the analyses of those canes with full seed heads,
of the average results obtained from the analyses of those canes from
which the seed had been removed. It will be observed, that in the
average results of 92 pairs there is an increase in juice of 4.1 per cent,
and of glucese 44.9 per cent, and a decrease of every other element of
the analyses: of sucrose, 21.3 per cent; of solids, 1.1 per cent; of
available sugar, 34.5 per cent; and a decrease in specific gravity. It
is also noticeable that, while the average stage of development was
about midway between the tenth and eleventh in those stalks from
which the seed had been removed, it was below the ninth stage in the
stalks of which the seed had been protected.

The averages from the 44 pairs give results indicating almost
the opposite effect, for it will be noticed that, although the tendeney of
the removal of the seed is to hasten the development and maturity of
the plant, the average amount of juice and its specific gravity is prac-
tically the same; the amount of sucrose is greater, and that of glucose
much less, the sulids also being less, so that the per cent of available

140 SORGHUM.

sugar is increased 17.9 over that present in those juices from stalks
not bearing seed.

The practical conclusions from these results are, that there is no in-
compatibility between the maximum crop of ripe seed possible, and
the maximum content of sugar in the juice of the stalks; and that,
owing to the more rapid development of the cane from which the seed
has been removed, the time necessary from planting to the maturity of
the crop would be shortened from seven to ten days for each of the
varieties, if the seed was removed early.

By comparing the average results above given, it will be seen that in
the one case the stalks with the seed on had not yet attained their max-
imum, while in the other case they had done so, and those with which
they were compared, being without seed, had attained their maximum
sometime before, and had retained it until the others had caught up
with them in their sugar content.

It is also to be observed, that those varieties in the first case where
the difference was so much in favor of the stalks without seed, were
largely the later maturing kinds, while in the second case the varieties
are chiefly those maturing earlier.

An average of the number of days required from planting to matur-
ing, as shown by the experiments of 1882, gives for the varieties of
the first lot 120 days, and for those of the second lot 112 days, thus
confirming the conclusions above given.

EFFECT OF STRIPPING CANE.

On account of the trouble in stripping the stalks, experiments were
made, in 1879, with stalks unstripped, the tops alone being removed ;
and these experiments appear to prove that this troublesome operation
of stripping may be avoided without any diminution of the amount of
juice or of sugar obtained therefrom.

Below are the results obtained from stripped and unstripped sor-
ghum, calculated to the raw stalks used.

By raw stalks is meant the stalks as they were cut in the field,
leaves, tops, and all.

eve eeee ner Average per
ce eT cent syru
juice to raw “nt syrup
stalks. REN RECS
Stripped sorghum (two experiments)........-...-.-..-.-- 80 02 15.00
Unstripped sorghum (five experiments).................. 40.60 15.47

.

*

EFFECT OF STRIPPING CANE. 141

From the above it will be seen, that not only was an increased
amount of juice obtained, but that this juice gave an increased percent-
age of syrup, and there appears nothing unusual in the treatment of
this juice from the unstripped cane, nor was there any appreciable dift
ference in the readiness of the syrup to erystallize, nor in the charac-
ter of sugar finally obtained.

At the time of these experiments, the mill used was an old one, and
the amount of juice expressed much less than should have been ob-
tained; but recent experiments seem to show that the conclusions
from those experiments were fully justified. Those conclusions were
as follows:

Although perhaps further experiments are desirable before consider-
ing this point as settled, it would appear from the above that not only
was stripping unnecessary, but that it really involved a loss in the
amount of sugar to be obtained; at least the above results indicate a
difference of twenty per cent increase in product of syrup in favor of
the unstripped cane. It is not improbable that the above result is due to
the fact, that the leaves in passing through the mill tended to fill up
the interstices between the compressed cane, and thus prevented the ex-
pressed juice from flowing through between the rolls with the bagasse.
In case of discoloration by action of moisture or other causes, it will,
however, be advisable, and probably necessary, to strip the stalks.

Mr. Shoemacker, West Salem, Wis., reports as the result of three
experiments, that “all three were in favor of unstripping.”

Henry Lindley, of Mazomanie, Wis., reports as the result of his in-
quiries, that pressing with the leaves on make no difference in either the
quality or quantity of the syrup produced.

Another manufacturer reports to the Wisconsin Cane Grow-
ers’ Association, that he never strips his cane, and finds no trouble
in making good syrup. Is unable to see any difference in the syrup,
from stripped and unstripped cane.

It is customary to deduct 200 pounds from each ton, for leaves when
the cane is unstripped, and then allowing the same price for the cane,
whether stripped or not.

At the Champaign Sugar Works, Illinois, they did not strip the
cane.

At Rio Grande, New Jersey, they did not strip any of their cane,
and they found no trouble crystallizing their syrup in the vacuum
pan.

In fact, there is no doubt but that the amount of juice which a
given lot of cane will yield, is appreciably greater if the cane is

142 : SORGHUM.

passed through the mill with the leaves on, than if it is stripped; but
owing to the fact that the juice from the leaves is impure, containing
an excess of glucose and solids, it is found that the presence of the
leaves on the cane causes a gain of about 64 per cent in the amount
of syrup, and a loss of about 62 per cent in the amount of sugar to be
obtained.
. This matter will be again discussed at another place, page 144.

In those cases where the sorghum was stripped and topped, the fol-

lowing percentage of stripped stalks, and of leaves and tops, was ob-
tained :

Per cent of/Per cent of
Sorghum. stripped | leaves and

stalks. tops.
is
Mins exape Lil CML eee. ent crete await ects sats facet ot ser ences 72.67 27.33
SEcondlexpenime nbs ieee set wet ve lok etme peat Meare sacs oons inalnocia 72.55 27.45
IRE dene Selo E MOOC ER conione eS ERE a AOA AEE a eee ees 72.61 27.39

In 1882, as the average of eight experiments, the relative weight of
stripped stalks to leaves was as 100 to 17.68, this would give the
amount of leaves as 15. per cent of the topped stalks.

Comparative Analyses of Juices from the Stalks and Leaves of Sorghum.

Owing to the trouble and expense involved in stripping the canes for
the mill, the following analyses were made for the purpose of deter-
mining the effect of leaving the cane unstripped. In the eight experi-
ments below recorded, the stalks were topped as usual, and the blades
from each lot weighed, passed through the mill, and the juice ex-
pressed. The juices from stalks and leaves were then analyzed as
usual.

In the Annual Report Department of Agriculture, 1879, page 59, it
will be seen that, as the result of seven experiments, two with stripped
and five with the unstripped stalks of sorghum, there was an increase
of juice calculated to the raw stalks (7. e., to stalks as cut in the field
without topping or stripping). This would indicate that stripping was
not necessary, and actually resulted in loss of syrup, if not in sugar.
To more fully determine this, the above-mentioned experiments were
made, and the results are given in the following table:

a
= e ‘oor ty U48 GEBe Se pimicice
q Jo AyAuas o 1 esos SSS55
vy poods Tundra yood pus (esd wot teed Papas Yoel ord ST ‘00 age
8 me mnt 0 Im HOT el tO ret 4
a) JvoL Up ausang qou SHAGARRSSHaA ‘SOAMOL ITM dd |
a —— ave BPl[OH Jo aHoMown 1! ne phi be ache he dechechah
ric RRS Hs SIS I~ eG JO juoo sa7 Omron Jo ures yo yuo pit
= uy 80 ae hore 9 ee RIG rs see SPP oe ret Pr ONIDINHOOO rH
g ont jo spunog m4 Atak aig Sue cate a oie ‘ sare aod
—s ‘oon ft ywoT Uy ‘ 1 eae wae |
|| osor10ns Jo qué SEH SRARS RE + eI OO O1DIN AI
Deas uod It : 1 ee 210 Om
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} 9oynf jo # a mS : a ees | |p aa ee |
na punod Ot han DOOM ROM _ —— a — . e
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B <8 "SOA WHOM] geekeesucasa || ed nagzens RRRe A: |PrUuIeaD yo eptinod EERE REE EP EE
4 “ oon mY i OU HON OD OI f | ' , 4
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Sa ve Renannetonas 9¢ P ———— || 17038 peers O14 RHAAVS BAY
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« t————_—— miopalsoogry |] eS es
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: ) fa “neuieds . ADI CIS DHS AO ; — - [vyo, JO yuoo Lod pebdehabe Lette
RS J1odxod JO "ON * ‘ooTne Juoy ASUSESIBTISS es oe Pe ee a es eg Pee
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4 al Da Sty Urea ear ne [wjoy Jo 4d Lod 19 0169 10 G0 10 tm of I I 9010
4 pee Ue Oe SRT FLEW : PF tk at
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6 Meh te me, eee ee MRR sea aan | aay - cere |
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8 tt pied Be tees i) Fate regen ge a, ra ate airs ar a
8 Pidaee yo gg ; fii igs A, Ag® , tits igs Be Bs
3 ahsete 2 9 8 igaey o Se z Pty "ere. va eee
| r¥-| ea < _ mod 9 | ee gs ~ me
| 8 Ssceae & Ss 3 aSeoe & 33 g igaes J gv
8 re Saeuus ¢ Se ga’ Boss eet us Bue bs ashes 8 $3
“hot he ov ct) el Ba lig
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A =I oO MS gS Od
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DatnaD a Ba

144 SORGHUM.

The above results show, that the effect of stripping the cane is to di-
minish the quantity of juice, but to improve its quality. It has been
almost invariably stated, that by leaving the blades upon the stalks a
large amount of juice would be wasted.

Such is far from the case, but it is to be observed that in no case was
there any available sugar in the juice from the leaves, owing not to the
excess of glucose, but to the much larger percentage of solids not su-
gars in the leaf juice.

The general result, then, of putting the unstripped stalks throne the
mill is, as an average of theeight experiments, to occasion a loss of avail-
able sugar equal to 6.66 per cent of the amount found in the juice from
the stalks, and to cause a gain of 6.33 per cent in the amount of syrup
over that to be obtained from the juices of the stalks alone. This is due
to the fact that the total sugars, with those solids not removed by defe-
cation and skimming, go to increase the amount of syrup to be ob-
tained from a juice.

Method of Stripping.

Owing to the value of the leaves as fodder, many may wish to strip
their cane, if only to utilize this material.

In stripping, a wooden blade about three feet in length may be used,
when, by two or three dextrous blows, the blades may be easily re-
moved while the cane is standing, The seed heads may be removed
by bending down under the arm a small bundle of the standing cane,
and, by a blow of a sickle, several tops may be at once struck off.

In saving the seed, it may be gathered up in small handfuls and
laid upon the ground to dry, care being taken to turn it every few
days until it is dry and ready for threshing. It may be threshed in
the ordinary machine used for wheat and like grain; but, after the
threshing, great care should be taken to provide for its being
thoroughly dried before it is put in bulk. By such means, the Rio
Grande Sugar Company economically secured their large crop of seed
in good condition.

Some criticism has been made against the use of machine threshed
seed for planting, owing to the danger of its being broken up and
its germinating power destroyed ; but, of course, after testing the seed,
more may be planted, if necessary, since the expense for seed is but
trifling.

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND RAIN-FALL ON SORGHUM. 1409

CHAPTER VI.

(a.) Effects of temperature and rain-fall on sorghum.
(6.) Effects of frost on sorghum.

(c.) Effects of fertilizers on sorghum.

(d.) Composition of soil as affecting sorghum.

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND RAIN-FALL ON SORGHUM.

Obviously the climatic conditions prevailing have the most import-
ant influence, not only upon the successful growing of the cane, but
upon its content of sugar. This has been so conclusively shown true
in the cultivation of sugar-cane and sugar beets, that it is of the great-
est importance to determine what conditions are the most favorable for
sorghum.

The ordinary farmer, with his time wholly taken up in the care of
his crops and cattle, can hardly be expected to keep accurate data as
to the temperature and rain-fall, although his success or failure may al-
most entirely depend upon these conditions. On the other hand, the
climate, on the average, is pretty generally known for each section of
the country, and if those observers who have the opportunity to make
record of their work shall compare them, it will within a few years be
ascertained in what sections of the country climate and soil conspire
to produce the best results, and thus fix the localities where the pro-
duction of sugar from sorghum may be most economically con-
ducted.

Nearly all the results of the analyses of the various sorghums, given
in these pages, have been secured at Washington, D. C., in the years
1879, 1880, 1881, 1882; and the following data from the records of
the Signal Service Bureau of this city are, therefore, of the greatest
value in the discussion of the results obtained, and it will be seen
that many of the results are clearly explicable, by reference to this
data alone.

The consideration of the soils will be taken up at the end of this
chapter.

Inthis connection, the following passage from ‘‘ Sugar Growing and
Refining,” page 21, will be read with interest:

Climate has a very pronounced effect upon the commercial value of all plants
whose secretion products are sought to be availed of, and the sugar-cane forms

10

146 SORGHUM.

noexception. This plant thrives to the greatest perfection in a warm, moist
climate, with moderate intervals of hot, dry weather, tempered by refreshing
sea breezes. Its most luxuriant development is always observed on islands and
sea coasts, leading to the supposition that the saline particles conveyed to it by
the winds are congenial to its taste; but, perhaps, a more weighty reason
for the exuberance of the plant in such situations, is to be found in the mois-
ture which accompanies the sea breezes, even in the hottest and dryest
_ weather.

Again:

It is obvious that the sugar-cane is essentially a tropical plant, requiring the
strong light and great heat which can only be found in the tropics. But these
conditions alone are not sufficient for successful cane culture. Rain at the
proper season is equally necessary, though it may be to a great extent replaced
by a proper system of irrigation. On the other hand, rain at the wrong season,
i. e., when the canes are maturing, if in great quantity, may do much mischief.
As the canes are approaching maturity, 2 or 3 months of hot and fairly dry
weather are exceedingly beneficial, bringing the juice to the highest degree of
sweetness, and assuring a large yield of fine sugar. Slight showers at long in-
tervals, serve to maintain the vigor of the plant without appreciably weakening
the juice. In the case of renewed vegetation being caused by rains after a
drought, if it occurs in a locality where frost is not to be feared, it will some-
times be advantageous to leave the canes on the ground much later than usual,
as the juice will gradually become richer than it can be immediately after the
rain.

On the other hand, should an alternation of sunshine and rain, which for the
space of 5 or 6 months has induced a luxurious vegetation, be followed by a
long continued drought, the growth of the plants and rattoons will be prema-
turely checked, and they will often, under these circumstances, show a disposi-
tion to arrow. Should they now be cut, the juice will probably be found of
good quality, and easily made into sugar—the only attendant evil being its de-
ficiency in quantity, owing to the small size which the canes have attained.
With a return of rain, vegetation would immediately revive, and then the evil
of having juice poor in saccharine matter would be added to that of unusually
small canes.

The above quotation, written with reference only to the sugar-cane,
is almost a literal record of the results obtained at Washington with
the many varieties of sorghum, and accords with the experience of
many cultivators in various sections of the country.

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND RAIN-FALL ON SORGHUM. 147

TEMPERATURE AND RAIN-FALL, 1880, 1881, 1882.

1880. 1881. 1882.

MONTH. Mean Mean
monthly Average monthly
tempera-| _.- --., |tempera-—

ture. rain-fall. ture.

Average
rain-fall.

° Fahr. | Inches. | ° Fahr. Inches. ° Fahr. | Inches.

ULES eee ater Sheer 70.8 0.11 67.9 0.06 59.2 0.16
RROINIG Bee ooo daeeiee cade uc8 74.8 0.12 70.9 0.19 73.8 0 08
WUE Bee cca. See sca se las Le tm 0.07 77.4 0 05 76.0 0.14
PEGS AE ae oe a2 ES Bie ae ane ae 75 1 0.12 76.4 0.03 73.9 0.14
September ost. o- y. 5. cee 67.9 0.11 77.0 0.07 69.1 0.26
MIDQDE Estee fe ree oe esc oe 55.4 0.07 62.9 0.11 61.0 0.02
NMGUCNLDER. jop6- <8 ss sccc~ acess 40.7 0.08 47.5 0.08 42.9 0.04
TD TeGSTT ee 2 ey (aes ol (eer rare Cacti 3) Poe ad a 34.1 0.06

HEAVY RAIN STORMS, MAY IST TO NOVEMBER 30TH, 1880.

Date. | Began. Ended. Amount: Remarks.
Inches |

LES gL aaa eee 4.34p. m......! 6.05 p.m..:. . 1.40 | All rain storms between
June 14th to 16th....| 8.25 p.m., 14th| 8.10 a.m., 16th 2.46 the dates named, in
July 22nd. ... . | 610 a. m.....-| 4.10'p. m.._-. 1.37 which the amount of pre-
August 3rd to 4th.._| 4.20 p. m., 3rd| 8.50 p. m., 4th. 1.89 cipitation exceeded one
Septemb’r 6th to 7th) 8.35 p.m., 6th.| 5.00 a.m., 7th. 1.34 inch, are here given.
Septemb’r Sth to 9th} 6.15 a. m., 8th./10.00 p. m., 9th. 1.53

HEAVY RAIN STORMS, MAY IST TO NOVEMBER 30TH, 1881.

Date. Began. Ended. Amount. Remarks.
Inches
PHO ORELE one = 2% - P20 pmie = S45 pe Me ee 2.59 | All rain storms between
September llth... | 4.30 p. m...... 340, Bostic 2 bee 1 33 the dates named, in
October 23rd to 25th/10.08 p. m., 23rd} 8.05 a. m., 25th. . 1.26 which the amount of
Oct. 29th to Noy. 1st} 2.25 a. m., 29th 10.15 a.m.Nov.ist 1.69 precipitation exceeded
one inch,are here given.

HEAVY RAIN STORMS, MAY IST TO DECEMBER 15TH, 1882.

Date. Amount.| Date. Amount. Remarks,

Inches. Inches.
Maye27th.. < 5.2222 1.11 ||August 27th and 28th eA All rain storms between
May 3ist to June Ist. 1.24 ||Sept. 8rd and 4th... 1.54 the dates named, in
TI Gl | eee ee ZnO WHSeDt 2 LEB.) 0s co28 1.85 which the amount of
July 28th to 29th..... 1.05 ||Sept. 20th and 21st... 1.48 precipitation exceeded
August ist to 2nd.... 1.43% |iSept. 26th. .;.-2.<...- 1.15 one ineh,are here given.

Frosts (fall of 1880)—October Ist, 19th, 25th; November Ist, 2nd, 3rd, 8th, 9th, 16th.

Frosts (fall of 1881)—October 6th and 11th; November 4th, 16th, 17th, 28th, and 29th.

Frosts (fall of 1882\—Noyember 3rd, 5th, 6th, 15th, 16th, 19th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd, 24th, 26th;
December 2nd, 4th, 12th. :

148 SORGHUM.

1880. 1881, 1882,
Total rain-fall, May and June.... .......... Jeentscoren Inches .. 6 89 7.57 7.30
bi July; August, September: .:...-.2.25.. ae. 9.37 4.93 | 16.74
a “ May to September, POCIIS Vesa joa bee (6 s.|) 16.26.) Ag SOs eae
Average daily rain-fall, May and June................. 2 ee 118 124 120
July, August, September.. .. nf 102 .054] - 182
Average mean temperature, ‘May and June...:...- = ..Degrees F| 72.8 69 4 66 4
July, August, September. 73.4 76 9 73.0
e sf oe May to Sept’r, inclusive.. - 73.16 | 73.92} 70.40

RAIN-FALLS.

1880.... 6 in all, May to September, inclusive, aggregating 9.99 inches.
TBST eer oO) pote ae “ “ “ 4 87 te
1887: 10 “ec “ee “cc “ce “ce 14 alse “ec

By reference to the above data’ it will be seen, that the past three
seasons, covering most of the experiments in cultivation here recorded,
have been very unlike in their climatic conditions.

Comparison of Seasons 1880 and 1881.

The crop returns for 1881, and universal testimony, agree that that
season was, over a wide area of our country, of an almost unprecedented
character. A cold, backward spring, and a drought of exceptional se-
verity, united to produce most unfavorable results.

The records which follow will fully sustain the general opinion, and
explain sufficiently the reasons of failure in sugar making.

It will be observed, that the average mean temperature for May and
June, in 1880, was 72.8°, while, for the same months in 1881, it was
69.4°; also, that the total rain-fall for these months was, in 1880, 6.89
inches, of which amount 5.29 inches fell in three rains, pretty evenly
distributed over the two months, viz: May 11th, 1.40 inches; May
22nd and 28rd, 1.61 inches; and June 138th, 2.28 inches.

On the other hand, in May and June, 1881,-the total rain-fall was
7.57 inches, of which 5.71 inches fell in June.

Also, it will be observed that, during the three months of July, Au-
gust, and September, in 1880, the mean average temperature was
73.4°, and the total rain-fall 9.87 inches; the mean average tempera-
ture for these months in 1881 was 76.9°, while the total rain-fall was
only 4.93 inches, and of this small amount nearly half, 2.19 inches,
fell in September.

The results, however, secured in the plat of sorghum planted on the
grounds of the department, fully justify the reputation this plant has
of being able to withstand drought, although it appears necessary to
this end, that the crop should secure a good start before the drought.
Such, as will be seen, was the case in the experimental plat above men-

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND RAIN-FALL ON SORGHUM. 149

tioned ; for, although planted early (April 29th), the ground had been
carefully prepared, had a good exposure to the sun, and the crop came
forward rapidly, so that it was fully two feet high before the seed was
planted for the third time in the larger fields.

In very marked contrast, were the results seen upon a portion of the
department ground. A portion of the sorghum plat was plowed up
through a mistake, and upon June 13th (forty-six days after the first
planting), this portion was re-planted with ten varieties of sorghum.
But neither of these varieties attained any development, the average
not being even 10 per cerst of the crop secured from the ground im-
mediately surrounding this re-planted portion; and, throughout the
season, these ten varieties were stunted, withered, sickly, and evidently
the result of the drought which followed closely upon this planting,
and before a good start had been made by the plants.

On the other hand, the several varieties grown upon the field from
the first planting suffered comparatively little harm ; and yet, although
withstanding this severe drought during July and August, the result
was evident in a much lighter crop than was secured in 1880, as will
be seen by the following:

The average weight of stripped stalks per acre of thirty-eight varie-
ties grown in 1880 was 31,409 pounds, the maximum being 50,017,
and the minimum 15,859, pounds per acre.

The average weight of stripped stalks per acre of thirty-four varie-
ties grown in 1881 was 22,524 pounds, the maximum being 33,538,
and the minimum being 10,750, pounds per acre.

It is interesting to consider the meteorological data of 1880and 1881,
in connection with the results shown by the tables representing the
average results of analyses for these years. It will be remembered,
that the varieties of sorghum grown in 1880 and 1881 were mainly the
same; the land upon which it was grown was the same; the mill by
which the juice was expressed was the same, and care was taken to
maintain it in good order. It will, however, be seen, that the average
percentage of juice, by weight, obtained from the stripped stalks was
greater in 1881 than in 1880—that in 1881 averaging 64.02 per cent,
while that in 1880 averaged only 62 per cent.

It will be seen, also, that the specific gravity of the juices from the
thirteenth to the nineteenth stage, inclusive (the period when the canes
should be worked for sugar), differs greatly, the average specific gravity
being, for this period, in 1880, 1.071, while in 1881 it was 1.078, this
showing, as is seen by the analysis, the presence of a larger quantity
of sugar in these juices of 1881.

The increase in specific gravity as will be seen, is due to the in-

150 SORGHUM.

creased amounts of sugar, and since the percentage of juice is about in
the inverse ratio, it shows that the amount of water in the plant varies
but very little, whether in seasons of rain or drought.

But the very general belief that the character of the juice undergoes
great change, due to the occurrence of heavy rains, seems hardly to be
supported by the facts. In fact, it would be of great importance if
these opinions were more generally submitted to the test of experiment.
If we look over the meteorological data from the Signal Office, which
thas just been given, we shall see that, on the 10th and 11th of Septem-
ber, 1881, there was a rain-fall of 1.73 inches, which succeeded a season
of protracted drought. It would seem, then, in accordance with the
generally accepted belief, that we should obtain evidence of this ina
greatly increased percentage of juice; but an examination of the tables
of analyses shows no appreciable change in either of the varieties.

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF THIRTY-EIGHT VARIETIES OF SORGHUM MADE
DURING THE WORKING PERIOD IN 1880 anp 188}.

1880. 1881
RemCent Mice lex plessed sancti cinta peleett er ll-fe/cliciele “ler -ic\esieieeciniein.n-Yoaietes 60 67 59.70
Specific gravity Of juice ...........5...2-- s2eee eee eee eee Stevihe. Sere guemeae wherein 1 071 1.078
Per cent glucose in juice...........---- 2-2 e cee eee lee cence eee eee 1 98 2 O1
Per cent solids in JUiCe. .....-. 1... eee eee eee eee cece ee eee eee es 3.384 - 3.09
IPEMICEMIGS tL CHOSE dam NG Ommee mine mame erie) arate velolais sla clei cloJarvisve’s 'elals oisxcisle|elare ieetersis 12 14 15 02
Per cent sucrose available in juice Meee lie cnc teins nce ete'se oasinaeee 6.82 9 93
NO NOIATIONVSES Soir teeies sc Boeite veaint-paersishcreisreieics Sys apes heist ters) abet wi mete ROO 1348 280
INDO LAU EIRICLIOS eee Pee ee ee Peilcie stove sicrs ania avatar aravare Bet vm 33 38:

It appears from the above, that there was, during the working
period, on these thirty-eight varieties of sorghum, in 1881,

A loss of 1.6 per cent in the juice,

A gain of 9.9 per cent in specific gravity,

A gain of 1.0 per cent in glucose,

A loss of 7.5 per cent in solids,

A gain of 23.7 per cent in sucrose,

A gain of 45.6 per cent in available sucrose, over the results
obtained in 1880.

The conclusion appears established, that if only the crop of sorghum
shall have got fairly under way before the drought, there is no erop
which more effectually withstands it—and the result is a crop of cane,
less in the aggregate weight, but much richer in sugar than a crop
grown under the conditions of moisture and temperature which, with
maize, give the best results; for, it will be remembered that this
season of 1881 was most unfavorable for maize, much of it being
wholly lost.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND RAIN-FALL ON SORGHUM. 151

The season of 1880 may fairly be regarded as an average of those
of 1881 and ’82, in Washington, in regard to temperature and rain-fall;
while the season of 1881 was almost unprecedented for the severe
drought. ‘

The total rain-fall from May to September, inclusive, was only 124
inches; while, during the same period in 1882, it was 24.07 inches.
In 1881 the number of storms, during this period, was only three, with
an aggregate rain-fall of only 4.87 inches; while, in 1882, there were
ten storms, with an aggregate rain-fall of 14.11 inches. The average
temperature for these five months (from planting to maturity of the
crop) was, in 1881, 75.92° F.; while, in 1882, it was only 70.40° F.

It will also be observed that the first frost, in 1882, was (notwith-
standing the unusually cold season) a month later than in the two pre-
ceding years.

The lack of rain during Octoher, 1882, and a temperature, for the
month, much above the average for the preceding two years, together
with absence of frost, gave an additional month for the maturity of the
sorghums;,and this, in part, made up for the late planting and un-
favorable season.

Effect of Rain upon the Composition of Sorghum Juices.

The investigation of this question, and the results secured, offer a
good illustration as to the importance of submitting doubtful questions
to the test of actual experiment; since it is nearly certain that any one,
reasoning from @ priori considerations, would have concluded (and,
indeed, such conclusion has been accepted as established fact), that
the effect of rain would be manifest in a diluted juice, and that, con-
versely, a prolonged drought would result in a concentration and
diminution of the juice. The results, however, of very many experi-
ments on every variety of sorghum, during the past season, prove the
incorrectness of such conclusions.

Effect of Heavy Rain-fall after Long Drought.

For the purpose of showing the effect produced, if any, in the com-
position of the several sorghums, due to a heavy fall of rain, the fol-
lowing table has been prepared, which gives the results of analyses
of each variety, taken before and after the heavy rain-fall of Septem-
ber 10th and 11th.

The average of the analyses of all the varieties, made just before
the heavy rain of September 10th and 11th (viz., those made Septem-
ber 7th, 8th, and 9th), also the average of all the analyses of each

152 SORGHUM.

variety made immediately succeeding this rain-fall (viz., analyses
made on September 12th, 14th, 15th, and 17th), and the results are
as follows:

—

TABLE SHOWING EFFECT OF HEAVY RAIN-FALL AFTER LONG DROUGHT.

Analyses taken just before} Analyses taken just after

Sept. 10th and 11th. Sept. 10th and 11th.
z pia ts g 3
z DATES OF ANALYSES = 5 2 5
° a sS a Ss
-S 5 a aS Hf
es 6) o = So) 3 ro) Ss 3)
© Sam cemleseli\ rcs BS ° cS) a Ss S|
at H S) ue) Oo S) H o oO ° [S)
5 Seie || Veen cet) tess | escicl| id anh eee ee
S nN O}]m ar m wm ie) nm ard nm
Per | Per| Per| Per Per \\ Pen Per een
cent. |cent|cent| cent. cent. | cent. | cent. | cent

1 | Sept. 7, 17, and Oct. 5, 15... -} 18.23] .80]3.00] 54.17] 1.089] 17.09 86} 3.64] 43 83] 1.088
2 | Sept. 7, 17, and Oct. 5. 15....| 17.41] .81!2.76] 58.86} 1.084) 16.89} 111) 3.19] 52.80) 1.085
8 | Sept. 7, 17, and’ Oct. 5, 15....} 18.30] .86/1.77]°63.51] 1.087] 16.88] 1 05] 2.88} 53.72] 1.086
4| Sept. 7,17, and Oct 5,15....} 19.58} .95/2.75] 59.51] 1.095] 15.24] 1.27| 3.86] 50.54] 1 080
5 | Sept. 7, 17, and Oct. 5, 15....} 14.08/2.05)2.32} 64.45] 1.074] 17 01 49} 2 98! 50.46] 1.086
6 | Sept. 7, 17, and Oct. 5, 15....] 18.35/1.48]3.95] 45.14) 1.098) 17.69 .57| 3.12] 59.30) 1 087
7 | Sept. 7, 12, and Oct. 7, 17....] 16.00/1.73/2.40) 62,01} 1 083] 15 65) 1.62) 1.52] 63 64] 1.080
8 | Sept. 7, 12, and Oct. 7, 27....| 16.86]1.07/2.20] 56.95) 1 083} 12.56] 2.44) 1.79} 62.21) 1.072
9 | Sept. 8, 12, and Oct. 7, 17....| 16.99]1.38}2.76] 60.94) 1.086] 10.16) 3.52) 2.07] 62.16} 1.063
10 | Sept. 8, 12, and Oct. 7,17....| 17.86] .83/3.39] 57.69] 1.089] 18.18 .80} 2.85) 58 33] 1.090
11 | Sept. 8, 12, and Oct. 7,17....| 18.86] .66/3.33] 54 59} 1.094] 17.03) 1.03). 2.56) 59.456} 1.086
132'|Sept.. San. foto eee tee 16.12) .79)4 87} 60.83] 1.083} 19.51)..... | ..- 53.68} 1.098
13}|'SepintSisl4: 2ep cetiecste ee ent 16 .91}1.81/3.00} 57.38] 1.084] 15.70) 1.75} 4 81} 63.01] 1.069
AAS Yoel asin Saas Soon tenons aoe 16.59]1.90/3 25) 64.38] 1.084, 17.54] 1.55) 3.77) 52.40) 1.087
TG isiey oy eos Ry ee a . ... | 16.93]1.26/3.88] 58.16} 1.087] 18.28 .77| 3.94} 60.10] 1 087
16 | Sept. 8, 14, 19, and Oct.17...| 18.81]1.26/2 97) 63.87] 1.098) 18.61] 1.14} 3.16} 59.09) 1.091
17 | Sept. 9, 14, 27, and Oct.18...| 17.38)2 29/4 94] 55 77| 1 093, 19.20) 1.54, 2.61, 51.49! 1 092
1s | Sept. 9, 14, 27, and Oct. 18...| 16.46]2.58]3 98] 58 05) 1.086] 17.79] 2.85] 3.55] 56.79] 1.089
19 | Sept. 9, 14, 27, and Oct. 18...| 17.20}/2 00/4.67} 54.48} 1 O89} 15.79, 2°06) 4.52! 60.35] 1 084
20 | Sept. 5, 14, 27, and Oct.18.. | 14.55/4 30)2.89) 62.75) 1.089} 15.95) 1.96) 4.23] 51.53} 1.084
21 | Sept. 9, 14, and Oct. 3, 12....| 16.02]1.53) . 62.50} 1.094} 18.69} 1.09 59.77, 1.690
22 | Sept. 5, 15, and Oct. 3, 14... | 14.40/3.00/3 06] 61.71) 1.080) 15 96) 1.93) 5.05} 59.53) 1.075
23 | Sept. 9, 15, and Oct, 3, 14....] 13.00)4.71/3 65) 67.62} 1.081} 14.23) 2.94) 4.14] 59.04] 1.081
24 | Sept. 9, 15, and Oet. 3, 14....| 14.27/1.51/2.51) 66.00) 1.078) 11.31) 2.64) 5.03) 60 07} 1.064
25 | Sept. 5, 15, and Oct. 3, 14....| 13.453 .26)1.92) 67.92) 1.073] 14.23) 2.55) 5.43] 59.56) 1 076
26 | Sept. 9, 15, and Oct. 3, 14....} 9.805.18/4.40} 59 53) 1.073) 11.14) 3.73] © 3.82} 63 11} 1.070
27 | Sept. 9, 15, and Oct. 3, 15....| 13.05)/4.16/2 28) 62.78] 1.077] 11.65] 38.82] 8.68] 62.24] 1 070
28 | Sept. 9. 15, and Oct: 8, 15....] 19 25/1.48/2 41) 61.06} 1.089} 16.73 86] 4.38] 57.02] 1.083
29 | Sept. 9, 15, and Oct. 4,15....) 16.00;1.83/2 00) 60.10) 1.077) 14.87) 1.21} 5.27} 57.58} 1.079
30 | Sept. 9, 15, and Oct. 4, 15....) 16-14)1.70)2.40) 58 77) 1.077) 14.62) 1.33} 4.47] 61.09} 1.077
SUES oiEE Walgsc dacoconor Boerne 18, 87/1.70}3.07| 62.55) 1.087) 14.47] 2.54] 4.26} 57.55!) 1 OSL
82)|| Sept Qpdloncctesece meee 15 80/3.07/1.13] 58.89] 1.075] 13.38; 2.57] 4.30] 68.81] 1.074
SBN ee ab ao 5cc 5 Sos SooSe 15.13]2.72/2.33] 61.72) 1.075] 14.70) 2.14] 3.28) 58.64] 1.076
Sa) (Sept Oi elon alec ets met 15 .90}1.38}2.68] 57.33) 1.077] 11.52} 1.87) 5.04] 62.83] 1.066
Shi | SOD bi i, elewe ct wrecker ete 12.57) .99)4.19} 32.36) 1 073) 13.61 68} 4.381] 45.27] 1 075
Bish steer Rel Wiaarsncoodicos! ac arti 8.97|5.19]1.04) 69.64] 1.059} 13.07} 2.83] 2.09] 61.62) 1.070

AVOCTElLSl ce eaeseateet 16 .02/2 .06}2.98] 59 .54)1.0882} 15.40) 1.803] 3.694] 57.80/1.0802

—

“ke

ihn, ‘
.
Sép
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND RAIN-FALL ON SORGHUM. 153

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF THIRTY-SIX VARIETIES OF SORGHUM BEFORE
AND AFTER THE RAIN-FALL OF SEPTEMBER |LOTH AND 11TH.

Before. | After.

SUC RORG oes « - woes osiacar nom <0 eam wel on ame os oe ein venom anne =i per cent.| 16 02 15.40
Glucose | 2.06 1.80
SUPRA See : |} 2.98 3.69
REINO fn oats Sco acces coc cee a= Sam Soma dae eae doen ein per cent..| 5954+ | 57.80
SPE EPEC See 25 aie ae eRe ERS eee } 1.083 | 1.080
A eas SSIES MUP Ee eta c mace dos os se = eo 6 eee eed Secon per cent + 10.98 | 9.90

From the above it will be seen, that the results of this storm, as
shown in these analyses, show an average loss of

Per cent.
SILOS. S05. = Ses be RES Sean Sea ee oS rn aoe 3.9
Ine OSEE pe. Pe os Nes a Se ch Ren oe le eae eee ee en 12.6
Juice Sp aR EO ee ete IS Mone oa Oe ye eects EI SA He 2.9
STUD EV LOTS 72 00 5 Cees ae eee eee tgs py ee so) Pa I Or ty se 3.6
wR RDIC UPR | 5 6c oi dct ee os SRS pe nahin Geena te eee ores 9.8

The gain in solids was 23.8 per cent.

The above results are rather surprising, and certainly opposed to the
view generally entertained. Without accepting them as wholly con-
clusive, it must be remembered that they are the results of a very
large number of determinations, and of a very large number of dis-
tinct varieties. If it shall hereafter be shown that such a result in-
variably follows a rain-fall, it would appear that the explanation is,
that, by such rain-fall, a vigorous growth in the plant is excited, and
that the material for this rapid development of the plant is derived
from the stored-up food (mainly sugar or starch) present. This would
account for the loss in sugar; while the water, being simply the vehicle
for transporting such food, is evaporated from the foliage more rapidly
than it is absorbed by the roots.

The following report submitted by Professor Scovell, of the Cham-
paign Illinois Sugar Company, is interesting as bearing upon the im-
portance of favorable climatic conditions. It will be seen that his ex-
perience accords with that in Washington. A cool, wet season re-
sulted in the growth of sorghum comparatively poor in sugar.

In order to get a correct idea of the season’s work, the condition of the
weather as compared with other years, is of material consideration.

In our section of the country, the weather this year, so far as planting, culti-
vation, maturing of the crop, and the development of the cane sugar in sorghum
is concerned, has been the most unfavorable of any year within our knowledge.

I submit, herewith, a synopsis of the weather report, as given by the Signal
Service Station at Champaign, showing a comparison of the seasons ot this and
last year.

154 SORGHUM.

MONTHLY MEAN TEMPERATURE.

INAV e apes elatecacs nature ats \ale ator ale.o)ers srzta,o et ctete e tisietele sisters cietAste yerato aiprelole’s sls 'sis's avotnrele ofelelelofare age 67.4 655.8
MIU eyo a earcer ne aC oe i cterieeneti in Sialed terre elelet ae ieololats lnigiviise, 1» viaja ia: 6, srh:sieiuiw’ oerpievetatete 69.3 69.1
RIUM Lape etan sy Soot cts aetss cre crete rerrana sratcte ote ler iate ats evete cere citmcinteeymraretiisiare viele wintasela/eisic siete a alpleleisls 16.9 OEE
FATTO TUS De cee OME Ore Reelerer sates ciate ic char eha se eats aie rsvarstaneGe) aie oteicieie bowls oveieveiein cio eines aysteeietetenee 46:7 On Onal
PANVIGME CE cen sd: Stem Terre covery tele aie elepetelaletetctowsa Weleiaree'einicte:sie. vi</nio.eielo ainie s/ectelersane 72.4 66

ISIS Noiate sere atte ates fate cela be aoe ta aes eens tee Rei cleteiele telco tore efateisls pieZols ols aoc (cia fo cin shrew ete Wieis ee 3.63 8 55
dba tee AS Seem Gon Secniee Sooo HOM ta CEAGe Eien RIGS SI ae eo AR Aes aA 4.71 9.93
ULI ne eter Pace ere CRI racer rece ate ren ct eae eb A alas ar coemiciclcl fel Ste Say se.dejal ala aetarorstetalate 1.07 2 44
PAIS Tee rece ae terest ete eo henere cee ovate ete lc alta rata li letalotite Gis where tice cateyelel ols esp -ofofereMelolevar elt 0.64 4.87

Moy hl: eae G aac uke SHEA ooreO Ost HED OAE OO ROTO ee eee eer treet cr 10.05 25.79

From. these results, we find the average temperature during the growing
season of cane this year, fully 6° F. below that of last year, and the rain-fall ex-
ceeded that of last year by fifteen (15) inches.

The season was too wet to cultivate the crop properly, and too cold for the
proper development of the sugar in the cane. This last is readily shown by a
comparison of the amount of sugar found in the cane this year and last. Last
year we found in the Early Amber cane, at its maturity, an average of

Per cent.
(GAMENS Oreos alee itera ecient aie rete tter ea shcjasecnieeicta\ecas 6 je nie 'm/0a/e" seals isjamu nial lornleteneitat 12 08
GREND Ci wade ect eee ea ion Sins ariniiy ne neta etevormorrs ole sien cl yer eivieya.e'ase ever /s 6), ists </arate act teeteteg 2.47
JNiate lisp NOU TOME PA GILNY (Oli oe cyte on ant edad earn Se OO SEG ae p ODOR SOOO HESE Sater iis. act 1.070

while this year, the same variety under like circumstances, only revealed the
presence of

Per cent.
(Chay ne) REP HRS Sioekancesas 254 Socnds Hoot GGbtn So 0S SUOTDS CUOUU CaCn oe OoUCO Onc macaonoG 8 20
CyeHole BO yen saad des Kita te DaOEO OOH ASS Lowes IO Gn DS SODSE AB OIOn Oa AD OIC Sam cioO SAS: 3 66
NGL A CAO BDAK Gone devon ceSoocuoconats va ceoombnG DeEUreCeReBREramararioUsedonehotcnode 1.060

We began planting sorghum the 2nd of May, and finished the 22nd of June.

The varieties planted were Early Amber, Early Orange, and Kansas Orange.

The land upon which the sorghum was grown, was rich prairie land, which
had been cultivated for upward of twenty years. The preceding crop was
broom corn.

As before stated, the extremely wet spring gave the crop a very late start,
and the weeds had the advantage. Just as the last difficulty was overcome, the
chintz bugs made their appearance, and threatened the destruction of the
whole crop. With the exception, however, of lessening the yield somewhat on
a thirty-eight acre field, the damage done by them was nominal.

EFFECTS OF FROST UPON SORGHUM.

The investigations concerning this question, practically reconcile the
discordant reports in regard to this matter. It has been shown that,
when fully matured, the sorghum withstands even hard frosts without
detriment—but that, if immature, the effect is most disastrous.

It is shown also, that this disastrous result is due not directly to the
effect of the frost, but to the subsequent warm weather, which rapidly
induces fermentation with inversion of sugar in the frosted and imma-
ture cane.

EFFECTS OF FROST UPON SORGHUM. 155

For the purpose of learning the effect of frost upon the sorghum, the
following examinations were made in the fall of 1881, at the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, at Washington.

An average was taken of all the analyses made of each variety of
sorghum under cultivation, just before the dates of the first frosts,
which occurred October 6th and 11th, viz.: those analyses which were
made September 27th, October 3rd, 4th, 5th, 7th; also, those analyses
made immediately subsequent to these frosts, viz: on October 14th,
15th, 17th, 18th. The results are given in the following table:

TABLE SHOWING EFFECT OF FIRST FROSTS.

.

Just before October 6th and 1ith. Just after October 6th and 11th.
|
ie f) E
= ot S = ¢ = S )
5 5 3 BH | g8 S = 3 5 Ze
R S n a DH bp R = a 5 Do
—————_
Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. || Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct | Per ct
15.24 -87 2.76 54.28 | 1.078 || 14.32 116 4 60 | 57.90 1.078
3.56 1.39 2.15 1 073 14.12 118 4.14 57 .93 1.075
16.32 1.08 2.74 1.087 16.59 1.09 511 | 55.81 1.088
11.85 i lay 8 E 3.05 1.068 16.24 L237 4 20 55 80 1.082
12.58 70 2.40 1.068 || 14.65 40 5.03 57 44 1.078
15.36 .98 2.88 1.082 13 97 3.28 4.35 52.07 1.084
14.77 1.31 3.65 1.082 |} 11.99 1.16 3.736 58.13 1.069
17.22 .95 2.94 foetal | 13.88 2 44 3.97 55.23 1 O84
12.54 2.12 2.58 } 1.070 || 18.24 1.85 3.45 58.00 1.076
17.38 OL 412 | 1.090 16.30 40 3.80 54.60 1.085
16.89 .42 3.38 } 1.085 || 16.13 .59 487 | 52.91 1 088
17.40 | Cis eg] eee ; 1 089 | 13.90 1.78 4.44 | 47.38 1.081
16.57 1 52 3.14 | 1.083 |} 14.72 1.64 2.40 | 58 99 1 079
18 15 1.39 4.40 1.094 18 55 1 450 3.59 56 95 1.078
16.68 1.56 ; 1.089 14.38 1-73 2.93 58.07 1 081
14.14 2.60 3 67 1.080 || 15.25 1.96 2 Ol 58.51 1.082
16.10 94 4 20 1.085 || 15 60 1.20 3.47 48.75 1.085
15.78 1.26 4.01 1.083 12 41 2.57 181 | 65.80 1.969
15.77 Leer 4.23 1.084 || 12 44 aeUes le 26s 60 3 1.075
15.91 | 127 | 3.66 1.082 || 9.45 | 1.58 | 2.31 | 62.7 1 053
14.55 Pos 3.11 1.079 4 64 4.77 2.61 | 673 1.048
16 22 1.66 4.17 1.088 10.19 2.46 3.28 56 11 1.067
11 70 4.14 2.74 1.071 6.50 3.98 2.97 59 73 1.052
16.35 1.20 415 1.085 (Rea 1.07 3 14 64 03 1.045
14 86 1.50 3.27 1.082 215 1.92 1 96 60.39 1.071
13.50 1.43 Bk | ee 1.078 11.69 1.28 4.00 59.51 1.0066
Ay’ge. 15.28 1.41 3.37 54.82 | 1.0814 | 12.91 1.82 3.49 55.09 1.0738

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF THIRTY-SIX VARIETIES OF SORGHUM BEFORE
AND AFTER THE FROSTS OF OCTOBER 6TH AND IITH.

Before. After.

SUCTOSE.i2:-..- Te tt Se Shc Saute PRISE SIs AE EER ey Bx percent .| 15.28 £2°9f
SUC TS e CRN Ran See a ie ee ees Be eee A <d0.5-/- 1.41 1 82
SIRES a Soe ese ee Me eee neat ee cat soccer ot oe ack a Ke dost... - 3.37 3.49
Tip wes Seeks eo Se See ot SSR RAI SR re Rn nee ete links GU Biderd 54.82 58.09
SEE IHO PUA VLMa Crs cace ete fc ian Os Jar vane coats saw tues Soe ted 1.081 1.074,
AVvaua ble SUERE 5.225.065 0e0 5 - -- CAO setae Beene wee per eent..| 10.50 7.6

156 ’ SORGHUM.

From the above averages, it will be seen that the results of these

frosts show an average loss of— .
Per cent,

SILC LOS ee eT ee ee Ee oe athe rare het custctale sieVaxee etcieistave Scale) a. fe sa 010 ellb ele '=tohntabmbatets 15.5
Specihielerawvitiys fuses secleisas es A RCRD CAR UB GDC OTRO C AOD TORE SE REnmpr seo c. oc be 8.6
ASV ATMO LEM SLO ei Tncrareyere clone rarctetetare cfoverctercicte\o eieveteieia’sicieiera/sieTWelalsicielc|« slels dieiciele(eieie's' vine a0 ein ielevoteiata 27.6

And a gain of—

GIG OSE essere cc axctaeree es Series trecre are sts latte ete rare era se rsiceleie stove divletes ve wit ei isisie saiecsaidS ose weer amet
SOUT Sy aia aera. he cette he casaat Recto teve: cie atte ove = is laure oialraic lor oie came 5 Wier afore \=PatgaleVan ele eee Sisleveia e'ece.ayevsis) spmtate 3.6
Sb eS an At eb pe 1 a Oe hea) eh eee ee One Sei a Oe ee Ree OPIS 6.0

The above results accord with the general belief as to the injurious
effects of frost upon the cane. It would appear from the increase in
glucose and decrease in sucrose, that the effects of frost were to pro-
duce an inversion of the sugar present in the juices of the plant.

If we consider the average results produced in a few of the different
varieties of cane, viz., Mastodon No. 24, Honduras No. 25, Sugar Cane
No. 26, Wallis’ Hybrid No. 27, White Imphee No. 28, and White
Mammoth No. 7, for example, we shall find the effect even more
marked. For purpose of comparison, I have given the average results
of analyses of the above varieties by themselves, and also the average
results of several other varieties by themselves, viz., Early Amber No.
1, Early Golden No. 2, White Liberian Nos. 3 and 4, Black Top No.
5, African No. 6, Regular Sorgho No. 9, Link’s Hybrid Nos. 10 and
Le

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF Nos. 7, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, MADE JUST BEFORE
AND JUST AFTER THE FROSTS OF OCTOBER 6TH AND 11TH.

Before. After.
ib OinYsTey Ghcrhcldine OS SS DOD e ROcs Gaen Ons aomus pane tae er aueeites -per cent... 14 92 8.34
CENID YC OT stele a ).8 ae on denice dad CoRt Oo MOUSE OM cre Ear 4 ots Salita: Gone x: 1.98 2.50
STOUIGICE. Gea ale cease che, SOHO EAD CINE eer een ete apie ieee Oeste 3.58 3.01
A hbhte se wialt bao. \turata de ce cS Oty Ear on Dearie: AO eta ae te See oases HSNO 57.89 61.3
Sacelite EAN” | S0ho0 50 syeopcooanUoy Sap eneroeHseseeoe Sse ; 1.081 1 056
ACV ADEN Woes etoeemiberctt (is. Heb Beebe tiers) tee each aay oe per cent... 9.36 2.83

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF NOS. l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, MaDE susT BE-
FORE AND: JUST AFTER THE FROSTS OF OCTOBER 6TH AND 11TH.

.| Before. After.

SpIORTS °c mam ae odhoo. Me ano no poobead dedech jnoccceper ce aaoG percent ...| 14 64 15.06
(MO | oo th bbs shetabor.4 decoomscabeusbadomaeoceseaessnanas do.. 1.02 1 25
Solid eer a reteetseec eee Sitocted abn on SOc eeeenseer dou. 2.90 4.39
AMD cis54 (A aon secd pooec] (UDO saonoeaaaneeanbardoaseesunKroG GOs... 2.2.) 54-55 55.83
Specific Sraviliyee cee acc cey caniee iy ese aides cn sis le Bilas 1.078 1.082
Availaple SUP ab. 5.2 ene s 2-1 Rte fs ee arcs soles beet per cent....| 10.72 9 42

EFFECTS OF FROST UPON SORGHUM. Hay

The effects of these frosts were far more disastrous upon the first
group of sorghums selected, than upon the last group; for, arranging
the results side by side, this difference in effect produced is readily
compared, thus:

First Group. Second Group.
SITOLGSO' Fs oc) Festal: waters ileies per cents hLogsersccsescn ss AGS) |'Gaibl. oe. eases e219
EL RO Ea Bee Es Seen ee Sosa GO: eee (Ci) eee one OLS IGT ctor ae eecaee 22.5
OMIA ort Peeiaieaee lcs, coe cipienals iste s's @0z.c oe EGSS\uce sec oe TesO GALE sa cil. waco 51.4
SENG Dike Pe aes Retire ook Se OPIS ans Gone GUAGE ADT ead See ce GRO) Gases occ cies 2.3
SHCGING CLM VEUMER EEO oe site ace ce vo /' clei aisle. cr LOSS sub tact eee 30, 9'} Gainey Si ekecnee Dall
AVATIBDIO SUPAR. . focus rccse-s per cent... |HOssree eee 6958)| TOSBs1025- nonce 12.1

|

As will be seen from the above statement, there is practically little
effect shown by the frost upon the several varieties of sorghum in the
second group. The percentage of increase in glucose and solids is, in
' fact, not a very large actual increase, while the percentage of sucrose
in the juice is slightly more.

It is more than probable that the difference in the effects of the frost
upon the two groups is due to the fact, that, in the case of the second
group, the different varieties of sorghum were those of early maturity,
and this will be seen by reference to the tables of analyses of these
varieties, which will show that for a long period these varieties had
reached their maximum content of sugar, and, in fact, had begun to
fall off a little; while, as will be seen by reference to the tables, the
members of the first group were of the late varieties, and their full
development had not yet been attained, for their content of sucrose
was and had been gradually increasing. It is, therefore, probable
that, while the plant is in its immature condition, and the functions of
growth and the elaboration of its sugar in vigorous action, it is far
more susceptible to the action of frost than after full maturity has been
attained. Should this prove to be the case, it would explain the inju-
rious action of frost upon the sugar-cane of Louisiana, which, owing
to the long period necessary for its full development, can never reach
that condition of maturity which would render it comparatively safe.

The above results will enable us to explain the very conflicting tes-
timony of sorghum growers as to the effects of frost upon their crops,
many having experienced no evil results, while others have found the
effects of frost most disastrous. At least these results will be of value
in guarding us from drawing too hasty conclusions, since a reasonable
support is afforded in the above data for either view, and it would seem
wise to withhold conclusions until more facts are accumulated.

In 1882, however, as has been already pointed out, the meteorolog-

158 SORGHUM.

ical conditions of this locality differed so widely from those of the pre-
ceding year, that it effected practically a change of climate. The first
frost occurred November 35rd, nearly a month later than upon the two
years preceding, and was followed by successive frosts upon November
5th, 6th, 15th, 16th, 19th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd, 24th, 26th, and Decem-
ber 2nd and 4th. The mean: temperature after the first frost, and until
December 8th, when the last examination of the sorghums was made,
was 39.8°, with maximum temperatures, November 12th, of 74.1°,
and, November 13th, of 70.8°.

For greater ease of comparison, the above data for 1881 and 1882
are placed side by side in the following table:

1881. 1882.
AMITSEMLOSU septic cee ete acleinee hectic cen teins aU osilscleic cod as 25h ote ayes Oct. 6. | Nov. 3.
TOE CTAETORIR seco eee en cloleerticinieie wi eidia tioie beanie be oaickicurs ce ealttalee ene Ogt. dl. | eNova oo:
Noy. 14. | Noy. 6

Nov. 16. | Nov. 15.
Novy. 17. | Nov. 16.
Nov. 28. | Nov. 19.
Nov. 21.
Nov. 22.
Nov. 23.
Nov. 24,
Nov. 26,
Dec. 2.

meni
Mean stem perature OGPODC Te: wef neris cisiisaio = sis \t1s 0/010 vicioisic\c'n;6ie\s\s'Sjaia0e's 01 THD 61 0°
Maximum temperature, October...............-..... Hafele cess niente ye 88 .6° 81.3°
Mean temperature, November.. .... ... SFr YANe eis arise ales wecieis’ore sinc wiser 62.9° 429°
Maxi Mintel a perabure. UNOVERUDET: «cic coc 2 fess cei ses Sewers sieaae ane el tis Pelt WA), 4°

To show the effects of the frosts this year, there is given in the fol-
lowing table the results of the analyses of the nine varieties which
were last examined on December 8th, and, for the purpose of compar-
ison, the last analyses made of these same varieties just before the first
frost of November 3rd.

It is important to mention, that each of these nine varieties had
ripened their seed some time before the first frost, and that among the
nine there were three of the new African varieties, viz: Nos. 7, 12,
and 16a.

EFFECTS OF FROST UPON SORGHUM. 159

LAST ANALYSES MADE AFTER THIRTEEN FROSTS, DECEMBER 8TH—EFFECTS OF
FRosts, 1882.

Se ES Stay ea per
S/2)8/2/38] &
5 3 S) 2 = ~ =
oo fe =~ = — ss S
o oS iS) nm Rn 2 =
VARIETY. Pes hitb a bone 2 3
° = cs) 3) r3) 3 =
Ps ° S S o ° = ; 3
= mh Oo = - he = =
3 (2) a Ss) Oo o = =
Fas) eS Dn es & Bs =< oa
—— —
DLT te Ss ee pe a Dec. | 42.20/1 0826 3.38) 12.88} 2.53] 6 97/ 11.48
OL SUS Soy een a eee) do..| 35.92)1. OSH} 3-43) 11.78) 2 74) 5.61) 10.94
“ ays <a a ee ae eae ti do..} 34 90}1 0834) 3.91] 11.92} 2.90) 5.11) 9.83
LT AT Da ee ee eee do..| 43.40}1.0905} 2.53) 14.98) 3 00) 9 45) 13 81
TABS WEEN So WAEIOCRY (0-500 05 cos se ec neces ce .-d0..} 39.25)1.0953} 3.34) 15.17} 2.61) 9 22) 13.72
SES SE; rr ..do. | 37.13}1.0932} 2.82 14.97) 3 09) 9.06) .....
“TU Pe Be eae _do..| 35.01/1.1046} 2.33] 17.19} 3.67; 11.19}
Se a ee "-do..| 42.54|1 0919] 1-96] 15 34) 3 os| 10.30) 14 40
TIENTS Sa a ee ee do..| 42.16/1.0887| 1.95) 14.96} 3 16) 9 a 13.94
EERE eee see oo Sain an wink au Soe aS 39 ee 0906; 2 4 14 4 2 98) 8.52) 12 59
; ’
LAST ANALYSES MADE BEFORE FIRST FROST, NOVEMBER 3RD.
rs] : ) 3) E
‘2 2 a} 8 = | =
= fe a, ee ag ae
ace ag eal ee ek Rd
| Sa eee aaa
VARIETY. | 3 ele | ele] 2 S
3 | 5 a | 9 | s E ei s
a — nm i; = — = | < —
sl ial oe
- - | §55.45/1.06S89} 1.54) 12.24) $3.44) 7.26] 11 80
~ ip ae ae a | Nov. 2) 953 96|1.0703| 1.79] 12 99] 2.93 8 = 11.92
White Paberiam: ...2 222.225 <cc0a.4-- Noy. 2.| 57.43)1.0731| 1-08} 13 07] 1.93} 10.06) 12 So
~ ay get oe i OE |Oct. 25.) 53 65/107 1.46] 12.37] 2.53) 8 38} PN
es - | < 450.83) 1.0834 93) 15 05) 3.20) 10 92) 15.03
Link’s Hybrid ...... Seer ener |Oct. 25.! jé0 10|1.0777| 1 90] 11 67} 2391 738/11 40
Tits yell a ey ee ee Oct. 30. 58 16) 1.0681 an 11 61) 2.56; 7.65) 11 11
. \58 27/1 0768 49} 14.16} .... Ss 13 60
Chinese Imphee................ ----|Ocb 20. }58.91|1.0732| -56| 13.83] 249] 10.78 13 40
\60 52/1 0741 -55| 13.635) 2.86} 10 24) 13 51
MNGCNAEHHIC 5.0 2-2-5 cccns = Baetee™ Oct. 30. }60.30/1 0693 “ 12.06, 324] 8.381 11.63
E 7 60.93}1 0571] .83| 9.91) 2.64) 6 44) 9 54
PniGempke-~..., .<caccas cancncass os Oct. 30. +62_6211 0669 st 12'15| 251) § 70,11 84
\57.83/1.0692) 1.58} 11.90}.. _. 11 74
(i Sos ee er ee Oct. 31. }63-86{1 0632| 2 01| 10.60) 2.75) 5 .84| 10 15
PST bie te es Be oe ee Pee Ee 1.23} 12.44) 2.68) § a 12.11

The results above given are very interesting and a little surprising.
It will be seen that the average shows, as the effects of these repeated
frosts and long continued cold weather of nearly fifty days from the
time when the first examinations were made, October 20th, to the last,
December 8th, the following:

Per cent.
Loss of juice-...----- eae SU A ES Ee ear RE Er Ce One Fe ee 32.69
SETUP et CHET LY ee Re =0 ee SS ee eee aS a 28 15
GSA UE PERMEOREN 2 ian ee oe pam eons cae so Pca ne shan oa ES a eee 131.7
Gaerteant RUGTOSE ~~. 22s 2acac-mss cae ss ee Sete iat wee oe aa ae sane Va See 15.35
Garon soles... ©2:.-755s650- 42-5535 Re eA oe en PRE oe wasn e a a Rs Saket OS 11 19

Loss in available sugar............ Bee Re rete Bon abc enc cawet cates tea caeee 1.16

160 SORGHUM.

The average results obtained by the polariscope before the frosts was
97.35 per cent of those obtained by analysis, while the results after the
frosts were only 90.84 per cent. This result is, in all probability, due
to the presence of inverted sugar in the juice, as is indicated by the
increase of glucose, which increase amounts, upon an average, to 1.62
per cent of the juice.

The increased percentage of sugar in these juices, obtained after the
frosts, must not be regarded as an actual increase of sugar in the plant;
for, on the other hand, there has been a very considerable loss of sugar,
as is indicated, not only by the increase in the glucose, which now con-
sists largely of inverted sugar, as the polariscope determinations show,
but there has been a very large loss of juice, showing a loss of water.
Indeed, there seems in this case to have been a gradual drying up of
the water of the plant; and the increased per cent of sugar shows
only that the inversion of the sugar and the fermentation and disap-
pearance of the glucose did not proceed quite as rapidly in proportion.

The following table will show the relative composition of the juices
before and after these frosts, and the results calculated to the stripped
cane:

Before frosts. | After frosts.
Per cent. Per cent.

Juice from stalks.......... BLAH DISD 10 De DNA Es OOD SOE 58.19 39.17
SITEROSCMIM MUG Cr tetas neyeatein ain tataisitiart oie ety ow ale Rie gartie ; 12.44 14.35
Glucose-m Juice...22...25%. BER A To OECD bint! cc een 1,23 2.85
SOUNGUS ALIS ULC Me cyte cleyticrodns.ayofatelolals cialacy pha made avseera. estate c1eib 2.68 2.98
DOUAMS OLEGS Ty NULLC Ores cian casm nae oaee nee. aes oe 6.24 16.35 20.18
ACTA LENS aR LI WOES ca aici n, Aateielse etaeseretes \ aera sews 8.53 8.52
Wiatersnn jWGes. 1) leat See ee Neots siemens 83.65 79.82
Sucrose expressed from stalks... :......-...sc0s0ssescess 7.24 5.62
Glucose expressed:from, stalks: .5...02. sof ss. sdieetetees es 71 1.11
Solldscempressed Grom Sales. 2.155... eb «sce oc eo cis ea 1.56 ali ty
Total.solids expressed from stalks:... .......... ...... 9.51 7.90
Available sugar expressed from stalks:.................. 4.97 3.3

Wiaterrexpressed from stalks... 260.02. 0c see secre eens 48.68 31.27

From the aboye it will be seen that the effects of these frosts upon
the several constituents of the juices, calculated to the stripped stalks,
showed

TOSS!ORISUCTOSEN este iierigs -i6)- 22.38 per cent, or 1.62 per cent of stalks.
Gain'ot ClUCOSe 33 RS - he 4- 40 56.34 percent, or .40 per cent of stalks.
Loss of solids. ...)..-:--...... 20,00 percent, or .39 per cent of stalks.
Loss of total solids........... 16.93 per cent, or 1.61 per cent of stalks.
Loss of available sugar....... 32.80 per cent, or 1.63 per cent of stalks.
Loss of water........-..0..'... 35.77 per cent; or 17.41 per cent of stalks.

These results above detailed must not be regarded as in conflict with
the conclusions published in the annual report 1881—82, p. 502, where

the increase in sugar during the later stages in the development of the

sorghum was shown not to be due to a loss of water by drying up of

%

ad
sor

EFFECTS OF FROST UPON sORGHUM. 161

the plant, as has been supposed by many, but was an actual increase
in sugar.

For comparison with the results just given, the results obtained in
1881, are, in part, repeated here.

Two stages of development are selected for comparison—the eley-
enth, when the seed was just hard, and when the amount of juice was
at its maximum; and the seventeeth, which represents several weeks

_after the seed had ripened.

The average analyses of the juices of 35 varieties of sorghum gave
the following results:

Eleventh. | Seventeenth

stage. stage.

Per cent. Per cent.

Number of analyses........ Saute aih's POURS ye eno oe 166 © 197
SS TLERUN A eT T 21 PWLNG ipg e e A 65.04 60.17
PMLOMOMETIIOE. eee SOME ck ieee ine acu gas ee de vet Sactes coe. 16.66 13.72
SUSE RCH Dee Sane eae SE ee See eee 2.35 1.56
Solids in juice........ ot trelegh Bee Pag a ey a ae ene ee See Pay p 4.07
Total solids in juice........... SES RR ES) noe aoe et ae et pad 15.73 19.35
PPELIe SIIPALY VIN GUICR. co sce Sie ek oe se ote ne add ees 5.59 8.09
PRR CPR IAR TRING Ose eet tree ne = ce! sac ne ed oe o> si taeoue et 84.27 80.65
Sucrose expressed Pras ee. aches ee oan ; 6.93 8.26
Glucose expressed from stalks........ See ete ae a aoe 1.53 -94
SUMIS Oe SpPLessed teOmn AtalkS. 7. Tt. oie bee 177 2.45
Total solids expresseé from stalks........... ........---- 10.23 11.65
Available sugar expressed from stalks.................-. 3.63 4.87
Wrealenex pressed from stalks: 22.0.2. 2.22 2a cece ase: 54.81 48.52

Calculating these results to the stripped stalks, we find between the
eleventh and seventeenth stages the following:

Gainin sucrose.. ........... 19.19 per cent, or 1.33 per cent of stalks.
Loss in glucose.....-.......- 38.56 per cent, or .69 per cent of stalks.
Gain in solids . ........ .... 38.42 per cent, or .68 per cent of stalks.
Gain in total solids.........-.: 13.88 per cent, or 1.42 per cent of stalks.
Gain in available BEST: =e oe 16 per cent, or 1.24 per cent of staiks.
Loss in water. ...... .... 11.48 per cent, or 6.29 per cent of stalks.

It appears, therefore, conclusively established, that long after the
seed has throughly ripened, and, indeed, as in all of our results, until
the plant is killed by the frost, there is a steady increase in the amount
of sugar in the juice, which is actual and not due to lossof water; and
that this increase extends also to the available sugar, which, as will be
seen above, increased from the eleventh to the seventeenth stages 34.16
per cent, while the sugar increased only 19.19 per cent. This re-
sult has been established by the continued experiments of the past
four years.

In discussion of the effects of frost upon the sorghums, the follow-
ing quotation from ‘‘Sugar Planting and Refining,” page 22, is so en-
tirely in accord with our own experience, that we give it in full:

11

162 SORGHUM.

?

The sugar-cane attains its greatest perfection within the tropics ; cold, in
any degree, opposes its growth and development, hence it can not be success-
fully cultivated in Europe, except in a very prescribed district of Spain. Even
in Louisiana, the frost often sets in before the planters can gather the crop, and
so affects the cane juice that it can no longer be induced to crystallize, unless
the canes can be cut and manufactured before a thaw occurs.

This singular change in the nature of the juice is occasioned by the fluid con-
_tents, the saccharine and the nitrogenized principles of the various cells or or-
gans, bursting their bounds and becoming intermingled the one with the other.

While the frost continues, the low temperature prevents the possibility of
fermentation taking place, which will altogether prevent the crystallization of
the juice if subsequently concentrated.

If the thaw or period of comparatively warm weather has sufficient duration,
this viscous fermentation continues until all the sugar contained in the juice
is inverted, and the commingled fluids have resolved themselves into a
viscid mucilaginous matter, possessing neither sweetness nor acidity. This
will occur to the juice of the yet uncut cane; but it also happens to expressed
juice under other circumstances. Juice which has become affected in this
manner can not be made into crystallizable sugar, and is valuable only for dis-
tillation to produce rum. In the upper districts of India, also, frost frequently
does great harm to cane crops.

EFFECTS OF FERTILIZERS ON SORGHUM.

The following experiments were made with a view of determining
the effect of various fertilizers upon the production of sorghum, in
Washington, D. C.

The plat of ground, upon which were grown 37 varieties of sorghum,
was 105 by 215 feet in size. The drills were lengthwise the plat, and
it was divided into four sections—three of 50 feet and one of 65 feet;
and these plats were respectively called A, B, C, D, a corner off A re-
ducing its area to 6,525 feet, the others containing each 5,250 feet. A
sample of the soil was carefully selected from many portions of the
entire plat, and analyzed, with the following result :

ANALYSIS OF SOIL UPON SORGHUM PLAT BEFORE APPLYING, FERTILIZERS,

Per cent.
WIGS ss Kcacgos ce GadcogenboopapencoUaAuaonaaee Bra mmictaejatrtevasens ta iste 2. S)elia’svaie(@tene- fata atts eet 1.740
OKEAMiC Mather. = 2... cc cece cee ww eee rece ents tt een eee te eter eee nsee seer sececaan 4.980
GAO KCL CLO Seine eroetatettnts ataia eievclecoicloicis ote eteiein te sieisiein/eieraie cha. och byw jc 0 aU levee ale ote tuyn eleacate Stopes 200
WILSOLIN Le mlea CLO Meeps ea cistcies oe lotic oiaicle ris ccrareleseiciaielr vinie’ Ta lere.eelawlessien # MtsteitYavslet ieee 84.235

Ferrie oxide
Alumina......
bib) 4.01200 seb sob DOLD DODO DOC DOOR CROC aC HSE Door pee aanaocoEromeacrn not oposcnrbocuaascc

IMAC MEST Aa. ececresaielelsievel=/-l= 3

PHOSPHOTIG ACIG.... 2.0.0. cece ecw w ccc een e eer e ees n ees scence cece eserceceecsensens A:
POTS ee ratio teciaiioesicicicie steinalcleieiaiertiaeipinioieletale Meiaaicicisiniel siccioteleteisialcieiscreteret= S50 wae .100
SiO ans (8.50 Can cud an DS SOnHdD OOOO CORD CORE OO UE OCT CONCD OOO EFDA AOOAGUDaCcRIOOS OcoOgdS F 054
- Sulphuricacid......... Sreistetaainiainicteleleleieielelevercirieieiciefeisiere/cleve, efainie s(einrerelelniereieteietietene salevaiets soe 024

EFFECTS OF FERTILIZERS ON SORGHUM. 163

An inspection of the analysis of the soil shows it to be exceptional
in its very small content of lime, and in the almost entire absence of
chlorine. It is, in fact, a gravelly soil, which has been highly culti-
vated, and very considerably changed in its character. Its need seems
chiefly to be the addition of sulphate of lime (‘‘land plaster,” or
gypsum).

Upon plat A there was applied :

13 pounds of kKainite,
5 3 ammonium sulphate,
be calcium sulphate.

Upon plat B there was applied:

21 pounds of potassium sulphate,
04 ae calcium sulphate.

Upon plat C there was applied:

50 pounds of superphosphate,
104 = ealcium sulphate.

Upon plat D there was applied:

50 pounds of bone meal,
104 oe

calcium sulphate.

The above amounts are equal to an application per acre as follows:

Plat A:
87 pounds kainite,
37 oe ammonium sulphate,
774 S calcium sulphate.
Plat B:

175 pounds potassium sulphate,
867 ul calcium sulphate.

Plat C:
417 pounds superphosphate,
867 ss calcium sulphate.
Plat D:
417 pounds bone meal,
S67'>) calcium sulphate.

ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS USED UPON SORGHUM PLAT.

Superphosphate of lime:

Per cent.
Belo le PUONPHOTIGIN@IE ea. coos n0 ga ea ee eae See ants Meena tae 9.77
insoluble PHOSPHOFIC ALIG. <5... cect oa wesc cen cons asedaancowscsenesausucsnusdses 3.63
Reverted phe@sphoric eid. -....- 02... cece cece re scencnaccen cee ss-betesecs sek -69
Nitrogen (=N Hs 2.45 percent)............ BEA Sap PARCE BE 2.02

Commercial kainite:

Per cent.
Potassium sulphate..... se So Susehasbeaspeaussenms® Seebeedeew ae Bente 24.74
Sodium sulphate................ see decesanee eres cece aS aos swcnl eras twcienese ass. 5 18 .92

Sodium chloride........... pene ecdensnceeeendwocssneeece SC er acces LEAS

164 SORGHUM.
Bone meal:
Per cent.
Phosphoric acid...........0 22 cece ee ec eee ence een e eee eee e eect eee eeee ceases cetanes 21.96-
Nitrogen (=N H3 5.22 per Cent).....-.---- 2s eee cece cece cence cece reece ere cceee 4.30
Sulphate of ammonia:
Per cent.
Pure am moniunt sulphates... <2...) css se ecec scenes Aon OUpeC oboe beaten. 98 39
Sulphuric acid (S Og)..........- TNE nia oie tra eiaeteierelaints etree liao si) shevecouele eistetanees 59 63
IAG TO LA ON Mga oe srelciaietetwieielamieieicialni= a <lnienicie eletoioinie cleieie olels'e)eie's cls \~ s/e/-/* =e] ¥(els/al 25 .34
Sulphate of potash:
Per cent.
Pare pOtaSsitm Sa lpH Ales cece ajaccle sae cette fee miele olete<iievat= nie o[ein w1=[=o1e9 pie12)5)~) 25-1) +e ale latee 98.79
LETS Hays cul (REGMO) bak onee oe ah) onc codocscdondoe! so0d nu boo HaubeseEa beara aancae 53 sen

Souhal iy sees pVort (USI Ot ot ma ccrosertrcn pono StSntobd 00> CUO ae GO CROC ROO Oats C 45.42

The superphosphate was such as is commonly sold in this vicinity ;
it was a good article, but not of the highest grade. The same may be
said of the kainite. The other fertilizers were of higher grade. It was
thought best to show the effect of each fertilizer on each cane in the
various stages of its growth. For this purpose, the results are classi-
fied in the three tables to correspond with a content of sucrose; in the
first set below 5 per cent, in the second set of 5 to 10 per cent, in the
third set of 10 to 15 per cent, and in the fourth set above 15 per cent.
Tt will be understood, that the results embraced in the third and fourth
sets are those attained during the period when most of the canes were
in the best condition for working ; those in the first and second sets are
equally valuable as helps in settling the effect of the fertilizers on the
immature growing cane; while the final averages must, after all, give
the most accurate general idea as to the effect of each fertilizer on each
cane during the whole season.

We do not feel warranted in drawing any definite conclusions from
these final averages; the close agreement between the averages drawn
from so many results, seems to point to the fact that the soil originally
contained sufficient food for the proper development of the sorghum
plants, and that the addition of these special fertilizers was unnecessary,
and resulted in no marked change in the composition of the sorghum
juices. In fact, the analyses made the year before showed the canes to
have the same composition as they this year were found to have, and
equally large crops of four varieties of sorghum were then obtained.
These results must not be taken to prove, however, that on certain
soils, which are deficient in one or more essential constituents of plant
food, the addition of proper fertilizers will not be of great value.
Certainly, such additions to poor soils are likely to increase the crop:
whether the quality of the juice will be improved, must yet. be de-
cided.

EFFECTS OF FERTILIZERS ON SORGHUM. 165

Effects of Fertilizers on Sucrose, Glucose, and Solids, in Sorghum Juices.
The three tables which follow represent 634 analyses, made for the
purpose of determining what, if any, differences in the composition
of sorghum juices are caused by the use of different fertilizing ma-
terials.

166

f cane.

OoOIS Mb wyH | Number o

10

SORGHUM.

PERCENTAGE OF

First SET.—Average su-| SECOND SET.—Average
crose below 5 per cent. |sucrose 5 to 10 per cent.

VARIETY, . a S 8 < ma e A
ov o ov o o oO oO ovo
N N es ds) | as “S| S|
Soe | et | ee | eS | ee
= 7 = 7 = = im >)
o oO o oO i) o o ovo
i is ie oy cs & Fy
Early Amber.........< BSA CO SA OCA Ata tera ea ccte aaeodl hacen 8.41 28 235 Bae
Early Amber........ BO SAD ASE aa btn epee labrden iloacoae Bere 9.17| 9.02] 11 82) 7.84
Early Golden.......... FASO SS OCs) naan acon ta erate lee 817! 8.42] 10.55) 9.55
Golden Syrup.... ...... SHA IGA SC Cron [eroe et bceiOrae tae Beal yen 10 62) 11.06] 7.22) 7.44
MA rine bya Ch Ran gasad BeroobaCl one posad|pesers 2 20 |e 8162) 7.62]. . |e
BarlycAtm ber ae. iectecieisic.e Mera tercatal| eles eaoe| eucte, ete] etree a ese aves) syereve allt ssejadeee | eeu | Meee
MIEMGKS WOT Ce Gauancdeocnos oases ote Been eens (creed ASE eee Pe SRE Panocoellecco cc
RL DVO Oy eats p OORDOD Sone ROL eta Ob eon eens (Moca d -eadiaes| bara oA] a iereca al ieee erates | aE
Wihitea Mam mOth es cs sete sters fae citscel| ete icc cal Struc iee se cecilia oielecs 8.66} 9 04] 8.47] 8.19
Oo pE ris (etoe)) oF: eats a AO Oe Che eho eel [a ea Seren | ee aes [apache Ieeaanere 6.20} 9.67) 9.50} 8.50
Ryered Wey MSVay ea VOWS -cra wo ocCOCC ae sasd|nocded) heneac 9.15] 9.06) 10.70) 7.67
JabyWorevel) Sascaes -BoSadapoed boo sonoooor Eh ore Reo oae BAPE AREA |tewtcclh: 30.0 -
Sugar Cane......... wraureiele olavsiata ta siete cVei] festevatere|| teieisteas veil arafer wl] aye/svecel] ehenevelste ii fate ee
XM IUAATEH I 5 snco OAD OURO OOH DEO A|\nor opt vente Pe rall ame 823s
VEER TN ek: nemsae ou AACR EAC CCODCCEOC oO Sal (ea coral It Cones! Hesiecks iecroerar 9 08} 9 86] 8 75] 8.66
GOOSEINIEC Ke eee ae wisterele oe trecee eel larereieyerl| taeares 9.38] 8 27) 8 58) 8.84
Iden (Opes aoe ocasaccsppodonoRoec|so6a be 28 Au Pigaeenal ocean 8.78} 9 63! 8.95) 8.87
NIGGA halay ae Ono pRB ROS DAUD CI REA Se Bae has ec | MoeAeel lacie fates 9.15, 9.47) 9.55) 9.08
NIGAM MEA bor odeédacdoocod asoedsacc |pdoned neanon Ppaoen poo Joa 5. es
COUTTS AG con gota aos coc O Brea o cl [occ Ici ore aeaen (ieee siren 8.33) 7.52) 8S Sie 7aGn
WHO TEAR ail sere nctecintereretcreteccterstocsie ats.a/sista2ra\| a-crerterel [sorte sellin iatale 9.43] 9.21} 12 58} 10.72
(CARBO) Onc Se coco anC ano OOO RUC odpota [ane onal (aracesl eso 8.29] 8 00} 7.61] 8.33
PDE OE Me amabnocodsfoodT CONE eROC Oe becca Impeneaa Ice 9 09} 8.93] 8.34) 8.75
VN Aero: caSnmoOoodanoee Boe Dal herecsiers Seam: ||Rooeme (Geewrern 8.58] 8.52) 8 26) 8.71
SOAS) NEES Se 6 Bigg GadOBNGA COOOOO REDO BACBDE, | Gane! ncocar 9.03; 8 74] 8.48) 8.38
SS UNINC oeh crcieketerereisbete leita slelesuceie eteraie'> [lei nteve'e Asa : 9.73} 9.05) 8.89} 8 52
Mastod onsen sominetem cineca cieisis: Pesce | (eens teoac| erro At94)Ae70\) eae wsece| S48) Sa
(ny Nn 6a cosSoncng fo OO COOUD SCARS | he eel tora ages) eadeo| (seam [esos m: 8.77| 8.88
NG W) Viaitletyicrercicic sos\vis\a' 5 Gone eel rode eda dl oanae voce | 0-421" W97l) (Sr 2e aaa
Stbbees out) iG. Sada. Go nb cone oO Reoeo. aoe ee ge 3 rene 8.80} 8.54
POMMIUTAS wae posi cecisis1s Sees Atlee 1.46| 8.73) 395] 4.38} 6 68] 6.85] 7.83) 7.82
BEN MENACE Oey: Sek ooecanesod Capp sddepe 3.80} 3.87] 4.05} 4.3 8.46} 8 OS} 8.21] 6.66
SDran ele Mow yee crac eeiarserteises 8 05} 3 53] 8.59] 38.71) 6.74) 7.39) 8.26) 8.47
HOma ira ees nese ce wot cree alcics 3.55] 4 05] 3.40) 3.68] 8.35] 7.99) 7.51) 7.71
Honey Top, or Texas Cane......... 8.11] 3.39] 2.89] 8 47| -6.89| 7.17] 8.00) 7.82
ELON N eerie etre siotescs=ral acer ee ete oss Se 3.38! 3.29] 3.389) 7.68]. 7.72| 7.66) 7.535
Silber ye (Ob Wns Sons So 4abs Moopbageoenpo $10) 6.59) 2.27) 38.71) 8.55) 7.41) TWialiesass
INT OVEN REN So cagg oe BOO DadIA Ease | 3:93! 3.98] 4.02] 8.72] 8.17] 8.19) ScSil\zeeS
c C.
: was
Orderten eee epee ete tiaws Seine nwys's D. B
A. D.

EFFECTS OF FERTILIZERS ON SORGHUM. 167

GuLtcoseE In SoLIDs.

FINAL AVERAGES.=Ay-| a
THIRD SeET.—Average sucrose |FoURTH SET.—Average su- S
10 to 15 per cent. crose over 15 per cent. sarap for =
SS, é
< faa) S i=) < jae) oS) = < a o i= a
he he I BR & tH be me be = H = °
oa ev i) oO oO o oO oOo o <) o oOo wu
N N N N N N N N N N N N @o
— | = = = = a = ra = = = 2
3S S Ss Ss Ss 3S S Ss Ss Ss 3S 3S sg
ww ~ um os — iJ oa ~ a ~ i=)
o 5) oO o o o 3) Ss) (S) ° S) Ss) 5
= = = = = & = = = = 5 = AZ
ROMO asa) | ARAN con's aicfoccascliee oe el ocean 11.87] 12.09) 12.34] 12.41) 20
11.66 11.54 10 84 cb 1 | Os (eae PG Se be oe 11.28] 11.30) 10.90) 11.78} 19
TEC SEI |p oak WAR (2 | late Te Ae 4) Pe ie 5) |e | (i meee |e oe 11.06} 11.64} 11.18} 10.78} 19
11.89 12 50 12.36 16 a | (ee lees 1B aoe nd ay 19.61] 12.34) 11.75} 11.11) 18
13 18] 1270) 12.57) 13.35 Bea te Pe ee eb 15.20) 12.80) 12.24] 11 62) 33.51] 11
12.41 Bea, Gis oaths A renee 16251) AD J071 2.5222 EAS LAYS) ieee 12
ey AS O3| 5 sent gb Bee Woden (es Se. g UR far bs 224 15} Ieee ee 13
Pedcs3ile cet) eG bt yat LC) ties bs 11 | Rees eee ee Vener ed |e ee 12 33] 12.40] 12.10) 12.10) 19
13 14 12 60 13 53 13.41 15.30] 14.91] 15.09} 16.15] 12 17} 11 41] 12 68) 12 56; 13
12.39 12 27 12 59 i AY LT] ea ay | Roepe RE? eRe Beal tere 10.92} 11.58] 11 68} 11 29) 19
2.24 12.23 11.95 1b Aas 5) (See tee ec otc. Wee 11.95] 11.90} 11.81] 11.86} 19
13 67 MS BAN cists cee 85 .64)) 1) 48) ol cose 14.45} 14.42] 15
AS tie] Meee R353) WL UT IR iti a ESR ee geg (a F ye | A 13.50] 14.08} 14
SSCS OS PP Oeee 2 2 AS GI oe es] ek 15.24) 15.43).... 12.48} 13 51] 17
12.61 12 84 12 42 EEC ee ES ee : . .-) 12.28} 12.51), 19.99) 11.98) 19
12.41 11.52 11.58 12.33 15 20 _.| 15.00] 15.13] 12.16) 10.98} 11.22] 11.98) 19
12 68 12.49 12.82 12.95 15.81] 13 78} 15.49] 15.45) 12.42) 12 24] 12 52) 12 62) 18
2 AAS | oes bedi hey TS 28548] eg a | | ey (eee ee ; 12.38] 12.59) 12.94] 12 06} 20
ore AA Gay Ase Salle sees 52 aoe) 2 20 12.97] 12.91] 13
EN tel Ao a AOS, TES OO oo Bo a4 less s _ 11.18} 10.40) 10.61; 10.87) 17
Lbs) ett Rp Slate eS iets) (2S Ny SCE ee ae 12.13) 10.47 13
13.50] 11.93} 12.75) 12.31] 15.60) 13.87) 14.71) 15.96) 11.14) 10.17) 10.14) 10.52] 18
13 19 12.60 13.10 13.59 ea 4 11.88] 11.31) 11.34] 11.71} 20
TALS) | ae 2s Ry We Re be) as aes 11.56] 11 05} 11.51] 11 00} 20
LSi sy 13.01 13.13 13.24 es 12.04) 11.51) 11.34] 11.62] 17
12.52} 13.24 3.45} 12.61 15.73) 13.72) 15.84] 15.10) 11.59) 11.03) 11.18] 10 88} 16
31 ae8S, aSe 11.72 c [Joh Thee eng 16 0) 1G bb. 2S ieee) LOO IOS lady.
PRES P ad 12.18 7 bs] eae pier es memes pac Fs ye): 6 S98 Pe 322.0. SE 04) 41-54) “6
TROUT ED | cee BRASS [Pega 538 C5) Fs ee ee ene - : 10.11) 9.89) 10 49} 9 99) 16
Dewees a et SAN we foo. | ae 2 ato 01 IG OG ee 10.63) 10.79] 15
USTED) Om es TERS Ss ie Le) | Us Lee 1 2) EPR (pone (deed Ite 7 7.09} 8.17) 8 64} 8 56] 17
12 24 11 69 11.59 1 A Lae 5) ie ae oe IGS a eee 9.23] 8 33] 8 40} 7.87] 19
Sires) Pa Tet yr RT ay Fs es | | a Perce nen (ee (a eare 6.90} 7.21) 7.55) 7.97) 21
elds wt AG lec OON) SAPOO dS. 2 cc fiesea ones ace 7.49) 7.87) 7.25) ~7.d1]) 15
11.28 ne 10 90 i tel 3 7 [ih ee) Ipearere eee fe! 3 Bey eos 7.04, 6.70) 6.94) 7.62) 23
Ady SUMIG IE cee oie SOL Sat. ee li. cs eee coaeece ee 7.82| 7.09) 7.49] 6 93) 19
10 7 9.98 12.15 LUA) EEE ARES (RotIeae (ee eos (Pecreae 8.44) 7.89) 8.21} 8.93] 18

12.38} 11.38} 12.38} 12.43) 15.60} 14.27| 15.48) 15.50 10.79 10.55} 10.82) 10.68

wes
Q

yor

OPO

168 ~ SORGHUM.

PERCENTAGES.

First SET. — Glucose | SEconD SET. — Glucose

corresponding with eorresponding with
average sucrose be- average sucrose 5 to
low 5 per cent. 10 per cent.
oO
5 VARIETY , ; : : . .
aE ; < A o A < 9 ‘) A
° H al i H Lol Hw mB taal
=I <>) o co oO oO i) oO oOo
E Beep ae Ole | meh ee hve ae
>! oS 7) 7] 5) ) oO o oO
Z Be | Be |e] ee) Be] fe
Fla fa Te PATID OMG res Paratot cine ia, 61 ores a¥orels <7 Wireyl| (ose S| wos leno, rani hh etal liars =. Bh chee
pie pice high) Aiea] 012) ora rac A Pra ae eg | (eaten op Seta | eee act ome aise 1.79} 2.58) 1.30) 1.87
SB V OLE OMe ies sta waee ako sieicitac]| coctm Shot Woeana ocean 2.23) 1.96] 1.83) 1.57
ANGOMIE RY SLU: 23-356 vast eee tence eee anc eres Nn) ociat -pescet 16a) 1/64) 2:61)9 1250
Hi WVibatesPiberiang. 5-t.ja-as. donee aasee)) see eee s MV) aes 3.18) 1.50 he oeee
GRY A TIN OT teats inane She mroraseia 0. aralfio.n ee etal] wale Sinn te/n | bee eee | ee ee ne oe
PAN LLC AO ar ten Sre sats, tere aie ecstatic assis ote orn oye g Eee Perro et Sr 7| MR rr | esa Se
Si PAUTICAM OE pe eB te cticie's Sooah noel esefeeits || Uelse rel): clescila| <2 <c.oi] (08 oe ool] eee aaa ee a
Oh White Mam Moths... acs cetecctess2 ol Meee lc Scns poem |\se ate 2.45' 2.69} 3.09; 2.8
LO POOMSCCAMN Ae tects. ogee eects noses ce ates evel acest excer| 2, LO 1206) “2a07 aroo
Ail POLL UAT SOLERO cee aos sac ne seen Seale) eee [ociencsfcleeeer | woettO) oe O | Meters | mane
ADA RY DUIG: © GE open eS aie alts tieeiclae ee Sos | A lee See seve [iad 5.c|neMere bk semeeh lee are
pitt STORENG AILC ates em arate rosie) eras Seats Sm candi eae FINSe [leks eel ero fois Bersi praschs BPE cial
HA OOIMS CCRT cerita jetgaietas acerae sialic miner eeibearen ball oaierac eee eee Hoe 2.11} 1.48
SY NETS OE ai Se a eGeabe SrconrmOabcc gon icf o6) sears PaeaRel lace me 3.72} 3.62) 3.75) 3.71
16 | Goose Neck...... apockcloorbooean sere Bee | cae] MESnee oes 3.10] 3.09] 3.02] 3.02
177 NPAT ORLA Gea veisiehtete omen oeibini scott se ilete eee een el ete Bie >= « «|| 4:03) 8'65|" Srsnlmsnae
TS | PNGCAZAn ay MG = her SS Asse cesens Sate isa Seri eRe 3.83} 3.49} 3.86] 3.84
FEW NCSC S VEN ST SR) GODRE BOE ne Bre teeed4) ere (Sal (Secret neem (meee ae Sa ae eee
ON) WEEMS Oe beret sfene teres dee tis om cick | eee ea |r oeete [lescrersel [hits ooh 3.88) 3.49] 3.538) 3.77
OL WV OL nel epiling se cree eos ite oc ee 3 Satta? bal (etal ince as are 1.13{° 4 Selene
Son GRAND met craatattd wcelas ificeles oa elaine teal ose ealoces aeMe Pele Oe 2.23) 2.17|) $222RNe 2e40
99 VD BE MAS Asa. ae cece es bies eben SF Ete ee| (are on (pReaae ts 3.37} 3.51] 3.54] 3.70
Doria tal Sila crits Seek yacinete cot eee O MCE EI (ence ee red (elon tae hy Keeceemeaieas| Ie eae 3.65| 3.71] 3 72) 3.88
D5 WOMBCOANG serie aber toacis nein celles Seals cect allansoced| ease 3:82! 38.85) 3.99} 3.99
96 WoUureea erect ce eieyarics ts clesc%l- Bl Were bec leanne | eae 3.74| 3.70} 3 98] 4.25
7 | MASEOMOD! ca-ciAae. ee Nt ARO OG OOO) | oe ae ther ae 4.61] 4.82 EN 2.76| 2.42
DSi Dmip Hees merece et eee Gein aele costs: [treet alpacas REPS lh eee Pe 4.15} 4.03
99) ONG Wa Viarletys sc mee cet tie 2 s.ca% eisictcla a= st os, ee woes [pate = |) ‘SEO - 3.92/38. 973) enor
Sh |S aC yee rete tesa seas oie yaie'scte, [2 eters Peat earache ae : 3.98] 4.33
SU EL OMG UT AS We eel oes alte Oe ce. ye cies 3.06) 2.37] 2.61) (4.61) ©2,44| 2.3 2-21) 2hAe
30) Honey: Caner. sce. moaitee en aisles. crs 4.43) 4.46, 4.63) 4.42) 3.19] 3 47| 38.64] 4.12
33 | (PELOMG RAS s, cer reset rte ste eyo opis etcles= 4.74) 4.93) 5.02) 5.08} 4.15] 4.15} 3 82] 3.56
34 | SprangleWopiee: seen e cent oases lee 4.55} 4.59! 4.74) 4.90] 3.67) 3.72] 3.93] 3.57
35 | Honey Top or Texas Cane.......... 4.73; 4.69] 4.80) 4.82) 4.17] 3.94] 3.90] 3.8
36 | Honduras....... Becieiechi ciom Molter cies 4.61] 5.12) 4.86) 4.44] 3.77] 4.06] 3.62] 3.94
87 | Sugar Cane..... sinielerreals Meemieieeein acto 2.53] 1.97, 3.09} 3,52] 2.69) 2.27] 3.06) 3.19
AVCTASES yee ener 2 ageinsoboga 4.43) 4.50) 4.51) 4.75] 3.22] 3.28) 3.34] 3.40

Order is fanjcaccar meson siete | BR =
A. A.

169 «

|
|
:

OF GLUCOSE.

erage glucuse for the

| FPINaL AVERAGES.—Ay-
row.

with average su- |

oc
4

spondins
erose over 15 per cenit.

FotrtTH Ser.—Glueose corre-

th average su-

erose 10 to 15 per cent.

THrIrp Ser.— Glucose corre-
sponting wi

HUB | (MASBARSRBARAN SRSBASSRASSSERSS | &
“CL OZ POT ot rd rr md ! Ll OA NNO ND NON On tm a Om am oO am OD oD a
———_Suahh GHASETAeGARAS SAEKRGSSACRAAaes | a
dO“ Pou ee i es ‘el NOI ON ONT a 09 60 ON Om Om 60 Om 6 a
ie —SRRRSRRSHSGS : BEAR EAFASRR A RRSCRAR | GS
“EL LOZ [007 sd pd re rm rd mt ret red dN ND rm i) ak Aneel a
GRSRenSeaSs.. BaSA BHERASR. = SSBhe az. ape
*V dO“ PMO eee te ee pth afabebe oe AO at
TT, ee ee SR eR i | a
omer i a me got ik aM LE
Tht ek Cae Ea ee ae
pitts: 18) MNS BRB SRR Ri a
Sr cs aie Ge lg le le Baad hae ar
Piha =i
“EL LO4} HAO Ct Airsires
: EI LE ©
"V dOZq LOT fe ee mace
= HARBA hasee EeTETaR REETLE FEC EE Beane 7%
‘Cf LOZ [og ilalalalt | pat ad a rat ad ad ad SN ad OM SD rt (kt ON oO aU BN 4
: | @ases . Gangagaresnns EELEEY a
‘9 dO“ T[ Og eed ee al et oa eH aod edo ad mt asd Od kod oan od vind oa
TEGHRESRNRA GEN BRESESA 3 |
“EL MOS |TV Printer Te ete ee i
ss | ARRAIRABARR |: A BANSSRR: A eBRGBAR | FE
‘y soz tou Let red rl rd mrad md med mS ed ee a ed TN GUN oa
res ive mond

170 SORGHUM.

.

First SEtT.—Solids cor-

responding to aver-
age sucrose below 6

PERCENTAGES OF

SECOND SeEtT.— Solids
corresponding to av-
erage sucrose 5 to 10

& per cent. per cent.
3 ete
Co
VARIETY. a 3 3 S e 3 G S
5 s|/8/s/8]s}s]s] 3
& STE DI AS! OO pS [to LST eS tS Se {ls
2 a | 20) ee |S > es | Se
e St eager heen har Sole ae
ei Fa eae es, ab ike | oe gd ee
SLs | pele Se IPA ANN NESTE? sree hats Iaicst se is tvalidjoeje ava teva ere | Wes eaee Ce fol nee 2 Ne
2 | Early Amber:...... SUN osyele touscand inlets lsc N| ts GOs Ol hee ee Rete tel at chee 3.41] 3.44) 3.98} 4.86
By | Mea OU GIN 25/5, sche re ouate evega)slcieinvesa etc] Sie ele shee 8.24] 2 95! 2.36] 3.62
AACR OLMRTIESUIE IP yo. 6 ceo ate sa.ecicyate ls sista oallseterasal| atatareee atest atoll aes 3.05) 3.06] 2/70) 235r
BA NMED HE MDOT IGIA® b4-cf vit s.s,sjayre sce ciscellateeiten emer i [es 3-19) 4226) cael
Gre ar VeAMIBOE Ts tut. «ce. cisisistarciasot ae sey pel Ye eesal ll Oper ee : el mer oe gst |e
TPC OL AM No) CR R sts SEER OSCR EE ACIOEEr (Bere P Ie vcnel ree or] reel aor alWee seb EA |)
8 | African DNA Seis eid fai ns ok oie sic all ee ead eee . AG . och eae
OAV INL CG PVE TT INNO DD foe mcs sersiein cere rere || verses tL OAM ees fimo 2 oo) ere stots 2.01; 210] 1 88} 2 02
TOM OO UISE CMs cite elena cio elermlacciote/eial ate aoc | Mecrors| acpoal Seer 2.07| 2.14) 2.74] 2.38
Pie | eo AL SOLE O fh os..de lnc sees eae Biss 0) erent ial eceeiel Reset 2.44) 2.53) 2.90) 2.38
1d had i ofc alts Se eS eeu Aan ence vero) Niemi. | cera avemee » adi || sete s call tore |
BIG BI Pe Sr Ysa 2h nk OF: ) et pa EL ee CCC EAC CHOC. Y OSC ol | or ae) eee! [emer } oo lh eee
At OOMSECRMA (cin chiacicce aoe cosets wee! ee enue teste ws cs [eras o. i : 2.50, 290
ISIN GSN Ils CORES) ORE EBC COOOE MAC ROcITo rel 1 lotic. lector) mecca lemecte 2.49] 2.82) 2.46) 2.80
T6WWGQDOSGUN GCap a actye seisleoeiclesaeiel nine BABS Al (cc ea| Cobre 197| 2.05| 2.46] 2.7
TUgpal Pal oy id Ryn Oak she oer BB Ca Qne SoS rOCe au lbetnc 4! (GOoArc| Speco) Ear 1 44) 1.73) L9t\) 2202
1S: |INGOHZ ATs ek sates s tielesraia en erea Soe) eastacicl Peet 2.29] 3.58] 2.501 2.25
19° | MING Vidic hOUy sn patter telecine ara ies oil tes mee eee cae 2 ore f : me
Gt) Fk i 6 no) eit ac acces CEO ane Cees | (eens 5 4| kam recy (oreo 2:29| 2.40) 2 .5¥| 2.37
Ti MMOLE ELUM cobs ct\cleetalavole cola vaie, sae aretes | hs seen ere sel ewes 2. 61\° 358] oo sae eee
PRM Lent hc ANS) 0) coe 8G ABC OR CORED OAS OO” este rateld etree sf satel vet 2.58) 2.59) 274i
PIN MENLO TEMSURD cas acetetoe eoleie pidiere fe. eteve. nue.mi ect ngs ks (hy eae ee ee 2.69) 2.55) 2°28) 2°73
ID el Ohi) oY ha (i aoa Sere ME COCO Eee cee! (corn Ine Coral (COckan (Setar 2 .56| 2.47) 232) ian
Dee OMUSE GALL lee trrtotcle real e era ste lciereve. clei a Moe teen lereae eserall retorerere| age) ala vers 2.69] 2.74| 2 50] 2 80
W\) Pelbhene Rerns Sano eeic UPCOID ESWC BUMEONOH| (modi cose. ecw. | 2042) 2.06) 2.20) S285
boy All EN!) t=} 810 104 0 Was, Srattes, AERO R CR ICICI oe eek, a E23] fee al Ley. A ae ea eed endl 2:27) 2.54
Pl EG Vahey wae soc aonb GOn 6 SOBER ORO He eels ets oe oer 2.88] 3.13
PNT PAs iMie EHP Av GoSo & nO COMOOP EMEC) mekse | (acabetel louie lycreane 2.35) 2.12) 2°31) 2a
Sih iste tak: Polgs ats Se 8 See) ARI eIenPe ImreP 06] Meike Imre ia eres 9.58] 2.44
CoM IS fos tok bhi n 5 ot) GoGo e Ur a OCOT Ore mae 1.11} 2.79} 2.50) 2.04; 260! 2.90] 2.59] 2.89
BPA fel alpen glory Nei-7 7 ao bok ode uO eOrpnOne 1.76} 2.01) 1.82) 1.90) 2.15) 1.99) 1.76) 1.76
SB ES DLAI CULO Deere yank acys<6 2-24 - 1.78) 1.72)) 1:81) 2.83) 1-84) 2 25) 1798) oa
SAU WIETOT OUT AR cree eee siete iets nesta sete ore oicre wie 1539) 72) 2578) 8249) 9016) 237) ese
35 | Honey Top or Texas Cane......... 1.57) 1.68)- 1.63) 1.37) 191) 2.07) 2.14) 2.15
(MINS KobeKelbhas ieee soon ra COC OC oe eee 1259] 1:37] 1266) 1.49) 12°79) “1/91 “DAO
CVA Safety el ObnlS 2ae oon e oped seapeeoenr S:0f|| wo,OL|) 2529), 2-73) ) 9.80) 253), Qrsseeaee

Averages........... pease <i cLv2| 2.8L) 80) 168) 9539) = 2240| sede meee

B. Ds
Orders. cdateres iaaacecce- c me
D Cc

171

EFFECTS OF FERTILIZERS ON SORGHUM.

SOLIDS NOT SUGARS.

erage solids for the

Tow.

sponding to average su-

FourtH Ser.—Solids corre- | Final AVERAGES.—Ay-
crose above 15 per cent.

Sret.— Solids corre-

sponding to average Su-
crose 10 to 15 per cent.

THIRD

‘C LOZI MOT

") doz 40 |

"A 1OZT 49

*V 102} 1} 0 T

* 192719

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"A LOZ TOT

‘Vy dOZI[ 10K

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SeRst: ARABS

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172 SORGHUM.
Effects of Fertilizers on the Ash of Sorghum Juices.
A small number of determinations (34) were made of the ash of

various sorghum juices; it was originally intended to make a larger = *
number of estimations for the purpose of showing the effect of these
four fertilizers on the amount and composition of the ash in sorghum
canes and juices. The pressure of other work and the limited num- ‘
ber of assistants prevented the completion of the work, and the results

here recorded are given for what they may be worth.
If these results are considered sufficiently numerous to warrant any
conclusions, it appears that the amounts of ash are least with fer-
tilizer A, and increase regularly in the order A, B, C, D.
I seems hardly safe, however, to draw any conclusions.
safely infer, however, that the ash in sorghum juices does not vary
greatly from 1 per cent.
The following are the results obtained :

We can

EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS ON THE ASH.
< ea) S) a < a] o A
H i] Lael iol i uw mH in]
Oo (<3) 7) 3) ’ o oO oO o
No. OF CANE. A s a a No. OF CANE. s BS a I
i= = Zl ‘Gi =| ‘= = =
o o 2) Oo o <2) oO o
& | & | & | & i fe = fa
1 As RRP pre ae Lees ; Su Sr 3| WEI Ue a ae At L460 |... 2 oalteoeee
Lp ae : Bhs Bl tee te] | Meee coe AP ita ie ee arate slants [8 4 femea | eee
Taos MRO A Cet Tr tee See lS of Fa td a Us 3 Wa ES 2 ad eee een peer hr! =
Meeks ae ete e Fein : =| PROT. Fa Rie Se cena nes accent IM were PIB hoes
BPE aoa dn oP Neato ere Pa he et Lets fol oe: 26.. £98) |e. 2: Allee
iin SBOE tn Peoria | ites pane | | eecte ee Slt ae Ke TREE Age iva pect welee eal oa Rl eater .89 95
ie Se ova tacttewe thee wert 590) GE66u 2s 2 a dee De ee eee Rta) Wee Moot eum
Sicaue es ehtleosate ere arate ate a. oa) eee Be Sy eaclmaiai aioe beet. «kava yells Chavet, eae On ep
ee Fen si eeN ay het he cee ll eee , ; ee SUE ee ae OL oe Sa os orl [ean sh oe
AD oe tosiowe Scheaeoe 1.13 .93 2974) Went BEL, aac eae ac BES alee is SL Oe ete |e
DY Merah tye cate cea cee ae BO a aw ser| iss eceees RR ee elec ris see atts ce-|20 22s eran alee
10: 6) Re Sa a ee ieey) | IRa Pasay 32 ee ee ae he ite
at AC atae erste cree ee aS .84 | 1.00 oe a ee. 2 <2. 3 RY ee ee
Sf ei eee ee ees at TIES] leat Et BM | Se op en Weve Sift ced-otened ia aise al eee
A serene Bee eee Pie Ries Salinooe : Bee rE aeaer Peay (teers
ALGe a OT 150391) 1208: |) 1205: AT AR tee Ne eee be Ame .88 vc aM cee
DL PRs enon eee .82 risfek:| loge Iaeeteme 1a) (@Oieh oi) oes ene 94 .88 S: Be 9
1S Nena Sre ce ea ee joichil Genes | Bapeer 5.83 |12.59 | 8.71 | 9.01
AK eS ome ee orem | ee 2 1.09 | 1.12 |} No. estimations. 6 12 8 8
| Wp ae aed ER SR (ES 2 ifs 53) | wee Sere lt AVETAS Os. 32.5 S a. 397.) £:05"| 1-09) Sits
1) Ne we ae ee ee aeemeel WcN- BEIT CRA eres al] leas etal g

Effect of Fertilizers upon the Production of Sugar in Sorghum.

Many experiments have been made with a view to the determination

of this question.

A limited number of these being taken, conclusions

apparently well established would follow from such limited examina-

EFFECTS OF FERTILIZERS ON SORGHUM. 173

tion. The result, however, of all the experiments, including 34 analy-
ses of the ash of juices from sorghum grown upon plats differently
fertilized, leaves the matter wholly undecided.

In the literature of sorghum respecting fertilizers very much may
be found, as in that upon sugar-cane and beets, which appears to be
well established, at least it is with great confidence asserted; but it
is very doubtful whether any conclusion as to the effect of one or
another fertilizer upon a sugar producing crop rests upon data in-
volving over 34 analyses of ash—and, as has been said, even this
number fails to prove any thing as to the effect of various fertilizers
upon sorghum.

The following report upon experiments in the use of fertilizers
upon sorghum, in 1881, is made by Prof. George H. Cook,
Director of the New Jersey Experiment Station, at New Brunswick,
i. Bar Be

For the study of the effect of fertilizers, sixteen adjoining plats, of one-tenth
acre each, were measured off, fertilized as stated in the table, and planted May
23rd, 1881, with Early Amber seed. The cane was doubtless injured by the
unusually severe drought: it was noticeable, however, that it suffered much less
from this than corn planted on neighboring field. It was harvested on the first
of October.

For samples to represent each plat twenty average canes were cut from ten
different rows, immediately weighed, and after they had been stripped and top-
ped, again weighed and passed singly between the rollers of a heavy cane mill.
The juice from each lot of twenty cane, after it had been carefully mixed, was
used for the analysis. The determinations of cane sugar were made by means
of the polariscope, using solutions clarified with basic lead acetate and 50 per
cent absolute alcohol.

The plan of the experiment was, to ascertain the effect of each of the fertil-
izing material applied singly and in combination on the production of sugar—
to compare the effect of muriate of potash with that of sulphate of potash—
and to‘determine whether by increasing the amount of phosphoric acid used
per acre, an advantage would be gained. The actiun of the fertilizers is best
studied in the table under the heading, pounds of extractable sugar per ton of
cane and per acre. It was expected that phosphoric acid would materially
hasten the maturity of the cane; it appears to have exercised no decided influ-
ence in this respect. It caused, however, an increase of 250 pounds, or nearly
30 per cent, of sugar over that yielded by plat No. 15.

Muriate of potash used alone increases the gross weight of stalks very much
more than sulphate of potash; it increases too the yield of sugar per acre. It
is a fact, however, of especial importance tothe manufacturer, that the yield per
ton is 20 per cent greater from the plat No. 12, on which the sulphate was used,
than from the muriate plat No. 4. Muriates, too, if taken into the sorghum
juice, can not be removed by the process of manufacture now used, and inter-
fere seriously with the crystallization of sugar.

174 SORGHUM.

As has been well known for many years past, crude barn-yard manure must
not be used directly on sugar producing plants. Plat No. 11 draws attention
once more to the fact. No noticeable increase in the amount of sugar was
caused by it; but a point of much greater importance, is the positive statement
of experienced men that sugar will not crystallize from syrup of canes which
have been fertilized with it. A heavy dressing on corn land loses its injurious
qualities in the course of a year, and sorghum following in rotation is benefited
by it.

The expression “extractable sugar” has been used in this table to indicate
that a portion only of the total amount of sugar has been extracted by the mill;
the bagasse or crushed cane, when it is burned under the boilers or thrown on
the compost heap, still contains one-third of the sugur produced by the plant.
If the profits of the business are so large that manufacturers can content them-
selves with two-thirds of the sugar, farmers should endeavor to turn this bagasse
into food for sheep, by the process of ensilage. After a struggle which has now
lasted more than twenty-five years, sorghum to day does not occupy its true
position among sugar producing plants. Its advocates justly claim that this is
due to our lack of information, not only in regard to the mauufacture of sugar
from it, but also in respect to its proper cultivation.

ss oS
= |5 So | Sa
Se ee | es ss ae
e|¢/| 2 |es rin pes
t=. Zz = Gh aa as
a = 2 as fava fare
ae eS q | =A 20 || ae
= 2 Ba | <q sf 5 |
= A lee =aee a a ae 55
= = 3 or eee —
ales | | S28 oS | oe
: n a a aw = A n
2 n n n wanes 2 a = wn =
= z 4S iS Ss 5 Tan S n
2 Bee os hee | 8 Sa |-ea
B Sue eae Be]: a eta t=
° S S =) i) ° Se oem
a 3 a ume eas Z ey =
Cost of fertilizers per acre..... $0 00} $6 10} $7 50) $3 40)$18 60 $0 00 $9 50} $11.00
Pounds of sorghum per acre.. 11,515) 13, 365|14, 820)16, 000, 14,440} 11,170) 11,640} 12,390
Pounds of stripped and topped :
cane per acre... 8,406] 9,890)11, 263/12, 160/10,830] 8,378] 8,846] 9,293
Percentof juice extracted from
stripped and topped cane. 69 6| 67.0) 66.4] 68.0) 66.8 64.2 65.1 64.3
Pounds of juice eeatied per
TCC eee 5,851] 6,626} 7,479} 8,269) 7,234 5,379 5,799 5,975
Per cent of sugar in juice.. 9.70} 9.43} 9.00 -27| 9.68] - 9.94) 10.51) 11.68
Pounds of extractable sugar per
MLOTOrsr se Be Scie eee oes 568 625 673 767 700 535 605 696
Pounds of sugar extracted per |
COnNNOMCANIG. a pn -iee eee awe 135 126 120 126 129 128 137 150
Pounds of clean seed per acre.. 1,020) 1,351) 1,298 mee 1,344 1,132 1,038 1,067

* 16 per cent phosphoric acid.

=
EFFECTS OF FERTILIZERS ON SORGHUM. 175
Ss + 2 |3 < =
=c 2 = = Me = |
ses/ 3/2 | 2/]s3] 42 zs
Sael|2ie | = |28| ss ses
e-s/[ 5 1/5 1 = bes] =e | z=
= ee) Se =e }o2] es rhe
Suelo Keel s 12a) 35.1 =23
esa3| = |S2| 3 lea] $3 ——
Seeid lefts baste S22
ez=| 5 |25/ 2/=8] 83 3
_ ae Aon is) e fae) «Ss | #£=2
SOE Se rene ee ee Bet ——
= ee = == Sex
foo ej¢ So 3
S = =) =7 } o-s
S S = = = Ss
a ou oe Eee oe os
Cost of fertilizers per acre. _.- $17 10) $1 60/$10 00| $6 50.$12 Go, $14.00) $2010) $25 20
Pounds of sorghum per acre 12,590) 12, 680) 12,375 | 11,605, 11,650) 12565) 15,260) 14,066
Pounds of stripped and topped |
cane per acre .--..-. SPS pes 9,346, 9.510) 9,405) $,S2D) 8,s54 9.504) 9,312, 1098
Per cent of juice extracted from / | ' |
stripped and topped eane- 67.3} 64.8) 64.4) 682) 69.0 63 3 689) 67.8
Pounds of juice extracted per
2 Rees es eRe ae eee 6.694) 6,162) 6,057; 6,015) 6,709 6491 6, 766 7.413
Per cent of sugarinjuice. -_--- 11-43} 9.84) $57) 11 Gl) 973 9.73) 943) 1201
Pounds of extractable sugar per }
OT AS ee ee eae 76>) 606) S580) 698) 504 62 635) $91
Pounds of sugar extracted per ; ; ; |
ton of cane ..- -.-- ee oie Dy 135) 12) 158) 134 133) 130 168
Pounds of elean seed per acre_- 1,305 — 1,160 a 1,25) 1,159) 1,319) 1278

Professor Magnus Swenson, of the University of Wisconsin, at
Madison, gives the following as the result of his experiments with fer-
tilizers in 1882.

One plot of one and a quarter acres, was used for experiments with fertilizers.

Each kind of fertilizer was put on a plot of cane of one-twentieth of an acre,
and these plots were separated from each other by guard rows, where no fer-
tilizer was used. Each lot was cut and brought to the mill separately, and a
sample from the defecated juice was taken for analysis.

The following table gives the results:

— * Nitrogen} Cane Stripped
Fertilizers. on plat. | sugar. Glucose. pre Se
}
Pounds. | Per cent.| Per ceni.| Pounds.

LOSSES Oe Se ee ore Mca 10 91 2.80 828
No. 2. 239 pounds barn-yard manure..........-} .....--- 10 19 2.77 S64
tec SONRRUIP MAE MORENES = ow. oe 5 oe 1.2 10.57 2.77 796
No. 4. Superphosphate (15 pounds)... --.--.-....}----..---- 10 + 230 | 762
No. 5. ee of a (7% —- Sa) Re eee 10.95 2.78 910
- Nitrate of ium (734 pounds) } i = = Soe
No. 6. an i ape qs —— ) as = 10-7 2.56 =
e Nitrate of sodium (744 pounds) } ‘ - = <
No. 7. ee of Lae ———s i = 10.13 | 2.78 $56
= {Superphosphate (15 pounds) }

No. & | Chloride pa acme At (734 pounds)} --}- ~---""~ 10.83 2.89 778
No. 9. Barn-yard manure REM Le oe Pe Ve ee, 10 $7 2% 578
2 1G) No meaure 5. . 4-2. 22 CER eee eee 11.63 2.5 616
No. 11. Mixed minerals and nitrogen ..-... --- 1.2 li 34 2.76 472
No. 12. Mixed mineralsand two-thirds nitrogen. 8 10 92 2.80 578
No. 13. Mixed minerals and one-third nitrogen 4 10 41 2.94 s
No. 14. Mixed minerals and one-sixth nitrogen.. 2 10.10 2.36 560
No. 15. Mixed minerals and one-twelifth nitrugen ra 11 59 2.90 618
No. 16. Mixed minerals and no nitrogen. --..-...} .-...-..-- 10.47 2.S7 590

* The “nitrogen mixture” consisted of sodium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, and
dried blood in equal parts.

176 SORGHUM.

The ‘‘ superphosphate” contained about 16 per cent of phosphoric
acid.

The ‘‘ chloride of potassium” contained about 50 per cent of potash.

The ‘‘ mixed minerals” was composed of two-thirds of superphos-
phate, and one-third chloride of potassium.

The amount applied to one-twentieth of an acre, besides the nitrogen
mixture in the experiments Nos. 11 to 15 inclusive, was the same
amount used in experiment No. 8, viz.: Superphosphate 15 pounds,
and chloride of potassium 75 pounds.

The yield of stripped stalks upon the two plats with no manure, Nos.
1 and 10, differs as widely as any of the others, one being 828 and the
other 616 pounds, while the sucrose and glucose in the tio are practi-
cally alike in quantity. Also Nos. 3 and 11 give 795 and 472 pounds
of stripped stalks respectively, though both received the same amount
of nitrogen. This result by itself, would make it appear that the
‘‘mixed minerals” upon plat 11 had-been injurious; but, in No. 8, the
yield was about the same as in No. 3.

Again, in contrasting Nos. 9 and 10, we have an apparent falling
off in weight of stalks (a surprising result), while the content of sugar
is practically unchanged. It will be seen that Professor Cook obtained,
by the use of barn yard manure, 9,405 pounds of stripped stalks, while
the average of his two no manure plats gave only 8,592 pounds, and
the percentage of sugar in the juice was practically the same in both,
viz.: 9.57 per cent with barn-yard manure, and 9.82 per cent without
manure.

As to the effects of barn-yard manure, Professors Weber and Scovell,
of Illinois Industrial University, report as follows:

To ascertain the effect of manure, a field was selected which had been used
as a barn-yard for several years. A part of the cane was planted directly on
the rotten manure pile. An analysis was made of a sample taken from this
part of the field, as well as of a part away from the manure pile. The seed in
each case was ip the “hardening dough.” The following is the result of the

analysis:
Manured—Sp. gr. 1.063. Grape sugar 2.65. Cane sugar 10.89.
Unmanured—§p. gr. 1.074. Grape sugar 2.65. Cane sugar 13.37.

The lower specific gravity of the juice from the plat so highly
manured, is what might be expected from a rank growth under such
circumstances, and the longer time necessary to its complete maturity.
It would have been interesting to have had the analysis of this cane a
month later, to have seen whether it would not have shown an increase
in specific gravity and sugar content.

“ 4
; ~
COMPOSITION OF SOIL AS AFFECTING SORGHUM. 177

Atleast the experience as recorded, is not against the use of barn-
yard manure, as a fertilizer for sorghum.

It appears from these results, that, although this question of the fer-
tilizers is one of great practical importance, the data attained by ex-
periments thus far, is by no means sufficient to enable one to draw re-
liable conclusions.

It is especially important that we guard agaiust the tendency to
hasty conclusions, which is the greater if our limited data apparently
confirms our preconceived notions.

COMPOSITION OF SOIL AS AFFECTING SORGHUM.

The character and composition of the soils best adapted to the culti-
vation of sorghum for sugar production, as also the proper method of
fertilization necessary for the best results, are obviously matters of fun-
damental importance.

At present our knowledge is very limited, and the number of care-
fully ascertained facts so small, as hardly to warrant more than con-
jecture.

In many respects, the habits of the sorghums, and their demands upon
climate and soil, are almost identical with those of the several varieties
of maize; and yet there appear to be, in certain respects, marked differ-
ences. It is known that, when fairly established, the sorghums, as
a class, are capable of sustaining a period of drought which would
prove fatal to maize ; and not only this, but that such drought and the
accompanying high temperature, results in the development of an un-
usual amount of sugar in the plant.—(See Annual Report Depart-
ment of Agriculture, 1881-82, page 456.)

It will be seen, by consulting the results of our experiments as to the
effects of fertilizers upon the sugar content and ash in the juices of the
several sorghums (see page 172) that, although a very large number
of determinations were made, the average result of all was such as to
leave the matter wholly unsettled.

To those who may desire to aid in these and similar investigations, a
eareful study of these results above referred to, may be helpful as show-
ing the extreme danger of hasty generalizations ; for any half dozen of
the analytical results, selected at random and considered alone, would,
in most cases, warrant a conclusion, more or less decided, which the in-
crease of testimony renders less and less probable.

The results of the past year, 1882, at Rio Grande, N. J. (where
they produced 320,000 pounds of sugar, and where, upon fields identical
in character there was great variation in the amount of crop produced),

12

178 SORGHUM.

were such as to awaken great interest in these questions of soils and
fertilization. Besides, the juices of the sorghums there grown proved
to be remarkably pure, comparing well even with the best sugar-cane
juice. Therefore, average specimens of the soils from the several
fields were obtained, and a record of the yield of crop, and the fertil-
izers applied to each, was also secured from the president of the Sor-
ghum Sugar Company, George C. Potts, Esq., of Philadelphia, Pa.

Rio Grande is a small hamlet some 6 miles north of Cape May, N.
J., in latitude 39° north, and longitude nearly 2° east from Washing-
ton. It is situated upon a sandy peninsula, about 5 miles in breath,
with the Atlantic upon the east, and separated from the main-land by
the Delaware Bay, at this point about 20 miles wide. Average sam-
ples of soil from six fields were selected for analysis, viz:

A. Harne farm.—This field received an application of 3800 pounds
of Peruvian guano per acre. The average yield of stalks was 33 tons
per acre

B. Richwine farm.—This farm also had 300 pounds Peruvian guano
per acre. The average yield was 5% tons of stalks per acre.

C. Hand farm.—This field received an application of 800 pounds of
Peruvian guano and 30 bushels of lime per acre. The average
yield was 7% tons of stalks per acre.

iD, Neafie. farm.—This field received same amount of guano aed
lime as C. Average yield per acre, 8 tons stalks.

E. Uriah Oreese farm.—Same amount of guano and lime as C and
D. Average yield per acre, 15 tons stalks.

F. Bennett farm.—Same amount of guano and lime as s C, D, and E.
Average yield per acre, 17 tons stalks.

From the above results, it will be seen that the application of the
expensive fertilizer, Peruvian guano, was without any apparent benefit,
while the application’ of lime seems to have been beneficial, although it
is to be regretted that we have not the data for comparing the yield of
these fields with and without the application of fertilizers.

With the exception, only, that theamount of pebbles of an apprecia-
ble size, one-twentieth to one-quarter inch in diameter, was more in
some of the samples than in others, there was to the eye no noticeable
difference in the character of the soil.

The samples were passed through sieves of 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80,
90 meshes to the inch, and the following results obtained: The column
marked residue, consisted of pebbles which would not pass through a
‘sieve of twenty meshes to the inch, or rather of one-twentieth inch di-
ameter. The column marked 20 was that portion which, passing
meshes of one-twentieth inch, would not pass those of one-thirtieth, etc.

-

COMPOSITION OF SOIL AS AFFECTING SORGHUM. 179

Besides these six samples of soil from Rio Grande, N. J., analyses
have been made of several other soils, 1 en which dota tren was grown
the past year, as follows:

G. Grounds of the Department of Agriculture.—The recent treatment
of this plat, is given in the annual reports of the past three years.
The sample for analysis was taken November, 1882.

H. Soil No. 1.—Great Bend, Kas.—This soil has been cultivated for
six years. The yield was 10} tons stalks per acre. No fertilizer
used.

I. Soil No. 2.—Great Bend, Kas.—This soil was plowed for the first
time. The yield peracre was 8 tons of stalks. No fertilizers were used.

J. Soil from Rising City, Nebr., upon which 18 tons per acre of
sugar beets were grown, which gave, on analysis, an average of 12.27
per cent of sugar in the juice.

K. Soil from Hutchinson, Kas.—Yield of sorghum, 6 tons stalks per acre.

L. Soil from Sterling, Kas.—Under cultivation for three years in
cereal crops. A black, sandy loam. Average yield peracre, 7 tons stalks.

M. Soil from Sterling, Kas.—A black, sandy loam. Under cultiva-
tion for seven years with crops of cereals. Crop very promising, but
destroyed by hail.

N. Soil from Sterling, Kas.—Black, sandy loam. Under cultivation
for five yearsin cereal crops. Average yield per acre, 12 tons of stalks.

Soil from Sterling, Kas.—A strictly sandy soil, in cereals for five
years. Average yield per acre, 10 tons of stalks :

PER CENT OF SOILS PASSED THROUGH SIEVES.

) | ; | |
Residue 2. | 30.| 40.) 50.| 60. | 70.| 80. | 90. | Total.

) ! / i
eae aes iene 78 | 42 s9| 3¢| 25/20) 43] 39 448 100
aS ee eee 2.7 | 51] 89) 78] 50] 60/112) 64/269) 100
“ie ES a i SEA 3.0 | 67 17.6] 16.5) 38) 8.8) 114 106/166 100
Se aaa oe ee ae 5.7 | 7.2| 16.7) 13.6] 9.6] 8.2] 9.8]12.0]17.2) 100
SAB ea ae g2 | 62 122] 87) 75] 69] 98] 8.3]32.2/ 100
ier ai ee eae 55 | 69/186/125) $7) 94) 97) 80/207) 100
Eee aes 5.5 | 16) 66) 72) 39| 36) 5.1) 7.9) 3586) 100
Bele Si 5. ab BSR 2 22 | 1.1] 29] 3.3] 3.7] 26] 7.3] 68/701)! 100
SEAN geaaaCe EE: 3|--3] 9] 10| 12| -7| 22] 45] 889] 100
Re ts) nts Ce 2 Sh “2 Te Srp oP iry is) Se]
aed oF 3] 8] 10] 7] 9] 21} 20]/916| 100
3 Ee 18 | 30| 74!) 56] 51] 31] 46/ 46/648 100
ey ee 49 | 14] 3.3] 3.2] 21] 2.7] 42] 33]749! 100
Ne So ee 10! 9133! 75!-65! 42] 96/1291541) 10
Lee 2,128 92| 86/113 9.3/146)147/298 100

The mechanical condition of a soil determines often its degree of
fertility, quite as much as chemical composition. This state of ex-
treme comminution is said to account for the great fertility of the
-tehernozéme or black soil of Southern Russia, which, upon chemical

180 SORGHUM.

analysis, does not appear any better than ordinary soils, and yet its
productiveness is such that, as has been said of it:

The Russian proverb, “ One can not distinguish the generous from the rich,”
may be most appropriately applied to the tchernozéme. It appears rich be-
cause it is generous.

It is commonly known, that the mineral matter, which composes
the larger part of every good soil, has been derived originally from
rocks which, during comparatively recent periods, geologically speak-
ing, have been disintegrated by one agency or another, and that those
supplies of mineral food necessary to the plant, in any soil, must have
previously existed in the rocks from which this soil was produced.

But those agencies, as frost, water, attrition, the carbonic acid and
oxygen of the air, which have in the past reduced these rock masses to
every degree of fineness, from small pebbles to impalpable powder, are
still operative; and gradually, year by year, day by day, new supplies
of mineral food are being unlocked from these rock fragments and
made available to the plant. Besides, it will be seen, that, as this
pulverization goes on, the surface exposed to the action of these agen-
cies, above mentioned, increases in geometric ratio, and so, in conse-
quence, the disintegration becomes proportionately the more rapid.

To illustrate: Suppose a block of granite 1 foot square to be broken
into cubes of 6 inches square, there would be obviously 8 cubes pro-
duced, and the surface exposed in the first case, being 6 square feet,
would be doubled. Let this process be repeated, and the surface be-
comes 24 feet square. Continue this operation for only 25 times, and
our block of granite 1 foot square, with 6 square feet of surface, be-
comes resolved into minute fragments of quartz, feldspar, and mica,
about one three-millionth of an inch in diameter, and presenting an
ageregate surface of over 7 square miles; and yet there is no reason
to suppose that the comminution ceases at such limits; indeed, there
is every reason to believe that the plant is incapable of assimilating
food which is-not absolutely in the molecular condition.

The calculations of Sir William Thompson show the size of the mole-
cule to be, at his largest estimate, only one hundredth the diameter, or
one millionth the bulk, of the fragments to which we have reduced our
block of granite in the above illustration.

The importance, then, of assisting these agencies by good tillage is
obvious; indeed, an agriculturist, of long experience and distinguished
success, has declared that he would prefer to have an ordinary field
well plowed without manure, than poorly plowed with it.

So far as the partial mechanical analysis goes, it quite fails to throw
any light upon the cause of the very wide difference in the crops grown
upon the Rio Grande soils.

“ie

COMPOSITION OF SOIL AS AFFECTING SORGHUM. 181

For example, the soils, C, D, F, are very much alike, and yet their
respective yields per acre in tons of stalks were 74, 8, and 17. It is
obvious that much of this might have been due to difference in culti-
vation, but it does not appear that there was practically any differ-
ence in this respect.

Chemical Composition of the Soils.

The following table shows the results-of the chemical analysis of
the several soils. The absence of other than mere traces of chlorine
in the Rio Grande soils is remarkable, in view of the fact that these
fields were lying within a few hundred yards of the ocean. It is pos-
sible that the heavy fall rains had leached such compounds below the
surface, from which alone the samples were taken for analysis. It was
intended to make still further examination of the subsoils of these
several fields; for it may be that sorghum, being, through its root
system, a deep feeder, will account for good crops of cane upon land
which failed to grow good crops of other kinds:

A B Cc | D5. | E F G
|
MP RIERST Re tcc oe sthin os ses ata een $30) .680) 190} 350) 430 .180 1.140
CSS To ea eee ee 4.730] 3.500] 1.290} 2.180) 2.420) 1.7 4 690
titi) Fre ee a a eee 87.008) 92.245) 96.910) 93.837) 93.167] 95.297! 84.670
Lt DE ee et eee ee 2 555 1.773 940 1110 1.500 1.445} 3.440
Lt Le ee ele at ee se eae 4.110 d 640 .do0 1.765 1.805 1.060; 4.360
ng Sa Comers eee 315 305 .22%5 375 460 -505 -860
Ut De S28 ee ee eee es 390 .290 -147 185 .180 .190 .367
(2 Ciba Ee eee Ee Pe odes .238 124 061 -085 122 074 .394
ee et hoe ees Sok tone noe Trace. O23) “TreGed), : 2222 .012| Trace. 023
ia ee SE ae ane eee O88 047 024 034 043 026 265
$O3....... NPE a Raa e wa a aes On os Trace.| Trace.| Trace.| Trace.| Trace.| Trace.| Trace.
el he Se So ee eee Sree 044 009) .003 004 005 003 009
NS Sap vendcceu pte saae oo) WS Ta ety Be hae | ee 130)... ....] Trace.| Trace.
|
|
100 308) 100.636 100 340 100.055) 100.144] 100 560) 100 228
PUMAVIPESR Cee eo aes oka .128 067 045 045 .078 .062 146
H I J K L. M N 0.

Water -2<*. 6... Ue EE 1 = 300; +1140 330 400 470 .300 360

RORORMIC St canoe wee 4320) 5.820 7.320 4 830 4.330 5.150 2.520 1.33
imsololile =. 22255. 65-2. 85.250) 84.625) 78 162) 86.282) 87.792) 81.832) 91.544) 94.231
0 a ee rene ea 3 605 3.330 4 550 3.27 2.775 3.270 2 330 1.775
Na) caw orn a oe 3.575 3.890 5.805 3.385 3.005 3.665 1.835 1.465
10 Rae ee ae ee eres .710 .760 -719 565 660 2 685 45) -005
ORS oc conn wn ww see 325 450 820 O95 B80 690 390 .230
(LC Ser ae 524 538 656 437 482 397 301 257
ia d Trace 059| Trace. 042 050| Trace
046) 042 026 010 017 024 017

115) Trace 050) Trace. O44 036 O41
019 017 007} 027/19 019 017]

See AEs SR ee eee : CU 75 (esa ee |e ees

.
99 360} 99 893) 99 257] 99.836] 99 941) 99.976, 99.799) 100 228
NRG 2CI fas eon n= se 151 190 230 162 140 146 034 050

182 SORGHUM.

For purpose of comparison, analyses are given of two sugar-cane
soils, from a pamphlet on the agricultual chemistry of the sugar-cane,
by Dr. T. L. Phipson.

A is soil from Jamaica, under cane for the first time.

B is soil from Demerara, which has been steadily under cane for 15
years.

C is soil from the Philippines, which grows a superior quantity and
jquality of sugar-cane—analysis by R. H. Harland.

Ul

A. ie}, C.

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

IMOISCUL Gs ee mycin See te ee are eevee ofa agate Mrs rotor Chore 12.25 18.72 6 79
Organic matter and combined water....... De feie iui sfe n cyersce'e is nfs 15.36 6 03 25.05
Silicatarieinsoluble x a6 04 os eee paler e hides oisttin- oe sisiepisce ewae's 48 45 68 89 53 39
INTIMA sentoyccc oar cee anes PSE wi le te 'gk eI ls 6 Sp Sha 13.80 2.50 13 16
OmIde OF MALONE eet cake cetera ae wei ac pttatches cident as 6.72 2.60 4.80
DATS sos Bc ree a ek hele ae aero a te ioral oi otta acetal arate cfatelele le stecs ate > .99 08 1.60
NTO CRT eps coe este aclbaieta dymeles © Seep il eit cine eleiei Walels Shdcisin te 29 29 42
TO USS Eibat aie ete hee are he Sees here ie ees ta «Ser eee ts et tek: nats otacarers pain -10 1.147
S19) 9 sap tae tye RAN ne a 1 SR Rn ich ae] Aiiits oor Ra PRTG OHIO OO EIEAG -70 .09
Phosphorie acid eke 10 03 25
Sulphuric werdss aa.5 ee eee heim te eee ae ee noe as) 03 -09
Chiorinesccsce ae sree Geoeke -5L* | Traces |/ascseemeee
Oxide manganese, carbonic acid, and loss in analysis... - 42 .68 10

Dr. Phipson calls attention to the ereater amount of organic matter,
nitrogen, lime, and phosphoric acid in A, and to the important fact,
that the quantity of lime (.08) in B is far below that of the mag-
nesia (.25). This he regards asa very bad sign in cane soil. He deduces
from the results of a numerous series of analyses made by him, that
the degree of exhaustion which a cane soil has suffered may be deter-
mined by comparing the relative amounts of lime and magnesia pres-
entin them. —

In support of this view, he gives analyses of four samples of cane
soils from Guiana, A and B having been cultivated from ten to fifteen
years, and C and D having been cultivated over sixty years:

Mielec te aemo d= ca eheonos doc siebe 4 mBamEUor eae ae aee Per cent...) .44°| 64)" (110
Nea Ne) CA een ean jo cde on be cr Sonnets; peesoreneAcdaed (sa. pied DONS he | Wea

* This quantity of chlorine is unusually high, and is accounted for by the proximity
of a salt spring.
+ The potash, soda, chlorides, together.

COMPOSITION OF SOIL AS AFFECTING SORGHUM. 183

In view of the above facts, it is not improbable that a similar ex-
planation will suffice for the remarkable results obtained at Rio
Grande, N. J.

In the foliowing table, the crop of stalks produced, with the per
cents of lime and magnesia in the several soils, is given, for purpose
of comparison with ratio of lime to magnesia.

Tons +: Per cent sage Ratio lime to
stalks. |Per cent lime. nesia. magnesia.
Rf Seen el tae

sees Sa Reet Oa dere ln's Sia 33g -315 -390 100 124

1S lari on le SS a ee 54g 305 -290 100 95

Re acta ok wn seater ators Ss 7 -25 147 100 65

U1 Ree ee ee ee S) -d10 185 100 49

2 ee a eee 15 460 180 100 39

jt a ee ee eee 17 -305 -190 100 38

It will be remembered, that, while each of the above soils had re-
ceived an application of 300 pounds of Peruvian guano per acre, the
soils C, D, E, and F, had, in addition, received 30 bushels of lime per
acre. It isalsovery interesting to observe that, as the relative amount
of the magnesia compared with lime in the above soils fell off the crop
of cane increased.

For purposes of comparison, the tons of stalks produced per acre,
with the per cents of the lime and magnesia, and their ratio, is given
for the other soils analyzed:

Sera ee
Tons - Ratio lime to
| staiks Lime | Magnesia. magnesia.
| pot eo Be

CEN ns So SEP ak en ee ey Se 15 860 | 367 | wo 100 43
RNG see EE 10% 710 i 3235 100 46
ee ee 10 55 : 230 100 46
een ams Fe Se vi 660 _380 100 58
1 le ees Ra a eee Lee NE 8 | 760 450 100 59
ee We oe 12 450 390 100 87
[aM Gee. © een eee 6 | 565 595 100 105

In the above list, the order of arrangement is according to the ratio
of lime to magnesia, and it will be seen that the crop from soil N is
the only one which is fairly exceptional to the conclusions laid down
by Dr. Phipson in his examination of sugar-cane soils. The ratios of
L and I are almost identical, and there is but a ton difference in the
yield per acre; also, the actual amount of lime present in I is greater
than that in L.

At the several conventions of sorghum growers, the discussion of the
soil best suited to the growth of sorghum has been general; but the

184 SORGHUM.

result shows that, at present, our knowledge is too limited to enable
us to speak with any positive assurance. It has been urged, that new
land was better than old, on account of the greater ease of cultivation,
and greater freedom from weeds; but in the main, at present, the
quality of soil best adapted to the cultivation of sorghum, is far more
a matter of opinion than established by fact.

A general opinion prevails, that a sandy upland soil, well drained,
and not freshly manured, is the best.

Professors Weber and Scovell, of the Illinois Industrial University,
in the report of their experiments with sorghum, give the following
results:

Effects of Soils.—The following analyses were made to study the effect of
different varieties of soil upon the production of sugar in sorghum. But, as
other circumstances (as, locality from which seed was obtained, time of plant-
ing, and manner of cultivation) may affect the amount of sugar, many more
investigations would have to he made before definite conclusions could be
reached. The table, however, shows that sorghum can be grown successfully
on all varieties of soil specified:

TABLE SHOWING THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT SOILS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF
SUGAR IN SORGHUM.

a o >
S a cy
= : oS fs :
VARIETY = a is S é H
% 3S ° wo er :
OF SOIL. | ¢ a S we os = S 3
a ng 5 3 a> lira bes a
q BH fe! . 5 )
q So ~ pl o [= od
3 Sa Ke EI OS |) 28 2
A a oS a mn ie) iS) <
Prairie ....| 1 27 aeppag ee Amber..| 1.068} 2.47| 12.48] }
2 7 No manure...| Amber..} 1.074 65] 10.10
3 27 jManured 41 | 4s smper_| 1 070 : palate sol Pane,’ 1138
/ years ago} se 7 3.26] 12.52) (Cane, 11.28
4] Unknown..} No manure...| Amber..} 1.070} 2.71) 10.77 |
steak 5 | Very old...) No manure...| Amber..} 1.070} 2.61] 10.51) J
Meare e GH scye seer No manure...}| Amber..| 1.070] 3.92} 11.89 Grape, 3.46
fil eel 42) ap ob ee No manure...| Amber..| 1.072] 3.00] 13.65] § Cane, 12.77
Timber = Barn-yard SAI enya ae
ieee 8 | Unknown... eapinirite: Amber..| 1.074] 2.65] 13.37] }
Manured 4/ “| 9 46] 15
9 10 years ago} Amber..| 1.067) 3.46] 12.49 (Grape, 3.07
10 12 No manure...| Amber..| 1.074] 3.10) 18 18} (Cane, 12.87
11 4 No manure...}| Amber..| 1 076] 2.97! 13 64
12 4 No manure...| Amber..| 1.070} 2 98) 12.80 |
3 | Many....... No manure...| Amber..| 1.066] 3.16} 11.76) J
Miss’ippi i alee is
sand 1 yee ecacoo bo: acl haatoode Sneeapedes mber..| 1.063) 2.61] 13.47 bene 2.39
SE [aS ee 2 a Pace Amber..| 1.056] 2.18] 11.14] § Cane, 12.80

~-
DEVELOPMENT OF SUCROSE AND GLUCOSE IN SORGHUM. 185

CHAPTER VIL.

(a.) Development of sucrose and glucose in sorghum.

(6.) Average results of analyses of different varieties of sorghum.
(e.) Comparative value of different parts of the stalk.

(d.) General analyses of sorghum juices.

(e.) Chemical composition of sorghum.

DEVELOPMENT OF SUCROSE AND GLUCOSE IN SORGHUM.

For the purpose of determining the condition of the sorghum plant,
in the several stages of its existence, there were planted upon the
grounds of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, in the
spring of 1879, four varieties of sorghum, viz., Early Amber, White
Liberian, Liberian, and Honduras.

On the 18th of July, when the plants had attained such develop-
ment that their panicles or seed heads were just beginning to appear at
the top, one or two stalks were selected of each variety, the juice ex-
pressed and analysed; and this examination was continued, at inter-
vals of a few days, during the entire season, and after severe frosts.
The detailed results of these analyses will be found on page 189. The
following chart graphically represents the results of the analyses. The
line which represents the ‘‘ Average sucrose in sugar-cane,” is the
average per cent found in triplicate analyses of the three principal
varieties of sugar-cane grown in Louisiana. These canes were anal-
yzed by the same methods used in the analyses of the sorghum juices.

The line representing the average per cent of sucrose in sugar beets,
is from the results of analyses of thirteen specimens of sugar beets
grown upon the Agricultural College farm, Amherst, Mass., and anal-
yzed by Professor Goessmann (vide Massachusetts Agricultural Re-
port, 1870-71).

It will be observed how closely the Early Amber and the Liberian
correspond in their development, being almost identical, and yet being
clearly distinct varieties. While these two varieties attain a content
of sugar in their juices equal to the average in juice of the sugar-cane
by the middle of August, the Liberian does not reach this condition
until the last of September, and the Honduras not until the middle
of October.

After having attained approximately the maximum content of sugar,
this condition is maintained for a long period, affording ample time to
work up the crop.

186 SORGHUM.

It is doubtless true, that had the season been longer, it would have
been found that the Liberian and Honduras, having once attained this
full devolopment of sugar, would also have retained it; but, as is seen
by the chart, the heavy frosts and subsequent warm weather which
happened about October 24th, caused a rapid diminution of sucrose
in each variety, and a corresponding increase in glucose.

The converse of what is found true of the sucrose is clearly shown
as to the development of the glucose, and it is seen that a minimum
quantity once attained is continued along time, and that this minimum
is quite as low as the average amount found present in the sugar-canes.

It was most unfortunate, as tending to retard the development of
the sorghum sugar industry, that Dr. C. A. Goessmann, through his
examination of canes, which, through long keeping after being cut up
had suffered an inversion of their sugar, should have concluded his
report, made in 1879, on the Early Amber cane, in these words: ‘The
presence of a large amount of grape sugar in ali the later stages of the
Early Amber, as well as of all other varieties of this species, is a seri-
ous feature in the composition of the juice, impairing greatly the
chances for a copious separation of the cane sugar by simple modes of
treatment.” This sweeping conclusion is quite at variance with the
results which have just been recorded, and does not appear to be justified
by the facts upon which it is based, as will be seen upon page 129.

It is obvious that the results depicted upon the chart are not to be
taken as entirely exact, but the general fact represented is, without
doubt, true, and with a still larger number of observations, the ap-
proach to true curves would, be found nearer than here represented.

An average of all the examinations made of these four sorghums,
during these periods when they were suitable for cutting, gives the
following results:

Early Amber, from August 13th to October 29th inclusive, 15 analyses, ex-
tending over 78 days, 14.6 per cent sucrose.

White Liberian, from August 13th to October 29th inclusive, 13 analyses, ex-
tending oyer 78 days, 13.8 per cent sucrose.

Liberian, from September 13th to October 29th inclusive, 7 analyses, extend-
ing over 46 days, 13.8 per cent sucrose.

Honduras, from October 14th to October 29th inclusive, 3 analyses, extend-
ing over 16 days, 14.6 per cent sucrose.

It will be seen, that, in the four varieties grown, it was most fortu-
nate to have had those differing so widely from each other in nearly
every respect, except only the all-important one, their practical equal-
ity in their content of sugar after they had reached maturity. é

When each variety had quite matured, the greater portion of each
was taken, and samples of excellent sugar was made without trouble,
and in considerable quantity, from each.

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188 SORGHUM.

After the encouraging results of 1879, which have just been re-
corded, the examination of many other varieties of sorghum and maize
was continued at the Department of Agriculture in 1880, 1881, and 1882,
including, in all, the examination of about 100 varieties of sorghum
and 20 varieties of maize, for the purpose of determining the nature
of certain changes going on during the life of the plant, and especially to
determine that period when, in each variety, the content of sugar was
at its maximum, as, also, to learn the length of time during which this
practical maximum was retained.

To this end, the examinations were, in some instances, begun so
soon as a stem had fairly formed in the plant, in order to determine
how early in its life the presence of sugar could be detected; and, in
all cases, the examinations were begun long before even the panicle
had appeared, and before any one would think to work the crop for
either sugar or syrup. These examinations were continued almost
daily with each variety, till long after frosts, and the results of each
variety were tabulated, and may be found in the Annual Reports of
the Department of Agriculture for those years.

The interest and value which these results have, in giving, as they
do, in a condensed form, the life history of these plants, is such that
the detailed examinations of three varieties is here given.

The following tables show the results of the analyses of three varieties
of sorghum stalks, made during the season of 1881, at Washington,
D. C.—the date of each analysis, the dimensions and weight of the
stalk, the percentage of juice obtained from the stalk and the specific
gravity of the juice, the per cent of sucrose, glucose, and of the solids
not sucrose nor glucose present in the juice. In addition, there is
given the percentage of sucrose present, as determined by the polari-
scope, which will be found to correspond closely with the percentages
of sucrose as determined by analysis.

An examination of these tables of analyses reveals the following
facts: In the earlier stages in the growth of each plant, the amount of
erystallizable sugar (sucrose) is small; but, as the plant matures, the
sucrose rapidly increases until it equals from 12 to 16 per cent of the
juice. The ‘solids not sugar ” in the juice also increase from the first,
but very much less rapidly than does the erystallizable sugar; at the
same time, the uncrystallizable sugar (glucose) steadily diminishes, so
that the purity of the juice (shown in the column marked ‘available
sugar”) increases constantly until the cane is ready to be worked.

These facts, and the inferences to be drawn from them, will be more
fully discussed in connection with the general averages deduced from
these figures. See page 189.

189

DEVELOPMENT OF SUCROSE AND GLUCOSE IN SORGHUM.

EARLY AMBER.

Billi ph ESRB RARee ch ks ek esses
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190 SORGHUM.

LINK’S HYBRID.

wi ne vb ‘ 3 : K : :
Viale : Spier.) 8. (28 (8 Wg
Ps wey Q as Az) a oI 5 = Jy on a
a = » a o oO E — - 2 5 a
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5 A Ale A | i= na 5H 1M ro) a) N < Ay
Stage. Feet.| Inch.\ Lb. | Lb. |Pr. ct. Pr.ct.| Pr. ct.| Pr. ct. Pr. ct. Prats
Jay Sle eee ates = i Oy aff 1.5 1.1} 70.69] 1.017] 1.47 .93| 3.10)—3.64]......
July 18 1 1 6.5 1.1 1.6 1.2) 72.45) 1.025} 2.19] 2.22) 2.51|—2.48].....
July 19 2 1 ile 9 1.5 1.2) 66.00] 1.030} 2.13} 3.04] 1.18]— .27] .....
July 20 3 1 wal 8 NZ, 1.3} 68.52] 1.083] 2.39] 4.34) 3.14/—1.19].....
July 27 4 1 9.0 9 eo 1.4) 65.19} 1.047) 2.39] 7.46] 1.86) 3.21] 7.17
July 28 5 it 9.7 8 Wey 1.4) 67.64] 1.049] 2.72} 7.21] 2.22) 2.27) 6.58
July 29 65) [coe “fl emma hl ee ote te 4 by 1047) 2.84) 7.05 .71| 3.50) 6.50
July 30 6 1 9.7 EO) r250 1.6] 61.69) 1.052) 2.48) 7.90] 2.54) 2.88] 7.96
Aug. 2 6 2 9.8 8 3.5 2'.8} 65.29) 1.062) 2.15] 10.66] 3.06} 5.45)......
Aug. 5 7 1 9.1 1.0 2 -9} 63.72] 1.052] 2.61] 8.01] 3.87] 1.53) 7.69
Aug. 10 8 1 9.7 9 a Bar 1.3] 67.50] 1.064) 2.70] 11.25) 1.55] 7 OU) 10.65
Aug. 15 9 a Dyes Beal 9 a 1.3) 63.39} 1.069} 1.98] 12.22} 2.54) 7.70] 12.12
Aug. 19 TUG) epee = |e eal Ie scare pred enteoke AL OVL) 2:06) 12.79) 2-401" 8 Slletpetg
Aug. 19 10 BY Srgigg 1.0 2.0 27), 6207|) 2.071) 221.03] 125461) 2°78) 77-65)\enee
Aug, 25 11 11.0 9 alt 1.5} 64.04] 1.082) 1.69} 15.73] 2.54] 11.50) 15.14
Aug. 25 TT atc We ected (ae bedeele ....| 1.082} 1.69] 15.87] 2.64) 11.54! 15.31
Aug. 29 12 aU ta sa 9 aby AA 65 TAT 082); 138!) 15258). 73.51) LOLGo tee
Sept. 1 13 1} 10.5 9 E26 1.3} 63.20) 1.082} 1.58|.16.41) 2.43) 12.40)......
Sept. 5 14 Waal 9 a Lae 1.5} 62.81) 1.089] 1.21) 18.05] 3.28] 18.56) 17.10
Sept 5 MAS ace AR elec | ee Medea by eee er : 1088). 255} 17720] 3.67) 11298| aaa
Sept. 8 15 ee 9 1.5 1.3] 54.59] 1.094 .66] 18.86] 3.33] 14.87)... 2.
Sept. 12 16 Ly ote G 1.0 1.8 1.5] 59.56] 1.086} 1.03] 17.03) 2.56} 13.44
Sept. 19 17 70 a bi Be) 8 1.8 1.4} 55.21; 1.091 .04| 18.28] ?'7.09}?10.85)......
Oct 7 sein 18 Dh epettlesrss nei Zell 1.7) 57.25). 1.085 .42} 16.89] 3.38] 13.09} .....
Oete 7c. .don. 1} 10.5 1.0 1.9 1.5} 52.91} 1.088 .09| 16.13} 4.87] 10.67] .
Oct. 25 do 1 9.9 1.0 1.8 1.3) 58.56} 1.080 .42)| 15332) §3732)) 10-58) dae
Oct. 28 do Dt SES 9 1.9 1.4} 56.83] 1.085 .49! 16.22} 4.81) 10.92 ae
Oct. 31 do a TG) 1.0 IMEC) 1.2} 54.78] 1.074 .44] 13.77] 5.48] 7.90) 13.69
Noy. 2 do 1 9.0 8 1.5 1.1) 59.75] 1.079 .o7| 14.92} 4.91) 9.64] 15.22
Noy. 4|....do ay lea ae. fi 1.5 1.2) 54.32] 1.085 -29| 15.89] 4.55] 11.05] ...
Noy., -7|....d0 1! 11.0 9 1.8 1.4) 58.93] 1.074 339} 1301) b212 760
Nov. 10 do Re Ste? 1.0 6 1.3} 55.76] 1.082 Ah aisseR {a 4.30] 10.85| 15.17
Nov. 12 do 1) 10.4 9 1.5 1.1!) 58.18) 1.073 AT) 12.15) 5827)" 6.40 eee
Noy. 15 do TT) 1.0 1.6 1.5} 61.68] 1.079 .87) 15.14] 3.35] 11.40! 15.38
Nov. 17 do 1} 10.9 1.0 1.4 1.0) 59.74] 1.082 -43| 13.68] 4.96] 8 29) 15.46

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tables, from the Annual Report, Department of
represent the average results of the analy

2
>

ill show that there

Analyses of Three Varieties in Different Stages.
these sorghums, the only difference be

owing

The foll
culture, 1881—

tion W

arieties in the several

g only the analyses of a si
all the analyses of all varieties at each separate stage is given.

necessary for the different varieties to attain to any given stage.

three v.
tainin
examina

192

SORGHUM.

EARLY AMBER.

ro) ion ~ : as 2 =
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oO. =e A 2) oS o 5 2
$4 pe tel lie fs) a ae 5 g ey
Uo} [o) 4p “oc a go Rat w 3 nm
S eT > eo ee 6 a oR 2 qs <e
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bp Ban Be seal S is ig 3 op, ‘a 5 ie
‘A & 5 — oa = a 5 x
s -o OH 5 4 i=] fo) [o) one > - > OD
wm <q () A o wn mn a Ay <x <4 <q
Pritt Pr ct, | Pret: \\ Pr ce. PrictPrct
hell erat seta caer oteles July ijJuly 1 | ee Ws 189} 1.91 AOD erin te ollie cee 56.12 1.016
IL issbs! enn coassete July 16jJuly 9 We sozatlol| Ie aksi, Bada) Groote eke Veet Sets 53.69 1.028
Deel Gees July 16)July 11 Dy 2292 ates AS DSO. ceiewe cites 63.29 1.026
Beak ee Frente Abie, Tap roukye || al) DRO SF) A Tale Ga eee 70.85| 1.021
Enc Gre July 14/July 15 2 2e78 VOL, “oro0. (PN teks eos paket 64.38 1.012
Dear veoriele watts July 15|July 18 ll 2G .99| 2.80 G40 cee an 63.80 1.023
[SWRA ta proeces July 20)July 19 Testa WPAN et CON a par: SLO relcre b areveh|| (GS. ey 1.047
Aihaiak, aaveneter averest July 23\July 20 1) 3.54) 4.83)" 3763 LORO0 eee rowed molar) 1.041
(seen sean ec July 23\)July 25 nly ese yyl) saisae ill yey) ORS Tlic e ee tye 65.81 1.086
Oe Sete ale July 26|)July 27 Ol thoi vi O2|eaeeo 12 64 7.41) 2.60] 66.46 1.047
LOS ed isad ete July 29\July 380 2) 2.91) 9.26) 2.81 14.98 9.19} 3.54] 60.00 1.057
1 eA rain Aug., 1lj/Aug. 3 De 24a 12225) 2-87 17 59 alte} 6 91) 64.66 1.066
LO irkavecis Severs Aug. 8/Aug. 9 1) 1.86] 12.96). 5.04 19 86 12.82] 6.06] 63.37 1.072
WS Pe aise aeties Aug. 13}/Aug. 12 i) doy | a4e 27 \soro 19.14 13.89] 9.40] 64.51 1.071
WA aoa lice ches Aug. 18'Aug. 16 1! 1.55) 14.83) 3.93 ZO SIL | hoc een 9.35] 63.39 1 083
TOE xara een Aug. 26/Aug. 19 3 .95| 16 03] 2 97 214A |e eae 12.11] 58 45 1.085
Grace tents le oe Aug. 3lj/Aug. 26 09 18243 3.27, PPT AY ase 14.07] 52.77 1.091
iS Soar Sept. 5/Sept. 3 2 .80} 18.42} 3 00 2222 16.92] 14 62] 53 53 1.090°
1 Koya ees euenee hole Sept. 13)Sept. 10 DB) DOG ellF321) 8294 PPA PAN eran a | al bets PAL Noe 1.089
ATE 18) sees. Oct.” 10) tes 2} 1.01} 14.78] 3.68 19 47 13.96} 10.09} 56 09 1.078
Alter 82.350. OCT 2Olssatee se HN eile | S| rk 19.00 17.01} 9.46) 56.138 1.076
After 18 Oety s0|iaevane: Al TO Se toly 4p 18 91 3.76] 8.49° 59.16 1.076
After 18 Nov. dOlesen .c8 3 .89| 13:94) 3.69 18.48 B95 (9-40) bb 12 1.075
After 18s. 25. INOWWa Hus eects 2] 1620) 13265) 3.22 18.07 14.09] 9.23] 54.69 1.074
LINK’S HYBRID.
Before 1......JJuly 8|July 8 Tp alae hy -93| 3.10 5. D0 |Peso.secale See 70.69 1.017
ee accneun ae July 18|July 16) 1) 2.19] 2.22) 2.51 6192) eas oes | oes 72.45) 1.025.
OS Na Sate aed July 19/July 20] 1) 2/3) 3.04] 1.18] 6.35]....... ee 66,00l) eateOs
Side ROR July 20/July 25} 1! 2.39) 4.341 3.14] 9 87]....... —1.19] 68.52] 1.03:
te ee once? July 27\July 27} 1| 2.72] 7.46] 1.86} 12.04] 7.17! 2.84] 65.19] 1.047
arstcinicrtrstoretnye July 28]July 29 Z| 2566) 7 247) 162 ble) 6.59} 3.18] 67.64 1.048
(Pee 4 ceeens ae Aug. l1jJuly 30 223 9.28; 2.80 15.39 7.96| 4.17] 63.49 1.057
ii idaaetatenn Meats Aug. d5/Aug. 2 | ONG Se Cis asi 14.49 7.69) Te 5S5sGanme 1.052
Rohe cn. Scomen Aug. 10/Aug. 4 eo Le) elles 15.50 10.65} 7.00] 67.50 1.064
Qiks cieteris erie Aug. 15/Aug, 6 qi) 198)\ 12.22), 2.54 16.74 12.12)- 7.70) 63.39. 1.069
Db at eset ee Aug. 19/Aug. 12 2) 2.05) 12:63) 2.60 17.28 12.19} 7.98] 64.07 1.071
1 iy FR rsd Aug. 25)Aug. 17 2) 1.69] 15.80) - 2.59 20 08 15.23; 11.52] 64.04 1 082
12. Aug. 29/Aug. 19] 1) 1.38] 15.58] 3.51) 20.47/.-...... 10.69] 65.11] 1.082
Bigics/ieeee Sept. l)/Aug. 25 1] 1.58] 16.41] 2.43 Pl VEZ A ae ee ae 12.40} 63.20 1.082
LAE eh tos aoe Sept. 5/Sept. 1 2| 1.88) 17.63] 3.438 22.49 17.10} 12.77} 62.81 1.088
15. Sept. 8/Sept. 8 1 .66| 18.86} 3.33 221180)| tive eine 14.87] 54.59 1.094
eS ao Sept. 12/Sept. 12| 1] 1.03} 17.03} 2.56) 20.62 3.44] 59.56] 1.086
Didi sereheee Sept. 19}Sept. 19 1 BOE ESE 2O leit ON)|) ete (EL | siete 10.85) 54.21 1.091
INiteny 13) see Oe tes) | meer 1 42) 16.89) 3.38 PANE} eemeereies 8 3.00) 57.25 1.085
After 18 .... |Oct. 20}. 2 50) 15.73] 4.09 20.32 14 75) JIRIAobets 1.084
Aer WTS a OCta o0lse aoe 4 45| 15.20) 4.92 20.57 14.45] 9.83) 56.42 1.081
After 18...... INOiyé 0 | Becereres 3 36) 13.54| 4.89 TS .79)|\. sent 8.29) 57 62 1.076
Attier dSin. ce. | INO Veulin| cee 2 40} 15.41) 4.15 19.96 15.39} 10.86) 60.71 1.080:

‘>

DEVELOPMENT OF SUCROSE AND GLUCOSE IN SORGHUM. 193

NEW VARIETY.—F. W. STUMP.

7: hag (a P= : ee =
2 |2 | 5 £5 S i : =
s2 | Sa [sé =[s Psate“tsTp®
= eet Le ° = SS = = .
os o- [53] o o | a S a= |i | @ of
Pp ee | £3 22/21 28|/35| 2 | 8212) 2) &
2 ae CPs Hl sal fui bose [eee [aed Sd oe
Ss >o a aei & = o re) o> > > >t
nm <_< o 4 So m mM e a < < <
ban ——— eee
Pr ct_| Pr ct.| Pr ct.| Pr ct. Pr ct .| Pr ct
Gidualy Gl. Ap. 315g 74) SS G02 Eek 68.48} 1.020
pools 7) 11 3:64} 20a Sibi eh ao 70.96} 1.025
vy lijJuly 9} 2} 3:05} 1.05] 3.06) 7.19}... |... 72.58} 1.023
paspoly: 11) i)- 3,29) RON S31) “e7iedlo. |. © ee 73.03} 1.025
y 15jJuly 13] 1) 3.33) 41) 4.73 Hee] peer oil ine 70.95} 1.026
y Jal\July 15} 1] 4:32] si] 2.37) 7:50]... .--.| 64.20] 1.006
19\July 18} 1} 3.63] 4.92 Ce Pees -.. | 68.51} 1.042
July 19} 1} 3.33) 6.00] 244) 1177|...2177 3) 69.88) 1.05
M\July 20; 2) 3.45} 6.91) 3.03} 13.39] |_| 43} 69.66] 1.042
MB\July 27} 5) 3.36] 7-82] 2.85} 14.03] 7.ssl r61l 71.06] 1.052
5|July 30) 1) 1.61] 14.54] 3.37] 19.52}... _. 9.56) 65.42) 1.073
=. 10) Aug. s 2| 2.35) 13.42) 1.76} 17.53} 12.79) 9.31] 67.34] 1.072
. 15/Aug. 13] 1) 1.01) 17-19} 1.62} 19.82} 16-41] 14.56] 61 19} 1-082
eee -.-.JAug. 20}Aug. 19} 1) 1.15] 16.40} 3.96} 21.51) 16.53} 11.29] 58.41] 1.083
pee as Ang. 25)Aug. 25} 1| 1.65] 17.25) 2.28} 21-18]. _. 113.32] 1.11] 1.086
ie eee Aug. 30)Aug. 3 2 1.12] 17.80} 311) 2.08 758] 13.57} 59.43] 1.087
17 Sept. 6|/Sept. 1] 2} 1-39) 1865} 2.81] 2285] 18.70] 14.45] 62.30] 1.095
ee ee Sept. 17|Sept. 14} 2} | -96] 18.00) 3.16) 2 12 .-.--| 13-88} 57.29] 1.090
After 18 ..... Gets (Oye 252° 4 1} 1.15] 17-18} 271] 21.04)": ~~] 13 39] 59.39] 1086
After 18-- Ock: Mrs --: 2| 2.14) 12.50) 4.73} 19.37) 9.73} 5.63] 50.55] 1.076
After 18 ..=.. jOct 30) -:--| 4] 1.24) 13.69] 3.47]. 18.40] 13.06} $.9S| 57.58] 1.073
After 18..... |Nov..10)...... 3} 1.46! 11.94! 3.82) 17.21 12.99! 6 66) 55 18 1.070
2) 1.75] 11.25] 5.33) 4.09] 1.069

After 18__... | Sov. 7 ee

General Averages for each Stage in 1880.

The following table, deduced from the results of 2,739 analyses of sor-
ghum canes, made at Department of Agriculture, Washington, presents,
in a condensed form, a very correct idea as to the actual development
of the cane itself, and of the changes in the juice.

Among the points of most practical interest. may be mentioned the
following :

1st. The changes in height, weight, diameter, and total and stripped
weight, are not sufficiently important to require comment.

2nd. The percentage of juice extracted from the stripped stalks
gradually increases up to the eleventh stage, then slowly diminishes
until the close of the season.

3d. The specific gravity of the juice, the percentage of sucrose, the
percentage of solids not sugar, and the available sugar, regularly in-
crease (with but one or two exceptions) until the close of the season;
and the percentage of glucose in the juice as steadily decreases from
the first.

It will here be noticed, that the sucrose increases in the juice much
more rapidly than do the solids not sugar; and this fact, taken together

194 SORGHUM.

with the steady decrease of glucose, is the explanation of the equally
steady increase of the available sugar, which represents the compara-
tive purity of the juices.

4th. It is stated in the discussion of the table of specific gravities,
that the proper stage in the development of sorghum at which to begin
the manufacture of sugar, is when the juice has the specific gravity
1.066, corresponding with 6.6 per cent of available sugar.

Confirmation of this statement is here furnished by this table, and
we further see that this specific gravity (1,066) is attained when the
cane reaches what has been named the ‘ 15th stage.”

By reference to the table describing these stages, it appears that the
seed of the plant should be quite fully developed and hard.

By these three indications, every cane grower can judge for himself
as to the proper time to work up his sorghum crop, in order that he
may obtain satisfactory results,

At the same time, an analysis of the juice is always valuable, and
should be made when practicable.

\

GENERAL AVERAGE FOR THE STAGES, AS DETERMINED FROM THE RESULTS OF THE
SAME STAGE FOR ALL VARIETIES OF SORGHUM, IN 1880, AS DETERMINED AT DE-
PARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

s . a 3
ver) oO tp ned = ° £ a reste fe) c
Ey Pole) =) & | 2/8 | eee
pa at ond
Stages. = z 3 = ° Ep By 2 a | eo|o8
oO 3) [oF Lo] » © = » =| ro 3
re > & o — oat a S a (=e) ¢ a
rm] 13 Qa 7) BS 2) eo o oa |2
= sg 3 a, cS) ° ° rs) cS) ) g S
Sele Balers 5} a | o By 315 |38
< A p om | A a AY AY a 1a 14
7.5] -0.9} 1.93) 1.3 1.031} 4.29} 1.76) 1.75|—4.28 58
8 5} 0.9] 1.93) 1.46 1.036} 4.45} 2.96} 1.86/—3.35 69
8.8 -9} 1.78! 1.39 1.037} 4.50] 3.51} 1.78|—2.74 57
91 -8| 1.83] 1.44 1.041) 4.34] 4.384) 1 91/—1 91 70
9.3 -9| 1.96} 1.55 1.045) 4.15) 5.13} 1 92/— .94 75
eu =9}) 2,02), L760 1 050} 3.99} 6.50) 2.45/+ .06 62
0.7 -9} 2.11) 1.55 1.052} 3.86) 7.38] 2.19] 1.38 70
923) 220 2510) ANGS 1.055} 3.83] 7.69) 2.37) 1.49) J11
8.8 RAP AVAL sake) 1.058} 3.19) 8.95) 2.42) 3.34) 266
8.9 -9} 1.81) 1.38 1.061} 2.60} 9.98} 2 50) 4.88} 217
wal -9| 1.94] 1.48 1.063] 2.35) 10.66] 2.72) 5.59) 166
9.0 =O} 783)" 37 1.006) 2.07} 11.18) 2 83); 6.28) 170
9.1 OE Sb los 1.066} 2.03} 11.40) 2.82) 6.55} 188
8.9 29], 1/582) 1.32 1.067} 1.88) 11.76] 2.96) 6.92) 191
8.9 291 181} 1-82 1.067} 1.81] 11.69} 3.15) 6.73] 217
87 ag eal) dee 1.070} 1.64] 12.40) 3 32) 7.44) 339
eri OF 1.69) 1.25 1 078} 1.56) 13.72} 4.07) 8.09) 197
85 9} 1,44] 1.15 1.069) 1.85} 11.92] 3.42) 6.65] 191
8.5) 1.0) 1.81f 1.53 1.080} 3.09} 12.08) 3.62} 5.37 30

* This stage (No. 19) was after the cane had ceased growing, late in the season; it was
determined frcm canes Nos. 23 and 24 only.

DEVELOPMENT OF SUCROSE AND GLUCOSE IN SORGHUM. 195

Early Appearance of Sucrose in Juices of Sorghum and Maize.

A preliminary examination of one variety of sorghum, and two of
the varieties of maize, was made June 13th, when the plants were about
two feet high, and it was found that, even at this early period, there
was in their juices an appreciable amount of both sucrose and glucose,
as will be seen by the following results:

Juice of White Liberian Sorghum: sucrose, .12 per cent; glucose,
.68 per cent.

Juice of Egyptian Sugar Corn: sucrose, .25 per cent; glucose, .94
per cent.

Juice of Lindsay’s Horse Tooth Corn: sucrose, .38 per cent; glu-
cose, .98 per cent.

From the above it would seem, that both forms of sugar exist in
these plants even in this early stage of development, and that the rela-
tive proportions of the two remain about the same for a long time, as
will be seen by reference to the tables (page 189). It has, however,
not been demonstrated that what is given in the above analyses as su-
erose, is such beyond question. It was, however, if not sucrose, at
least a substance not precipitated by sub-acetate of lead solution, and
without action upon Fehling’s solution, until, like sucrose, it had been
acted upon by a dilute acid solution. It remains, however, a matter
rather of importance in its relation to vegetable physiology, than of
practical value as regards the production of sugar from these plants.

The Presence of Sugar in the Stalks of Sorghum, and its Amount at Differ-
ent Stages of Development.

The fundamental importance of this matter is so great, that any
doubts as to the facts set forth in this chapter are to be dispelled by the
most conclusive testimony which can be presented.

The following conclusion adopted by a Committee of the National
Academy of Sciences, after the mature deliberation of eighteen months
and careful consideration of the data, and of the methods by which they
were ascertained, can not but be accepted as decisive, and is here giyen
from the Report of the National Academy of Sciences, entitled an ‘‘ In-
vestigation of the Scientific and Economic Relations of the Sorghum
Sugar Industry, by a Committee of the National Academy of Sciences,”
Nov., 1882, Washington, D. C.”

196 SORGHUM.

CONCLUSION.

Summary of Results already obtained at the Department of Agriculture, in
Washington, D. C., in the Production of Sugar and Molasses from Sor-
ghum and the Stalks of Maize.

The committee find, as the result of their investigation, by all the data which
have come before them, as well as those obtained by the Department of Agri-
culture during the years from 1878 to 1882, both inclusive, and those derived
from other parties in different sections of the United States, that the following
points are established by an amount of investigation in the laboratory, and of
practical experience in the field and factory, which have rarely been devoted
to the solutipn of any industrial problem.

The more important and well established results are here enumerated, and
are followed by a statement of certain practical and scientific points which still
remain for future inquiry.

A.— OF THE POINTS ALREADY SETTLED.
1. The Presence of Sugar in the Juices of Sorghum and Maize Stalks.

From records examined by this committee, it appears that, during the three
years prior to 1882, there have been made, at the Department of Agriculture,
almost four thousand five hundred chemical analyses of the juices of about
forty varieties of sorghum, and of twelve varieties of maize. These analyses
have shown the constitution of the juices of each variety at the successive
stages in the development of the growing plant. They not only confirm the
well known fact of the presence of sugar in the juices of these plants in nota-
ble quantity, but they also establish, beyond cavil, what seems surprising to
those who have not examined the facts, that the sorghum, particularly, holds in
its juices, when taken at the proper stage of development, about as much cane
sugar as the best sugar-cane of tropical regions.

An examination of the analytical tables in the reports of Dr. Collier, synop-
ses of which follow, will show that the juices of sorghum, in certain exceptional
but not isolated cases, were remarkable for the amount of cane sugar they con
tained, viz:

Of true erystallizable sugar in the juice—

Per cent.

5 analyses of 5 varieties gave OVET....--.------- 2s eee eee eee eee ce ee ee ee eee eee Peek!)

33 analyses of 17 varieties gave OVET ....-..--- 6. -. see ee eee eee eee eee eee Se 18

79 analy ses Of 23 varieties GAVE OVEL...---.-- see cece cee tere rere ee eee w cree : peers |,
152 analyses of 80 varieties gave OVer ..-...--...--- 1 eee eee erect eee tee e eee 16°:

As compared with the juices of sugar-cane, which gave, by analysis, under
15 per cent of sugar, these results are unexpecied and surprising.

But the average results obtained during long periods of working, and from
different varieties, are of more value to the practical farmer than any excep-
tional instances.

The average results obtained from 122 analyses of 35 different varieties of sor-
ghum, and during a working period of one or another of the above varieties of
at least three months in the latitude of Washington, are as follows:

DEVELOPMENT OF SUCROSE AND GLUCOSE IN SORGHUM. 197

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF JUICES OF THIRTY-FIVE VARIETIES OF SOR-

GHUM.

| 1 | 2: | 3 Average
BECTOSE! Sok at oe eee NS oc. percent... 1599} 15.94 16 61 | 16 18
“SESS PCS aE 7 rn Ade. 2225 1.84! 372! 183! 190
Sy Th eae haat oe ak oe 2 ae dos 3.01 3.20| 3.01 3 08
Mivarlonle Shears oe oe PA isens-2 ns ces 8 dois ay (ee ee 11 30
Juice. Seiler LEO A eee ae ey sore dase 60.25 58.95 | 56 51 58 57
VPRO Saat TS RS SS ee pes 1.082) 1.081} 1.081 1.0813
Nh bine elk hos) Coe ae = eee eee ae een Too 40 / 37 ) 45 12

From this statement it will be seen, that, as an average of all the analyses
made during those three stages, there was obtained 58.57 percent of the weight
of the stripped stalks in juice; that 16.18 per cent of the weight of this juice
was crystallizable cane sugar; and that 11.30 percent of the weight of the juice
may be obtained as sugar by the ordinary process of manufacture.*

By reference to the tables it will also be seen, that of the eight varieties of
maize examined in 1881, seven of which were of common field and one of

sweet corn,
Per cent of cane sugar.

PME OTe WATICMES PRWE OWEE.. <2 2s 25-206 on Soe ae ne ee en ee 13
RISE 2 WALICMEN CRVEMVEr /- 22.5... = 2... ac. 2teacnntee ares ona atwnane pie aed 12
‘22 analyses of 7 varieties gave Over........ Sa. Shoe Se apie Brees | Fes 55s Sue by ne. ie
29 analyses of 7 varieties gave Over..-.........-..-.-- RS ae oe SRE SPE Bc Sn is nae AS 10

ee E Ree Sel A aT IORIOR PVE OVER ono 65< (22 = 5 25-s ace = cn as bee eae saa pane eee ee 9

Of ten varieties of maize grown in 1880, the following results were obtained:

rey Per cent of cane sugar.
Pea GSCs Of 10 VariCsles SAVE OVER. .-.35-- 26.62 J esack Lanne sm neue oo see ene eee ee 9

‘Sy analgnes oF 10 varieties Pave OVEF..: .-:..5--..- << .cec-o3 (spatcecose- saae mess vee te aun
peRRnE UH 658) WOTICRION ORME UVET = 2.00) - 5205: . Ao okt eae ee eens See bee eee Soe oe 11
PUMIUnPS Oh Git AriCgen FAVE OVER 2... -~ cc. 5222550 eae rend ain cee ees ae oe 12
Brnaigortt +. WAmCMeS PAVE OVER. .2... --. 225.2. ca5- nana eten ke ae ona eae aon eee 13
DRIES DY a VaTIChY PAVE OVEIos 32.2 25. 25s u heer ae ae ee eae eee ee 14
erat eT URT Stier S2 CAV IORU PUNO QUOE oo 25 cons act Senne phe ee face See aa one 15

Explanation of the Stages of Growth, or of Development.

In order to record as closely as was possible the development of the
plants at the time when they were taken from the field for examina-
tion, a series of numbers were made use of, which indicated the sey-
eral stages of development. The determination of stages after the
fourteenth was, in the case of the sorghum, difficult, and depended
upon the increasing hardness of the seed. These numbers and their
significations are as follows:

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT IN SORGHUM.

. About one week before opening of panicle.
. Immediately before opening of panicle.

. Panicle just appearing.

. Panicle two-thirds out.

we C9 ND

* The “ available sugar’’ here stated, is the amount of cane sugar shown by analysis,
less the sum of the glucose and solids not sugar; e. g.,in this case 16.18 per cent less
(1.80 per cent + 3 08 per cent) = 11.30 per cent. This mode of computation, as has al-
ready been explained, gives a less probable quantity of available sugar than is shown
by the method of ‘‘exponent,’’ usually used by sugar boilers.

198 SORGHUM.

. Panicle entirely out; no stem above upper leaf.
. Panicle beginning to bloom at the top.

. Flowers all out; stamens beginning to drop.

. Seed well set.

Seed entering the milk state.

. Seed becoming doughy.

Seed doughy: becoming dry.

. Seed almost dry; easily crushed.

. Seed dry; easily split.

WI SOOIAMN

.
Hee

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF ALL VARIETIES OF SORGHUM

GROWN AT THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON,
iw 1879, 1880, 1881.

From the general averages of the tables of all the varieties of sor-
ghum, similar in general character to the tables already given by way
of illustration, the following tables have been prepared, giving the
percentages of sucrose, glucose, solids not sugar, available sugar, and
juice; as also the specific gravity and the number of separate analyses
made under each stage, for the years 1879, ’80, and ’81; and, finally,
a general average of all the results for the three years.

The same results are graphically represented upon the four charts
which follow, the line for juice being left out in the chart giving the
results of 1879, since, as has been explained in a previous report, the
juice was obtained that year without the aid of a mill, and was so
much less in consequence as not to be comparable with the results ob-
tained the last two years. This final chart comprises, as will be seen,
the average results of a total of 4,052 separate analyses of some forty-
five varieties of sorghum, and, covering the record of three years’
work, the results are the more conclusive.

AVERAGE RESULTS For 1879, 1880, 1881.

Per cent sucrose.| Per cent glucose.| Per cent solids.
Development.
1879. | 1880. | 1881. | 1879. | 1880. | 1881. | 1879. | 1880. | 1881,

TO isiy Ch keree Gay pant cen dooric co Sc Ogen est 1.76 89} . AN 29) DirSili|iaere 1.70) 240
Second stage ......-..2---------- 20)! 12296) sie20l bel) 34745) 98 D4 |b 1 86| O04
EPNEDN GUS LEVG: Geos ieicterene teste vecefeteerera lteter ‘ 4! Bel late NN eS « 4.50} 8 35 1 178) Dat
HMOUrEN SUAS Caachi wie eeiteris sir. > : 4.34) 2 02 4.34) 3.4 ee 191} 290
Hlth ata Gar eeenens eee. 3°94) '5.13|' 2/78) 4.65] 4.15) 8 41) 1:40/) doo aS
Sixthistacesacercceseieme asec. 3.62) 6.50! 3.60} 5.55] 3.99} 3 69] "2 56] 2 45) 2 7

Seventh stages. cic... 0r---- - 7-07) 7.38) 4 71) 3.87] 3-86] 3.88) 1.71) 219) oNeE
Miclith Staceusacemereeetoss .e- - 6 18] 7 69] 6.08] 4.47| 3.83] 3.69] 136] 237] 3 03
Inf eeOne cacecu sopanacoueuede 9 72) 8.95) 747) 3.60} 8 19} 3 70] 1.45) 2.491 92 68
Tenth stage...... ...-------- one 8 04) 9.98] 8 76) 3.27) 2 60) 3.30} 1.53] 2 50) 2 60
Bleventh stage:.---+-e=e. + ---7 11.54) 10.66] 10.00} 2.81] 2 35] 2.96] 1.42] 2 72! 2 90
Twelfth stage. ........... Bessie: 14.15} 11.18] 12.01) 1.58) 2 07) 2 74| 2.52] 2.83) 293
Thirteenthstage.........---- --- 14.37] 11.40) 13 06) 1.46) 203) 2 47] 1 51) 2 82) 298
Fourteenth stage .........------- 12.44] 11.76) 13 98) 1.16) 1 88} 2 21} 2.93] 2 96) 290
Fifteenth stage..............---.- 14.26) 11.69) 14.34) 1.74) 1.81) 2.22) 3.01; 3 15) 2 88
Sixteenth stage. ........-...:..- 14.37] 12.40! 15 99) 1.12! -1.64' 1.84] 2.02) 8 32 3 OL
Seventeenth stage..............- 13 $4] 13 72) 15 94 .93| 1 56) 1.72) 3 13) 4 07 3 20
Highteenth stages... c.. sce. a. 8.451 11.92] 16 61 £0}, 4/85) 2 83) sB.221\ cr 4AeronOr
Nineteenth stage..........-.----- 14 75] 12.08] 15 23 .82) 3.09) 1.75] 2 60) 3.62) 3 65
Twentieth stage....2......5--+.-- 1401S || fee TWNESO arS0ho. 2 Lvs), Cowles Ree er 3.83

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC. 199

Average Results for 1879, 1880, 1881.— Continued.

/ ila-
Specific gravity. Per cent of juice.| Pe™ cent availa

ble sugar.
Development. a i Ge. DG oat Maw w air
1879. | 1880. | 1881. 1879. | 1880. | 1881. | 1879. | 1880. | 1881.
a aa Sal Oa ESE SEES SEN CRE CES
Tyra Wal f a ee e e eie ee -.-.1 1.0311 1.018) -....] 59.06] 65.30)... ... —4.28 —3.S2
Second stage. :.:-.--<.--....6. .---} 1.035] 1.036] 1.025) 34.40) 59.60) 67.13)—3 .93|—3.35 —4 45
2a RS Cte eee eee eee eee 1.087] 1.029)... -..- 59.67) 69.48].... |—2.77\—3.92
Fourth stage. -- << .25 << sai<..-: jf. -2:-] LO 1 O20)-.--.- 61-61) 68.02)... _..|—1.91 —4.29
OU | To ee ee 1.043} 1.045] 1.032) 35.81] 63.05] 68.18|—2.15|— 94-3 81
Sixth BiG <2osec 5 Sete - 5.2. xcce- 1.044) 1.050) 1.035; 35.20) 62.79) 68.07|\—3.49! .06,—2.87
Beyer ile Riaee seen epee ees 1.061) 1.052) 1.042) 36.65] 63.85) 67.21] 1.49) 1.33|—1.98
Miglith Mare... 062t Sec. 25 522. 1.061) 1.055} 1.048} 33.80) 65.68) 67.81 35) 1.49\— 64
NiO BBO e ee -e aee coe 2 1.063) 1.058) 1.052) 32.70) 64.88) 66.76|—4.67) 3.34) 1.14
Wenth Stage us. cavsscsss25 8052: 1.061) 1.061) 1 056) 34.91) 64 83 67.91) 3.24) 4.88) 2.86
Bleyenth plarec sso 225. -.5.-. 22. 1.068) 1.063) 1.061) 34.35) 65.02) 65.84) 7.31) 5.59) 4.14
Wy te ee .| 1.081) 1.065} 1.068} 31-72} 63 39) 62.44] 10.05) 6.28) 6 34
THRINTLGeOI Ree Wo oo. Se. a 1.082) 1.066] 1.071) 30.07] 62.99) 62.50) 11.40) 6.55) 7.61
Fourteenth stage...........-...-- 1.080) 1.067) 1.075) 30.73) 61.72) 58.92] 8.35) 6.92) 8.87
RIEeites HEROES Oso. 3s cose -| 1.078) 1.067) 1.077) 29.50) 60.45) 63.54] 9.51) 6.73) 9.24
SF SES Oo a 1.077; 1.070) 1.082) 27.57! 61.20: 60.25] 11.23! 7.44' 11.14
Seventeeth stage..............-... 1.078] 1.078] 1-081) 21.60| 60.17] 58.85] 9-78} 8.09) 11.02
Eighteenth stage.................. 1.081} 1.069} 1.082) 26.20] 62.09) 56.51] 4.53] 6.65) 11.77
Nineteenth stage............- ----.| 1.077] 1.080) 1.080) 22.95) 56.04) 57.22] 11.33] 5.37) 9.8
Paentieth Stace. o< 22.05 5s22-% 5 1.079, =e 1 = a7) | fia 58.45] 9.50]...-..] 6.7
No. of analyses. Average results, 1879, 1880, 1881.

Development. | | / s | 3 : | 2 B,: =s

1879. | 1880. |1881.| © s | 3 [se] Ss ~2a/42

s |= |3 |kE| 5 | Ee) 58

| | NR i) mim o / a) < 7, BS

|
|Pr.ct. Pr ale et. Pr ct.| Pr ct.

Hirst stage..... <..- Bere) Hea 58 16, 1.57) 3.86) 1-89) 1.028) 60 41/—+4.18) 74
Second stage..... ........- 2 69 38) 2-32) 4.03) 2.05) 1 032) 62.26|\—3.76) 109
2 US ee ee pee 57 40) 2.82) 4.02) 2.04) 1.083) 68.71/—3 4 97
Mirren sia 8 70| 52! 3.35) 3.94] 2.33] 1.035) 64.34/—2.99) 192
BRE REPS St Sen tio oe oc 8 75) 46] 4.23) 3.89) 2.36) 1.043) 65.00/—2 02 129
So AS CS ee eee ee 4 62 51) 5.16) 3.88} 2.58) 1.045) 6_17)/—1.30 li7
SEveRt Saee..-=).-2- -2- 4 70} 2} 6.39) 3.8) 2.41) 1.048) 65.11) 13) 116
Eighth stage. ..-......<..5. 4 111) 42) 7.3} 3.80) 2.53) 1.053] 66.5 -90 157
ZC PETCCTS 2 a ee 4) 266] 45) 8.74) 3.26) 2.44] 1.057] 65.15) 4.04] 315
Tenth stage ....... hee 8} 217} 60) 9.69) 2.76] 2.50) 1.060) 65.49) 4.49) 285
Eleventh stage.-............ 12) 166 53} 10.53) 2.50) 2-72) 1 062! 65.22} 5.31) 230
welbietare Col. ook. 55. 10 170) 44, 11.41) 2.19) 2.84) 1.066) 63.19) 6.38 224
Thirteenth stage.......-... 8} 183) 40) 11.75) 2.09) 2.82) 1.068) 62 90) 684) Bl
Fourteenth stage .......... § 191 37| 12.13) 1.92] 2.95) 1.068} 61.26) 7.26 236
Fifteenth stage...........-. 4 217 37, 12.09) 1.87) 3-11] 1.068) 60.90) 7.11 258
Sixteenth stage ..... ee ae 6 339 40) 12.79) 1.65) 3.25) 1 071! 61.10) 7.86 385
Seventeeth stage........... 6) 197 7) 14.07) 1.57) 3.92) 1.078) 59.98) 8.58) 240
Fighteenth stage .... .... 2 191 45} 12.80) 1.71) 3.34! 1.071) 61.08) 7.75 238
Nineteenth stage.......... 12} 30} 44] 14.01) 2.18] 3.31) 1.0%0) 56.74] 8.52) 86
Twentieth stage.........-... 22 = 370) 11.95} 1.72, 3.81) 1 ral 58.45) 6.42) 392
<r Mee ee PY Ae 124) 2,739) 1,179 | Protez Seat ee | ney Weer | 4,042

Graphical Charts.

The preceding results will appear more clearly by representing them
graphically ; and in the following charts the percentage is indicated,
for the sucrose, glucose, solids not sugars, and availab’e sugar, by the
numbers given upon the right and left hand margins, while the dates

ee :
%: me ° od

200 SORGHUM.

are given upon the upper margin of each sheet. For convenience of
platting upon the same sheet, the per cent of juice given upon the
charts should be multiplied by five in every case, and the specific
gravity is represented by having .001 in specific gravity equal to one-
fifth of one per cent as given upon the chart.

Each point indicated by a break in either of the lines representing
the above constituents, the specific gravity or the juice, represents the
average result actually obtained in the several analyses of a juice at
any given stage of development. The beginning of each line and
the end represent the average results of the first and last stages, and
the intervening breaks the successive stages from the first to the last:

201

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC

EAE Hea ror ere eet HS Be ae
HH EEEEEE EP EE Pe EEC eee eC eee Co BREST
ECHECEECEECEEE SRbar Howat sence #oeade tony ccarsrenazasezeec Coenen

p SEUGGSEEEEEEECSRBREC SaRGET SanRHT SaGnHC ap Zar seenvanaseasenaeeacaaaees
raei/avelaa Be He Fae pact =f le Se aa TETRA TEE
; a, bal
Fa ea Seee FECEE PREECE Se ey tot soe Pal bs re ecetsietstea

7A (a te

7
16

a ESB

el rect pf i ea
Ste a i ts i el ee
ee

seeeera PEEPS e eee eee eee
aia aie tt BREE ET CCE PREP EE SEE EEC Eee eee

ae J
cagneae 7

a

Siteee FREER CCOEESSECECCEE EEE EC ACERS EEE
FEECEESE-EEEE-EEEE CECE ei Sichoge soeyiriera canal Rane mh
CIE esd Ts eal al

po} jt} | ff |} AVAILABLE SUGAR /| || | | | fl a

Plato XVIII,

“XTX 9}8Td
¢: YUVENs a1aV AV é
jweul9 WO peUy Sauiiy doing JO juagl Ja,
| *WIeY-O-UP-U90-+JNo}d 42+} — 9 *0S-Ul-19G*
|SPNOS |pUe [ssoon|y 10 juNns|Ssolfesoions! [=| sebng ajqEeny
5 —: so Cs A Ba E —JoLJ-t_T J -To asouons
; ini Phage t= Es asl af a |
mS = mistaiatetncie 5 am €
| lsanos > 7 | Sifslncles
b “pte balk SOOM b
i .
. g (Paey pass] fe) Tb :
9 UPHOP UF paag| |= iE KLTAVES O1stO3Id
ES alu pees | ft [a | i i
n “wossorq finy uy | fal uy Cie [
t "oo Any sotued “ObELS “pu IPZ 0
= | ~,| DuLeadde yOu lajoiuey jabeys “ys (ales a [=I rl
rs ¥ 3 esa) ieee ate all (EE Es -4 JOIN A
7 Tosdeeqeeety oe Ex ol ciaiabakrConad sioaplecta =p, oh yea ¢]
LSI a
= sft = a eo 1
- bt PAS F = nie =
ri Saaltl oa m > ?- |e aaa [ant
N ip | Cl
St <7 oy w Kg 4 en
sheet oo j—__| 6. ©. ©. yy [sy teed
‘ i e ad S 3 OF
ie al
F Ss it Zd_sasheuy| J [ON] (COsel YPIOS| IO SSEMEA EE [FO Sesheuy, JO] sysoy, eDEISA al
rot -
3

203

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC.

saa aaeeaae car cr EEL CLaaUECOLTEL
eo FEE AR poles fee oe ECL ile to aa

BEES EEE EEE EEE Ere Eo FHEEE CHEE CHER EEC CHEE ECE a
|_|

SEER EEE eee be ofa eee Boe cecneeaeas
SogeE EeEHaUEGeE aEUEET ZECEUC 2UEGGT sgumar Jeune 2aee7caeueecaaeee
Ggubessensseseenee

EEE EEE EEE EEE EEE ae

an
on
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as
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thaton Cha
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Plate XX.

' “soRGHUM.

204

‘IXX 09% 1d

- a
BEEEEEEEEEE EEE eee eer ec
IEEE EE EEE pds} t0p

ECC series!

Lett |
1 SA il Re a

i 21 COTES ey Ed eB a St i a
tof ESTESSUIE TESS oT SS fe as OE FY il A a a
Pd ead (ial | st Ga a Et al A a iP Tn Ft

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC. 205

In 1882, there were grown upon the grounds of the Department of
Agriculture, at Washington, 78 varieties of sorghum, consisting
largely of varieties quite new to the United States, from South Africa,
China, and India. The Chinese varieties, and several of those from
Africa, proved to be comparatively worthless for sugar; but, since the
average results of the entire number grown and examined during the
season only serves to confirm fully the results already recorded as to
the gradual increase of sugar in these plants, the analyses are here
given:

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT.
78 VARIETIES GROWN IN 1882.

~ | -

z | < / =s|e2s/2 « |e
Se | as. | sz | 52 | & = | 523
ga DEVELOPMENT. pase oi : = so | ne
Ac — ose I 2 oF | ae

e 2 =o = eS ABS
ey —

2} Head swelling..... --- ---| 66.97 | 1.034 3.255 | 3.78 | 1.279 | 3.98 |—0.75

4 | Head fully out.........--... | 63.044 | 1.040 4.395 3.85 | 1.265 | .4-195 |—1.818

2 aBelore bloom. 222-22. 6-/.- =. | 60.22 | 1.044 4.59 5.14 1.50 5.77 |—0.95

Golehy tullploone. | 2.2.2. 22-8. | 63.90} 1.049 | 3.89 6.47 | 11.67 6.64 0.88
in Peon BLOOM 9.2.2 >. ~.225*. 63.77 | 1.050 3.32 7.38 pel 6.56 | 1.85
Say) ES es ee 60 S8 | 1.055 2.90 8 45 2.41 |. $8.87 3.20
187 | Seed in dough...-...-...-.... 58.11 | 1.0606 2.171 9.85 2.656 9.80 5 04
vel el Sr Bt eee ee 58.07 | 1.0627 | 1.33 10.48 2.885 | 10.447 6.233
94 | Sucker seed in milk ....... 56.71 | 1.0668 | 1.203 | 11.448 | 3.27 11.603 | 7.426
199 | Sucker seed in dough .. ..| 58.06 | 1.070 LIS | Is 3.10 | 12.40 $19
134 | Sucker seed hard.... ......| 52.90 ) 1.0731 | 1.45 | 12.63 3.52 | 12.33 8.56

Comparison with Foreign Varieties.

In 1882, examinations were made of a large number of varieties
quite new to this country, from seed received from Africa, China, and
India, and the results of these analyses are given by themselves for
the purpose of comparison with the analyses of those varieties which
have been cultivated in the United States for the past thirty or thirty-
five years.

Comparative Value during Working Period (i. e., after seed was hard) of
14 Chinese, 26 African, 3 Indian, and 20 American Varieties of Sor-
ghum, see page 102.

PER CENT AVAILABLE SUGAR IN JUICES.

MERE RBI OR Rte ot a a, SRE ot oe ee . 4.89 per cent.
African 7.19 <
Indian 6.93 ae
American 7.90 as

.

Analyses of Other Varieties of Sorghum (Sorghum Vulgare).

The following analyses will show how widely these varieties of sor-

206 SORGHUM.

ghum under consideration differ in composition and in value, as
sources of sugar, from other members of the Sorghum family to which,
botanically, they are so closely allied:

ANALYSES.—JUICES BROOM CORNS.

Variety. No. Anal. Sucrose. Glucose, Solids.

pr. ct. pr. et. pr. ct.

Wadley iinet siemidiccies hiss 6 1.45 1.55 2.25
Chinese Evergreen...... 5 2.40 2.25 2.49
INVEGTSRECR 7252. cieiecesis eres 4 2.50 OF 2.40
AVC TAS OR Fiss-icieinies'se.s © 15 2.12 1.92 2.38

ANALYSES.—JUICES DOURA CORNS.

Variety. No, Anal, Sucrose. Glucose. Solids.

pr. ct. pr. ch. pr. ct.

Rice, or Egyptian........ 17 6.57 84 3.49
WOW TA tein Meee ee eee 6 5.77 2.33 Pani pl
Brown Doura........ ae 2 3.7 7D 8.70
White: Douraly .i2)\e- ne. - 1 8.70 1.90 7.00
IAN ETRE Gigs ov cei ete 26 6.19 afl 5.48

Comparison of Sugar-Cane with Sorghum.
The results represented upon the tables and charts which have been
given, will appear the more surprising if compared with the average
analyses of the juices of sugar-cane.

Analyses af Louisiana Cane.

The following analyses of specimens of Louisiana cane, were made
at the Department of Agriculture, by the same methods pursued in
the analyses of the sorghum; so the results are entirely comparable.

207

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC.

Date,

Nov.
Noy,
Nov.
Nov.
Novy,
Nov,
Noy,
Nov.

Nov,

Nov,
Noy, 11

Noy, 11

Variety.

Portion.

Ribbon-eane plant,’ 79|/Top..
Sotil( Snaeeaa e tee Middle
Bre LUNG Graceiaetedltiare steer Butt .
bial Oiire's arava OD is

TAD irs ces Sg cece Middle
Go... vas Butt...
(ol RANE icine ttionct Top
Ribbon-eane plant, '78|Middle
MOnose cts nit pCa (4b On Hey
Red cane, 1878......... RDG re
GO wuss viiiaer ies 5 MRC Que
Pe LONE i fern exvuseaiey, oF HIS Lies

aS.

| Number of st

2

LOUISIANA SUGAR-CANES,

wa re cH

b y fe

a Pees Ey 43 ¢ |r
re ro ov = 9 s|'s
=| 1: v a 4 i] et a |e =|
| a i i) o | @ fat @ lala
r is fu =| Ss 4 fem |i

& a 3 ‘cs 4 os & ~- t
S| o/818& /s |] # |e \e/8
aie lg | me) Oe leet Z ele
1m Shed £ . ow be Het S tr [tes
w | 8 al|& |e el a! & igs 1c! o
FV i fe | es
bp tot tee thet $..& thet et fa 5 i} c
Ps © © ° 5 c © 7) @ lee
w ~~ ww ve a

i) r= | | p= o o |& oD
g|/»| P| Slg |i he) & |e lee
w | ‘QD o| oOo] # % a 5
o ‘ o) vu v tet wm | SS
Bl/e)/ Ele lae lala A A lala
13, 23/2.68/10.66/1.07/13.12/6.72/1 84] 124 |.118] 8/10
6 O0/1.19] 4 81] .68]12 89l6.99]1.57] .124 | 115} oltd
10.26] 63) 7.63/1.95/11.81]65.81]1 67) 154{ |.112) of 9
11,65/2.80] 9.35]1.80|11,48]6.47/1.73] } sBRe |p 1086s |i

wb | ad
6/8
42/8
° oo]
my | oe
we ° a
a &|&
a | a! @
et te he
ro) i ie)
a =| ‘S |
bo
ALE
Pm i fares J
201]..

“'on0]. ..| 426

164) .240)....
295) 361).

RUB lave aa eres

|
|

| Length of first leaf-joint.

$85.61) .668)1 .B614 08] 1.67) .71) 7.08

vee 17H.19)2 91911 62]1.98)11.80) .84]11.18
262 180.11/8,025)1, ye Peal ise _. {18,97
-.. 18490] .B66]1-040] 8.8214 29] 2.88]1.70]....
... 178.18}1 46411 .057/18.79}/1.61)11 80) .88).....
290 76 19/1.486|.... |.....| .81/18.64].... 2:
hitges 81.81) .76111.081/10,96/2.94) 6.80/1.72) 5.97
91 90)2.881]1 .067/16.81) .68}15.82],,..]15.79

184) 71,63|2.055/1,074/17.71| 4517.17] .09]17.00
“vo. [81.97] .790/1.047/10.92]8.41] 2.14]4.77] 5.06
"tas .67]2.795]1 .064]15 .59/1.41]13.36] .82]14.07

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

i rae a ee
* o |, ol
el el eh Sere
a =] o =} —
rs) & = — [=| A
| ee, pe ee
A=} q lime = Met ra)
’ “het °
be Leal ° 4 ~ 43
S| ¢ = =| a
3s| o| B| gig] 6
te —_ r -] oe oO
Ae F Lal ar he
hed
) ws fh ° B A
a ~ Oo a o o
ae =
es) 3| s|ele| §
o
w @) ||
a|el| &| alo] &

78,22) .118}1 066/15 ,.69}1 ,04}15 26

Per cent of solids not sugar,

in juice.

Polarization, per ct., sucrose.

89]14 59

208 SORGHUM.

al

ANALYSES OF SUGAR-CANE JUICES BY REGINALD M. SANDYS.

A. Ribbon Cane, Sagua la Grande.
B. Second years’ stubble.
C. Red Plant Cane.

D. First year’s stubble—one-half red, one-half ribbon.

E. Creole Cane.
F. Japanese Cane.

ais B. C. Dy E.

Average weight of canes............- pounds =... °3:03" (2:3) 9 4.2") 25605 est

\ Specific gravity juice... .----...---..- Beaume... 8.6° Sioe 8 58,400! 88. 620me oie
IPG CEM SU CLOSC treo tan tines 2s ek earch een rae 12.80 13.17 12.52 18.60 4.51
Percent PINCOSC cores eee rie eae Reet 1.52 82 ale 90 7.19
Per cent mineral and vegetable matter.... 114 =6=—s.09s—«*2:18 1.00 pia
ORCA WETaNen Over CUYD AED de boae-pcctoroeenae ore. coMiqatye 82 -86 84 87 39

“139

For purpose of further comparison, the following analyses of sugar-
canes and juice of the sugar-cane grown in Madras, India, are given

below.

The canes were divided into upper, middle, and lower thirds:

each third being two feet in length, except the lower thirds of the se-

lected canes, which were three feet in length:

Bundle of medium

Bundle of selected

good canes. canes.
Upper | Middle| Lower | Upper |Middle | Lower
third. | third. | third. | third. | third. | third.
TB AFASSOL «wie: tenis civcisle penile aleleiea ote ceianie ee 7.630 8 470 8 300 7.580 8 650 8 290
SUL LOSEM Pe toceteoictcnre cehe eacleleroepioemrecinshee 10 630 | 18 310 | 18.370 9 490 | 18 640 13.850
GAC OSC srck tetera sooo meter ttercte- ces ieaeracle sts hae 2.640 1.510 1 540 2 430 .736 -710
PASTA aR Ps cae alae arias cy ajancrejersiejatowe ils d are eieln wre leave -307 . 259 AK! 545 363 BAD
NAO RS oy oN alc Ae BEM AU eo test rR See 78.334 | 75.612 | 76.122 | 79 484 | 75.628 79.945
MWgeLeR MINE. 2 Asem oes seis ane ee 459 839 455 471 983 856
100.000 |100.000 |100.000 |100.000 |100.000 | 100.000
ANALYSES OF EXPRESSED JUICE.
SUCROSCrc eee celts Beer ine cee ee occ . | 11.510 | 14.550 | 14.580 | 10.270 | 14.930 15.110
GiLG OSE sama tere minetesie eisias ele. fo: fia'e cls .| 2.860 1.650 1.680 2.630 806 173
OAS ere etevh = ky tetenc ote ieicieas civleisiss.clc sicw prota c®. .003 .283 259. .090 B98 .o8L
Uma etermine d asrceice amie teu a coke cos 497 917 485 510 | 1.076 934
WUE eee hate creer aie Y= os sicls,ec.s base oe 84.800 | 82.600 | 83.000 | 86.000 , 82.790 82.800
100.000 |100.000 {100.000 |100.000 |100.000 | 100.000

CHEM. CENT. BLATY., February, 1880.

AVERAGE ANALYSIS OF ELEVEN SUGAR-CANES.

100.

73.74 per cent.
15.07 per cent.
9.51 per cent.
.o6 per cent.
1.32 per cent.

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC. 209

Twenty-five samples of sugar-cane juices, from the many varieties
of this plant grown in Louisiana, Cuba, Jamaica, Martinique, Guada-
lupe, and the East Indies, analyzed by several chemists, give the fol-
lowing average composition : Sucrose, 13.28 per cent; other solids, 2.71
per cent. If, now, as in the case of the sorghums, we subtract the
sum of the solids (which was made up of ash, glucose, and other unde-
termined substances) from the sucrose, we have, as available sugar in
these juices, an average of 10.57 per cent—an amount even less than
that found present in the average juice of thirty-five kinds of sorghum
for long periods, as will be seen by reference to the charts and tables.

Analysis of Juice at Different Stages.

It has been supposed by some, that the increase in the amount of
sugar at certain periods is due to the drying up of the plant, and the
consequent concentration of the juice by evaporation.

This view, although apparently supported by some facts, is probably
erroneous, since (as will appear from the results of our determinations,
as shown upon either of the charts showing the average results for a
year) the amount of juice varies but little during the year; but, owing
to continuous increase in the sucrose, glucose, and other solids, during
the season (as shown by the analyses, and indicated by the steady in-
crease in specific gravity), it follows, of necessity, that the amount of
water in the juice must as steadily decline.

This, however, would hardly appear as the result of.a drying up of
the plant; since, as has been shown, neither the amount of juice, nor
its composition, suffers any great change, even when a heavy rain-fall
succeeds a period of prolonged drought.

It appears rather a normal condition of the plant’s growth; and the
production of sugar seems to be accompanied by the elimination of a
certain amount of water.

If, at any time, we might look for more concentration of juice by
the evaporation of water, and the consequent increase in the percentage
of the several constituents of the juice, it would seem to be during the
later periods of the plant’s growth. If, now, we take the results for the
past season, as given in the general averages, we find that, for exam-
ple, the amount of total solids obtained in the juice were, in the
fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth stages, 12.35, 12.56, and 12.30
per cent of the weight of the stripped stalks; but the amount of water
in the juices at these periods was, for these respective stages, 51.19,
47.69, and 46.65 per cent of the weight of the stripped stalks.

As will be seen, there is, in the above results, a slow diminution of

water, but no corresponding increase of the solids.
14

210 SORGHUM.

The following table gives the results for the season of 1881, showing
the per cent of juice, and of each of its constituents, as also of avail-
able sugar, calculated to the stripped stalks:

PERCENTAGE OF SUCROSE, TOTAL SOLIDS, WATER, AND AVAILABLE SUGAR, IN
STRIPPED STALKS, OBTAINED IN JUICE AT DIFFERENT STAGES.

vo

2 : ce H 45 =, aa te

2 $ 2 = a2 pay

B } 2 2 Pa | 2 eee

ie iS ti ig 3 53 te Eee

cos tt © re) Rom eal pape ee |=

STAGES. 20 2 Sate. 2 = op l\sseaaie

Ba 2 ay = od =" Janne al®
O38 BS. Be v On Oo |ostks|o .
Bt) = Fa fo) re uw = 5 = ae a/ae2
5° a qa 5 oo ie |Snoulsa

eS L m4 oy a ay 5 A
qe Sh d aes oes On OAR Soe 65.3 1.018 3.66 61.64 HOS a || a5 ler dipes. oi] (letnerenenes 16
Pier ves iet ta eiesaretcehtare ate} wie rey <r 67.13 1.025 4.60 | 62.53 ROL ert oetszs 3
Shoe oc. cGre 50.06 Hp a Cn acer as 69.48 1.029 §.28 64.20 8 ali sie cael ee ee 40
(eA aaa Oho De SOUBbS Oca or 68 02 1.029 5 67 62.35 MOTH eet nee ases 52
Tisha TOM ON IHOR Ga BOER ooo. 68.18 1.032 6.39 61.79 DESO Mocs ict -tai| he 46
Breese omar beccaooosee see 68 07 1.035 6.85 61.22 DA) ly te Sark hs sls eaee 51
{hcens eolbpoddupes gaol ospe oe. 67.21 1.042 7.96 59.55 Hialeah 5 42
(3) harQWoCogs ood ano COOE Ee 67 81 1.048 §.68 59.13 el A IR Be 42
9 66.76 1.052 § 21 57.55 4.99 76 15.20 45
LES Bo oetsagy es Se baci mop hm cae 67.91 1.056 9.96 57.95 5.95 1.94} 38.80] 60
dt anton acedyae obeoconso eee 65.84 1.061 10 44 55.40 6.58 2.73 | D4 /60 sas
DD Pecae tad art ylalanatanyere Sane are) oral = 62 44 1.068 11 04 51.40 7.50 3.96 79.20 Ad
AAS Sohavor dena aaememcaaros 62.50 1.071 11.57 50.90 8.16 4.76 95.20 | 40
MA ree oie tenciiereieto cisterns 58.92 1.075 11.4 47 67 8.24 5.23 | 104.60 | 37
aL Fy eee ed tate ctor < okey sy aVayee = (ey —eT=1s 63.54 1.077 12.35 51.19 eit 5.87 | 117.40 37
TRAC A te ge ne eters Vee ee 60.25 | 1.082 | 12.56 | 47.69| 9.63] 6.71] 134.20] 40
Che Ge eke SARA A See CF 58.95 | 1.081 } 12.30 | 46.65 9 40 6.50 | 130.00 | 37
VS re cictere ofeteleepetche wyclaserensterietacess 56.51 1.081 12.12 44.39 9.39 6.65 | 133.00 | 45
0S bein pe atnas ooh dabecd 57 .22 1.080 11.80 | 45.42 8.71 5.62 | 112.40 | 43
Oana on cur DAso oS CUE EDeCoaaee 58 .45 1.069 10.20 |} 48.25 6.95 3.97 79.40 | 370

It will be seen in the foregoing table, that there is an uninterrupted
increase in the percentage of sucrose, total solids, available sugar, and
specific gravity, with a corresponding decrease in the percentages of
water, to about the sixteenth stage. During the sixteenth, seventeenth,
and eighteenth stages, the per cent of available sugar in the stalks
remains nearly constant, and at its maximum; although the per
cent of sucrose and of available sugar in the juice obtained, as has
been shown, is at its maximum at the eighteenth stage.

The number of pounds of available sugar to be obtained from a ton
of stalks, at the different stages, is also given in a separate column.
From these results, it would appear, as the average result of 122
analyses of thirty-five varieties of sorghum, that 133 pounds of sugar
from a ton of stripped stalks is not beyond the limits of even proba-
bility. It will also be seen that these same stalks, if cut while the
seed is in a doughy condition, as shown by the ninth stage, would
yield only 15 pounds of sugar per ton of stalks.

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC. 211

Practically Litile Difference in the Varieties of Sorghum as to their Content
of Sugar.

The results of the investigations at the Department of Agriculture
have shown the remarkable uniformity of the several varieties of sor-
ghum as sugar producing plants when fully developed; and have also
shown the different varieties to vary widely in the time required for
their full development, varying, as has been shown, year after year,
fully three months as between the earlier and later maturing varieties.

This fact of the wide variation in different varieties in their period
of reaching full maturity, although previously recognized, has not re-
ceived the consideration which its extreme importance demanded, as is
evinced by the fact, that at present, as for the past thirty years, those
varieties are largely grown in the northern states which could only
reach maturity at rare intervals and in exceptional seasons in these
latitudes. This satisfactorily accounts for the occasional production
of crystallizable sirups, and the general failure to secure similar results
continuously.

- Comparative Value, During the Working Period of the Different Varieties
of Sorghum.

From the following table it is possible to judge quite accurately as
to the comparative values of the different canes for the production
of sugar. These values are applicable more especially to the latitude
of Washington, and it will be seen later that certain canes which do
not stand high in the list, when grown in this section, are very likely
to prove valuable where the growing season is longer.

Again, those which mature quickest, and also have a long working
period, are the ones especially recommended for culture in more
northern latitudes.

In this table the canes are arranged in the order of their compara-
tive value, as shown from the large number of analyses recorded. It
must not be inferred, however, that it is possible to state positively
that this order may not be somewhat modified by future experience:
it certainly would be somewhat changed were any one characteristic
of the juice used as the basis of comparison to the exclusion of all
others. It has been attempted to give due weight to all the factors
which tend to show the good or bad qualities of the canes.

Among the points which have the most direct bearing on the
determination as to the value of any cane for any locality are the
following :

1. Other things being equal, that cane is best adapted to any local-

212 SORGHUM.

ity which most quickly reaches the working stage, and longest con-
tinues workable. It will be noticed that, judged by this rule, the
first eight varieties are superior to those that follow. It appears,
also, that these varieties matured in from 77 to 89 days, and con-
tinued workable from 87 to 107 days, or, on an average, over three
months. It is very important to have sufficient time in which to work
up the crop.

2. The average purity of the juice is another very important consid-
eration. This is shown by the column headed “average exponent ;”
by this term is meant the percentage of pure crystallizable sugar in the
total solids of the juice. As has already been stated in the discussion
of the table of specific gravities, the exponent should not fall below
70 for the best results.

3. The average available sugar in the juice has very much to do with
its value. The figures in this column were calculated by multiplying
the figures in the column showing ‘‘ average per cent sucrose in juice”
by the corresponding figures for ‘‘average exponent.” _

4, The pounds of juice per acre has much to do with the amount of
sugar that can be obtained.

As will be seen, the various canes do not differ very materially in the
percentage of juice they can furnish; hence, the pounds of juice per
acre depend more directly upon the number and weight of canes which
can be raised. By reference to the tables for each variety, it will be
seen that several of the varieties standing low in this list (Honduras,
Honey Top, etc.), furnish canes much heavier than those standing near
the first of the list; hence, if an equal number of such heavy canes
could be grown on an acre, the amount of juice must be correspond-
ingly greater.

If, then, the quality of the juice from heavy canes is as good as
that from the light, and the season for working is greater, the heavy
canes would be preferable, because they would furnish the larger
amount of sugar per acre. Unfortunately, this is not the case in this
latitude. The first two columns in this table show, that the heavier
canes do not attain their full growth and maturity in time to be worked
up into sugar. ,

It is fully believed that these heavy canes are well adapted to the more
southern parts of the United States, and that in those regions they will
reach full maturity in time to leave an ample working period. In fact,
several examinations of canes sent from South Carolina in 1879 con-
firm these statements.

If it be supposed, for the sake of comparison, that an equal number
of canes of each variety can be grown on an acre of land, the results

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC. 2138

given in the last three columns will show what amounts of stripped
stalks, juice, and available sugar, can be obtained on an acre from each
variety of sorghum. The number of stalks per acre has been placed at
24,000, which is believed to be a fair estimate.

In comparing these figures with those in the three columns just pre-
ceding them, which represent actual results of analyses, it will be seen
that the figures do not differ greatly.

6. After all, the real test of value for any cane, is the amount of
erystallizable sugar that can be actually separated from the juice ob-
tained from the stalks grown on an acre. This amount will depend
very greatly on the quantity and quality of the canes, and upon the
promptness and care with which they are worked up after cutting. The
figures here given in explanation of the various points which have
been discussed, have been derived from very carefully conducted work,
and they are offered as fair statements of what can and should be at-
tained by careful workers.

Among the essential points worthy of repetition are the following: |

is Select a cane that matures quickly, and has as long a working
period as possible.

2. Do not work the cane too early ; the seed should be well matured
and quite hard, and the juice should have a specific gravity of 1.066 or
higher.

3. After cutting the canes, work them ap without great delay. It
is best to draw directly from the field to the mill as may be needed.

SORGHUM.

214

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AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC. 215

General Results of Analyses Bearing upon the Question of Available Sugar.

By reference to the table giving the general results of all the analy-
ses of the several varieties of sorghum, in 1879, 1880, and 1881, the
aggregate number of analyses being 4,042, and the varieties analyzed
being about 40, these results having been obtained from as many
varieties by so large a number of separate analyses made in successive
years, the general conclusion reached appears established beyond ques-
tion.

During the early stages of devolopment of these plants, up to and
including the sixth stage, the available sugar is given as a minus
quantity, 7. e., the amount of sucrose in the juice is less than the sum
of the glucose and other solids. Also, in the seventh stage, the availa-
ble sugar is practically none, being only .13 per cent, and this stage
represents the period when the seed is in the milky state. It is, then,
obviously absurd to expect to obtain any sugar by working up the crop
until it has advanced beyond this condition toward maturity.

It will also be observed in the table, that, during these early stages,
the amount of this minus available sugar remains nearly the same, the
average for the first five stages being — 3.22 per cent; and also, that
the available sugar, after it first appears, rapidly increases in quantity,
and remains practically constant through the several subsequent
stages; and in this it agrees, as will be seen, with the development of
the sucrose, which, at a certain period, is very rapid, and afterward
nearly constant through the season, while, as has been remarked, the
-sum of the glucose and solids is nearly the same throughout.

In the table, is given the average of the determinations for each
stage of development for all varieties.

In addition to the columns giving the average results of the several
determinations given for each variety, there is given a column showing
what is termed the percentage of available sugar present in the juice,
i. e., the amount of sugar which may be obtained as sugar from the
juice, for, as is known, the amount of sugar to be obtained from any
specimen of juice, depends obviously upon the amount of sugar present ;
and not alone upon this, but also upon the amount of glucose, and
other matters present, since, as is well known, the effect of these is to
prevent the crystallization of a portion of the sugar present, and,
hence, to increase the relative amount of molasses, the molasses con-
sisting of glucose, water, mineral matters (the ash), and more or less
sugar, which practically can not be recovered as such. Now, this mo-
lasses producing (melassigenic) property of the several impurities present
in the juices of cane, sorghum, and beets, has been a subject of con-

216 ’ _ _SORGHUM.

siderable experiment, but at the present time the exact effect of each
impurity is not known.

The average of thirty-four analyses of sorghum juices, made in this
laboratory, shows an average percentage of ash equal to 1.06; the
maximum being 1.66 per cent, and the minimum being .82 per cent.
We may, then, safely estimate the ash as being about one per cent of
the juice.

Now, while all authorities are agreed as to the melassigenic effect of
certain of the mineral constituents of the ash, there is much difference
as to the action of other mineral matters; and while some of these are
regarded as quite indifferent in their action, other constituents of the
ash are shown to strongly favor the crystallization of the sugar. For
example, potassium carbonate increases the quantity of molasses pro-
duced, potassium sulphate appears to have no effect, while magnesium
sulphate seems to favor the crystallization of sugar, and thus decrease
the amount of molasses.

It is highly probable, that much of the good effect attributed to the
use of sulphurous acid, as an aid in the crystallization of syrups, is due
to the fact, that it converts the harmful alkaline carbonates into the
inert sulphates. In the reports of my work, I, in accordance with a
common practice among sugar makers, made use of the so-called ‘‘ ex-
ponent,” which represented the relative purity of the different juices.
This ‘‘ exponent” was the percentage of sucrose in the total solids of
the juice ; and this represented the percentage of the sugar present in
the juice, which could be in practice obtained as sugar. While this
method of calculation is doubtless, at least approximately, correct, when
applied to those juices which are generally worked up for sugar, it is
obviously erroneous when applied to juices poor in sugar, and with
comparatively large amounts of other solids.

I have, therefore, adopted a method for calculating the available
sugar, viz.:—the difference between the per cent of sucrose and the sum
of the per cents of glucose and solids not sugar, and although confident
that all the experiments of Marschall, La Grange, and others, go to
prove that the amount of available sugar thus shown is beyond question
too low, it is at least safe to err upon this side rather than the other.

If we apply these two methods to two specimens of juice, one good
and the other poor, it will be seen that for the good juice, the two
methods approximately agree, while for the poor juice, they differ
widely, and there is no doubt but that the method of the exponent is
in such a case inapplicable; e. g.:

Juice A contains, sucrose, 3.51 per cent; glucose, 4.50 per cent; sol-
ids, 1.78 per cent. The exponent would be 35.85, and the available

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC. 217

sugar 1.26 per cent; or, by the other method, 3.51—(4.50-++-1.78)=
—2.77.

Juice B contains, sucrose, 15.30 per cent; glucose, .87 per cent;
solids, 2.95 per cent. The exponent would be 80.02, and the available
sngar, 12.24 per cent; or, by the other method, 15.30—(.87-+2.95)=
11.48 per cent.

It is from the above assumed cases obvious, that the last method of
calculation, although giving probably too low a result, is one of gen-
eral application, since no one would regard it as possible practically to
obtain any sugar from a juice having the composition of the one
marked A.

It will be seen from the tables, that the available sugar begins to
show itself quite late in the development of the plant, generally about
the seventh or eighth stage, and it is obvious that, previous to this
period, the available sugar exists, as we may say, as a minus quantity;
but owing to the practical importance of this matter, its discussion will
be again taken up.

Danger of mixing Immature with Mature Cane in Working.

It is of greatest practical importance, also, to consider the effect of
mixing immature with mature canes in the working. If, for example,
a ton of sorghum in the tenth stage was mixed with an equal quantity
in the third stage, and the mixed juices together boiled to a syrup, it
is doubtful whether any sugar would be obtained, for, as will be seen,
the first lot would yield a juice having 4.49 per cent of available sugar,
the second lot of juice would have —3.24 per cent, and the mixed juice
would, of course, have but .62 per.cent available—so small a quantity
as to be practically valueless. It is, then, to be remembered, that, for
the purpose of sugar making, every unripe cane allowed to go to the
mill is not only worthless in itself, but far worse than worthless, since it
causes the loss of sugar otherwise available.

This fact will more clearly appear, if the necessary calculations are
given of the results. Supposing that the mill gives 60 per cent of the
weight of stalks in juice: we should then have 1,200 pounds of juice
from each ton of stalks, and the former would give 4.49 per cent of
sugar, or 53.88 pounds, while the latter would give —3.24, or minus
38.88 pounds, the difference being 15 pounds of sugar from the two
tons of stalks, equal to .625 per cent of 2,400 pounds of juice.

We thus see that, by mixing in the immature canes, we really obtain
only about one-fourth the sugar which the one ton of good cane would
have yielded alone.

The above facts are practically understood by the sugar planters of

218 SORGHUM.

Cuba and Louisiana, for they are careful to cut off and leave upon the
field the upper and immature portion of the sugar-cane, knowing by
experience that, by sending it to the mill, it results in actual loss in
their product of sugar.

That their practice is entirely justified by the results of analysis,
will be seen by reference to the table below, which represents the
average results in each case of four analyses of the juices from the
butt, the middle, and the top, of three varieties of sugar-cane grown
in Louisiana.

TABLE SHOWING RELATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF SUGAR-CANE STALK.

Butt. Middle. Top.

SWCROSC Marae poe tee ies Toe, soya shes-are late erate steers -rer cent: 15.36 12.95 3.21
(HisiGaislo bons eaeose Ba ACO G > Con Do Oona a oenors a fe 15 1.42 8.68
SO LUGS ae a ee eed ine ctermsaat coher nsele tat actas aise ve Fe 24 68 2.23
Wea CILe la) oul i0 (9 inet ns SRA ane aac Age oem ACaEa mice Jo ad : 14.37 10.85 —2.70
Specific gravity. ........... Sa hs 56 Oink eon Pie Oteird SAGE © 1.068 1.061 1.038

From the above results, there would seem to be, in the immature
sugar-cane top, a close resemblance to the immature stalk of sorghum,
and yet the analogy ceases so soon as the serghums have attained full
maturity; for, as the results of very many analyses show, there is prac-
tically no difference in the juice from the upper or lower half of the
sorghum stalks.

This difference is probably due to the fact that, owing to the short
season, comparatively, it is impossible for the sugar-cane to reach, even
in Louisiana, a condition of full maturity.

The Increase in Sugar during the later Stages in the Development of the Sor-
ghum is not the Result of a Loss of Water or Drying Up of the Plant.

This is a matter of such great practical importance to the manufac-
turer of sugar from the sorghums, that a fuller discussion of the facts
obtained by analysis is justified, since, if it were true that the absolute
amount of sugar present in the plant was at its maximum during the
early stages in its development, it would certainly be advisable that
the crop be worked at such time as showed the greatest per cent of
juice, since, obviously, a larger per cent of the sugar actually present
in the plant would be extracted by pressing the cane at such time as
showed the maximum per cent of juice.

It is true, as will be seen, that the per cent of juice expressed by the
mill is greatest in the earlier stages of development ; and it is also true

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC. 219

that the actual amount of water present in the plant, and in the ex-
pressed juice, is less at the later stages in the plant's life.

But it is obvious that, if the increased per cent of sugar, as shown
in the juice at these later stages, was due simply to loss of water
through a drying up of the plant, then it would necessarily follow that,
by such evaporation, the relative percentages of the several constitu-
ents present in the juice would be maintained; but such is far from
being the case, as will be seen by the following table; for, while the
sugar and the solids not sugar increase, it will be seen that their in-
crease is by no means proportional, the sucrose increasing from the first
to the seventeenth stage 688 per cent, while the solids increase only
135 per cent; besides, glucose, instead of. increasing, as would be
natural and inevitable, if we regard the matter as simply one of loss
of water by evaporation, decreases 65 per cent.

But it is obvious that, if the water present in the juice at the differ-
ent stages be multiplied by the per cent of the several constituents,
as, e. g., sucrose, the series of products would necessarily be a constant
quantity; but, on the other hand, we find that the sucrose increases
606 per cent, the solids 111 per cent, while the glucose decreases 68
per cent. Such a result is wholly at variance with the view, that
the increase of sugar is only apparent and due to the evaporation of
water.

It will be observed that the actual increase in sugar in the plant is
in reality greater than is shown in the above results, since it is obvious
that a larger proportion of that present in the piant is expressed at the
time when the amount of water is at its maximum, viz., during the
earlier stages, and that a larger proportion is left in the bagasse during
the later stages.

220 SORGHUM.

TABLE SHOWING THAT THE INCREASE IN SUGAR DURING THE LATER STAGES IS NOT
DUE TO A DRYING UP OF THE PLANT.

= o B z z a o a

SI roan (eae bate (rae RS re) os

3 2 = 3 S| Sg Ps SIS,

_ eae aie

Stages. ° iS) ro) 3 “2 3 3 = ro a

FU (t= Wm Re = Vo i= ato r= RS cesar

o o o tH o o o 4 ra HH

o ) 3) fo} 3) 15) oO o ) o

6-5") Se eo 8 | 7 eee

Ay Ay ra¥ A ra¥) Ay ow = = =
| Ske ap Pore ix oe be 7.73} 58.72] 54.18 59| 1.74, 4.26] 1:73] 943] 2.307] 937
Th acs Say SLANT AS mE 9.23] 59.52] 54 03 70| 2.93] 4.44] 1.86! 1.583] 2.399] 1.005
Sch EM, SPE eat a ene Seen 9.71] 59/58] 53.79 58] 3.47] 4.45} 1.79] 1.867] 2.3941 .963
7 RAR, Oh noe oon eoe 10.49] 61.58) 55.12 72) 4.29} 4.28) 1.92] 2.365) 2.359] 1.058
TAREE a tats GA am bed 11.14] 63.00] 55 98 77| 5.06] 4.11! 1.97] 2 834] 2.302] 1.103
(WDB GE Mee nie Le Be riGhaae ne 12.79] 62.60] 54 59 64| 6.40} 3.91] 2.45; 3.494] 2.151] 1.337
Re eee oi Ta Ae Raed 13.43] 63.841 55.27 70! 7.88] 3.86] 2.19] 4.079} 2.133] 1.210
Se embetter eee ee eae 13.89] 65.65] 56.53! 111[ 7.69] 3.88] 2.37] 4.347] 2.165] 1.340
I REELS A Rel WO ae 14.56] 64.96] 55.50} ° 266] 8.95} 3.19] 2.42] 4.967] 1.770] 1.343
ORE Reais Nera oh knew ate. 15.08] 64.94] 55.15] 217] 9.98]. 2.60] 2.50) 5.507] 1.434] 1.379
al [ee iavts he, cre, Naren ties te Relea 15.73) 65.04] 54.81] 166] 10.66) 2.35} 2.721 5.970] 1.105] 1.511
VARS Ss ani oh a Renee MATE 16.08} 63.62] 53.39) 170] 11.18} 2.07] 2.83] 5.912] 1.095] 1.497
RENIN C eee PASE ete ye ee 16.25] 63.14] 52.88] 183] 11.40] 2.03] 2.82] 5.868] 1.045] 1.451
2 Be anol peaKa Me > ART, Mat 16.60] 61.72] 51.47] 191] 11.76] 1.88} 2.96] 6.053) .968] 1.524
Ties Sore eds artnet oie 16 .65| 60.45] 50.39} 217) 11.69] 1.81] 3.15] 5.891] .912) 1.587
TG Sree ee arse AME SE ep mn 17.36] 61.20) 50.58} ©3839] 12.40] 1.64) 3.32] 6.272] .830! 1.679
TI Sat ck aos Me ee A eS 19.35] 60.17] 48 53} 197) 13.72] 1.56] 4.07] 6.658] .757| 1.975
ate beh a a Ae aaa oa Mer 17.19] 62.09] 51.42} 191) 11.92} 1.85] 8.42] 6.129] .951| 1.759

During the examinations of the various sorghums, the amount of su-
crose found present in many of the juices, especially during the later
periods of the plant’s life, and determined both by analysis and polar-
ization, was exceptionally high:

5 Analyses gave between 19 and 20 per cent of sugar averaging 19.35,
23 Analyses gave between 18 and 19 per cent of sugar averaging 18.35.

46 Analyses gave between 17 and 18 per cent of sugar averaging 17.66,
73 Analyses gave between 16 and 17 per cent of sugar averaging 16.48.

The average amount of juice expressed was as follows:

: Per cent
TPL MORAL VISES ernie a tts sh eke. meeyecones Neer wetarayalesever ota eset tenets WW, Ran 57.33
MATH erZSVRIVALYV SOS) har os f esto aie ceerewoeers cto eaes ioe ereisteeeierletee ewer = 57.72
INSU MErAG AM ANVSOS ecm. eciNan tc, cco ra eee eo eee ere cee Gaieee 57.82
Intthies 73 analyseshessos-i.cn Iscceteeteee eye one ease som Slee 57.92

In these cases certainly we might look for such drying up as is in-
sisted upon by many, but we have here an average increase from 16.48
per cent of sucrose to 19.55 per cent, or 2.87 per cent, while the loss in
juice is, on the average, from 57.92 per cent to 57.33 per cent, or only
.59 of one per cent. Besides, if we compare the results, as given in
the preceeding table, we find that the average of juice expressed from
the stalks in 59 analyses, in the first stage, 7. e., before even the plant
had headed out, and when it might naturally be expected to be excep-
tionally full of juice, was but 58.72 per cent, practically the same as
the amount expressed when the sugar present was exceptionally high.
But it is to be observed, that, since the average sucrose, at this first

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC. 221

stage, was but 1.74 per cent, the percentage of juice expressed being
the same as when from 16 to 20 per cent of sucrose was present, it ne-
cessarily follows that the amount of water present in the plant must
have been much greater early in the plant’s life than at the close; but
there is no reason to suppose that this decrease in water is in the nature
of evaporation, or a drying up of the plant.

Why it is I do not know. It is an interesting point for further in-
vestigation. It would seem, if I might reason upon it, as though when
the plant was endeavoring to provide for this elaboration of the seed in
the plant, it was natural for it to elaborate these constituents which were
necessary for the building up of the seed; but its organs by which
these were elaborated were stimulated to an excess, and they had
acquired, if you will say so, a sort of momentum, so that, after the
demand was supplied, which the seed made, there still went on an
elaboration of these constituents in the plant. Whether that is the
explanation or not, as a matter of fact, the sugar increases in the plant
after the seed is thoroughly ripe, and will actually shell out. And
the same has been found true of corn.

Analyses of Fresh and Dry Juices.

In the following table is given the analyses of thirteen juices in their
condition as freshly expressed, and after they had been rapidly dried
in a warm chamber.

It was intended to make a more thorough examination of these dried
juices to determine the character of the several constituents present
besides the sugars, viz., the organic substances which are to be
removed, if at all, by defecation, and the mineral constituents of
the ash.

Excluding the analyses of the juices from suckers and leaves of Nos.
7 and 8, as being hardly comparable with the others, the average anal-
ysis of the fresh juices is as follows:

Ren Cen Ot UIC PLESSCU c.5 oy <ja sem eee adhe h te eeieicis at eee sors 56.62
Specific gravity. . Beas che hep oietonata vhs Sreeressiern are tote oleae ne aotet Meets 1.0702
Percenteincoseim jUIGe ls. o..6gncch.cde icteric eis SPS: eaten cee Sil
PET GEMESIEOSO LER LCE) = Gem ¢ c/a Rano opsea ine Sac ciqere civelowe Sisticimieets 12.36
Per cent sOhds mot SUSAL IM JUWICC ss «Ft. = =a. Te tiaerots ows a ets 3.08
PeriCen Om MOLI AA LLOUWs: 6 py nods Otarrs octane coset anes eae 8 oe 12.16
PERiGEMTORRM ALE Tel, JUNGCE™ cos so otts eso trsoctsm cid yovacene cin hvenetate 85.52
Per Cem Onmlye mm Anverunl ULC. can seme. cee eee Pee 14.47

It will be observed. that there was lost by drying 85.52 per cent,
and the solids remaining were 14.47 per cent; but, as will be seen by
the analyses of the fresh juices, there was an average of 16.61 per cent
of total solids: this shows that, in the operation of drying, there was
a loss of 2.14 per cent, equal to 12.88 per cent of the total solids.

The average proximate analyses of the dried juices gave:

222 SORGHUM.

Per cent
MEET vem brah rekic ete e nale cco ateie cis ale aja foresera sole onesies eweeieteler ss 0.82
KTCOHOW RULE es see eer anae ek ace cise eeraee actos iieiekeeteise of 70.15
VA iea gues (Nd: Cie On nad oes aB ABA AeC EAU sds SHA vob a arin connpoUehans 8.23
IGs((olhbl NM Oneenaue parse neenerooeeEpauaG Iemcesnoasad Sone so oAawor 20.80
100.00
Per cent.
Al buminods (MitnOweNne--'G:25)) <r cjen cere ci ree eatersloratetctoiey=)V~ 01s aol 6.37
Ash ; 5.87
Sucrose
Glucose
Water
Pi Mdeiermi meds eccic ssc tos sos ine pew ce Aaa Pecans oasis ces

The ether extract contains free organic acids, chlorophy], fixed oils,
fats and waxes, volatile oils, but no mineral matter.

The alcohol extract contains mineral matter, nitrates, organic acids
and their salts, glucosides, coloring matter, sugars, albuminoids, and
non-albuminoids, nitrogenous matter, amides, etc.

The water extract contains soluble albuminoids, gum, pectin matter,
dextrinoid bodies, and coloring matter.

The insoluble matter consists of crude fiber and mineral matter,
silica, ete.

Now, it will be seen that there was present in the total solids of the
fresh juices 81.46 per cent of the two sugars, but in the total solids of
the dried juices there was only 52.28 per cent of the two sugars. Also,
there was in total sugars of the fresh juices 91.35 per cent of sucrose
and 8.65 per cent of glucose; but in the total sugars of the dried juices
there was only 76.44 per cent of sucrose and 23.56 per cent of glucose.

The above results are important, as showing how liable the juice is
to undergo fermentation, and loss of sugar, during evaporation even,
unless, by means of defecation, certain impurities be removed; and,
although many farmers still persist in the manufacture of syrup,
“without chemicals,” as they say, by simply boiling down the freshly
expressed juice, removing only such impurities as may be brought to
the surface as scum during the evaporation, it is altogether likely that
they have a loss of sugar greater than would occur in the sediment and
scum of a good defecation, besides producing a syrup which is likely to
have poor keeping qualities, owing to its tendency to ferment upon the
approach of warm weather.

The analyses of the suckers (No. 7), and of the leaves from the
suckers (No. 8), are interesting, and of practical value.

These suckers were those that had sprung up from the roots of those
stalks which had been previously cut up for analyses; and it will be
observed how low is the content of sugar, and how great the percent-
age of ash, in their juices. The large percentage of nitrogen is also
noticeable, as also the ether extracts of the leaves, owing to an excess

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM, ETC. 223

of chlorophyl in the leaf juice. The worthlessness, therefore, of im-
mature suckers, for the purpose of sugar production, is obvious; and
also the importance of stripping the cane, in order to secure the best
results in sugar, is manifest. In another place, this matter is con-
sidered at greater length.

ANALYSES OF FRESH AND DRIED JUICES.
Fresh Juices.

n = : -
mal & : = o |S
Sa P= A = S) S
= 2 | = = _ =
aes | “> 2 oo 2 =.
DATE. VARIETY. pata War e |S v9 es Oe
Soll p= ea ogee Oy
22|sg|[sis]s)é
3 ey] |e xs) 2 2 S
=o fond o a = wa
=e S) a, 3) ) or
Zz a oat & a ro
:
Sept. 14....| New variety (H. S. Coll)............... 1 | 62.27/1.068 | 1.15] 11.79] 3.26
14 ...| White Liberian (Nesbit)...... ... ..... 2 | 60 3011 072 -93] 13.31] 3.28
ate ea Ne@w variety (il.9., COll),..4-ncsc's ees os es! 09) 1.061 1.06; 12.18} 1.57
21... | White Liberian pent en eae 4 | 62.35/1.074 98} 13.83] 2.65
23... CES ee oe ee 5 | 56.82|1.068 | -88| 12.04) 3.28
93....| New variety (52 AC) ee 6 | 60.15/1.063 | 1.05) 10.79) 3.34
Oct. 3... | Suckers from rows 2, 3, 4,5.........---- 7 | 62.02)1.022 | 2.04 66] 2.53
3....| Leaves from rows 2, 3, 4, 5 tae Rewader ee 8 | 37.03)1.025 | 1.40 Qi; 4.45
ROSS. PNCCAZAUR 020-56 oma O28 Seen cone eee nl 9 | 57.95/1.075 | 1-75 13.00} 3.79
SER PER RADE DERG et me ase oso oc ineiee sa 10 |; 61.31)1.074 69] 14.27; 2.71
12 _..| White Liberian (Nesbit) eM ae 11 57.89, 1.068 -94] 11.81] 3.07
13....| White Liberian (Learning)............. 12 | 58.86/1.070 -72| 12.14] 3.68
Ue Bese) (Gt ye S17 Tes CY | eee ee 13 | 48.58)1.054 58] 7.94) 3.69
Dec. 8....| New variety (R. Haswell) Paseo eeeeees 14 | 39 25)1.095 | 3.34) 15.17) 2.61
A OEREO ae ieee a sive.aie= sais : | 56 .62)1 i tad 12.36} 3.08
¢| |gle|s
n } om e4
Not fy ete Wes laine y= &
DATE. VARIETY. a = Sa) ee dal NA R= =
= — = ° > —
S 2 = SMR Ol ees
BPS | eta | sane
=e a ete A Saar Be
Gta |e |e la |e
Sept.14....| New variety (H. S. Coll)..........-...:. 12.06} 37.73] 3106] 468) 84 a 15.07
14....| White Liberian (Nesbit) OR Mae ey ene .-| 13.60} 39.68} 2532) 410) 83.81) 16.19
2 SWINE WATICL VANCES. GON). 25.2. 5-6<55- 11.16} 45.91} 2825) 437) $4.53) 15.47
21 ...| White Liberian (Nesbit) RN ee a 13.65) 37.65) 2860) 505) $2.34) 17.66
Pate as “iT La SEN © SaaS eerie oe tee pe 12.35) 43.18} 3494 417| 88.06 11.94
23....| New variety (H. S. Coll). Se eee Ae 10.61) 39.85) 3964) 407) 89.73) 10.27
Oct. 3....| Suckers from rows 2, 3.4, 5.....-.......- 1.31] 37.98] 2541) 136) 94.65) 5.35
os tc) EVES OU EOWSioan, 4,0. 2% occ eant —.98\ 62.97} 571 45; 92.12) 7.88
ORS EC Se ee eee ..| 13.27) 42.45} 3203] 439) 86.29) 13.71
TOUS eS IG eek se ee a ee eee eee ee 1 14.21| 38.69] 4668) 525) 88.75) 11.25
12 ...] White Liberian (Nesbit) bo Aa iastaaa seu oers 11.38) 42.11] 2878) 420) 85.41) 14.59
13....| White Liberian (Learning)......... ..-. 12.49) 41.14) 2765) 339) 87.74) 12.26
Teer eS! Gels Gite oS rae 7.45) 51.42) .....] 479
Dec. 8....]| New variety (R. Haswell)............... 13.72} 60.75; 1449; 302) 79.18) 20.82
| 52) 14.47

IVOVESE eee sete cc wl cn ee eee ate eae CTR] eel (eee | $5.5

224

SORGHUM.

Dried Juices.

n
2 3
Hen a 5
ao 3 lies a aed
Bo 1S) 4 o n
re a | 2 eae
DATE, VARIETY. ‘|S-n , ae) Beil ees
HE, 2 1A ia x
oe a Same eSe [aos =
ao 3 u aI ua =|
Eee g S Cees) S
ao o ves = ss 2
Z mG Be |p oe
Sept. 14....| New variety (H. S. Coll).......-.-...-. al ck Seas easyer AO |72.52|12 42) 14.66.
14:...) White Liberian (Nesbit) .....-. pal inate .42 |60.35| 5.67] 33.56
Sea aNewwaverietya lel. s.0COll)ie wc. says. Dial havemtaeine .87 |80.53] 3.29) 15.3
oT | Whitewbibenan (Nesbitt... - 02s... Pe ob ya onai A) 181.55) 3.07) 14.98
DS Nl Gee Ost ci eae ie ase iverciie eras BOS IDS, eater 69 |72.64| 7.01] 19.66
93....| New variety (H.S. Coll) Ey eh AS NEN 6 Fermented 79 |67.06)10.46} 21.69
Oct. 3....| Suckers from rows 2 2, 3 A tc Ee Dj aoeseciates 70 |62.13]12.85| 24.32
See MUCH VeS ArOMN TOWS 2, Oy, Os teas ss eee Ul ee es, Se Gein 7.19 |47.85)12 02] 32.94
NOME IMNCOAZAN Gatos sacri ie \riereuers = cit Nae 9 .67 173.73/18 75| 11.85
ees aks hybrid. ES eet tiie ae ian On| Sneek 1.54 |62.12) 2.57) 32.77
12....| White Liberian (Nesbit)... CEP Se ee a I) Ts eed Salvo 2.22 |56.75|20.63} 20 40
13....] White Liberian (Leaming) BR set yt kis 12 : .B2 |81.15) 4.08) 14.25
16... .| Da-Min-Hrame-Diano... 220... --- 2 3 |Fermented| Lost 4 ayes
Dec. 8....| New variety (R. Haswell)........ 14 47 |63.24) 6.60} 29.69
VAMOU A OR etr ars peterciecr pre raitk eter Tofeteh it ienail [ae .817/70.15} 8.23) 20.80
D !
| re ¢
S 3g
z c
DATE. VARIETY. Es ; alates ‘s P
Ba 3 Oh Ol ae B
bp iS 6 |-o g
= a S Ls! af ; 3 a
a2 5 SN Gael oe 3
A o mn | a = =
Sept. 14....| New variety (H. 8. Coll)............ ; 5.750] 9.866/43.193} 3.68) 5.80) 1.90
14.. White Liberian (Nesbit)........--.-.... 5.625) 8 .533/52.186] 3.3 5.45} 2.40
aise Neng Wane” (BESS (Croyle ap wot eaw ence 5 625/13 .666/48.703} 4.88) 5.65) 3.65
21....| White Liberian Preepit) No se, Pca ae 5.625) 8 .533)56.873) 2.62) 4.50) 6.30
Wee DE PLLC tree ein x clorinite ok ae ie ierern 5 .750!11 .000}39 .330} 3.96] 7.15) 2.10
3 New variety (H.S - Coll) a desiae tee ee 5.938] 9.000/32.110| 4.60} 7.85] 2.40
Och, 3% Suckers from rows 2, Opa Oneree 15.93) vie: 12.34) 7.30) 6.25
3 Leaves from rows 2, 3, 4, DERE ere eres 21.000 10.08} 8.20) 38.80
10.. Neeazana . WR ese. aye pee eee 3.683. 780} 5.14} 4.65) 2.60
vie inlets lon ogicbs oe Someeagemerooonac 9 250 25 >.973| 4.61) 5.60) 2.75
12 __.| White Liberian (Nesbit). .........-- 7.188 736) 3.19} 6.35) 2.65
lise ey hite Liberian Perute) Cae eee 8.250 5.550) 4.51] 5.85) 2.35
1G)... Ta-Min-Hung-Liang. . . :....-..--- m3 Sie
Dec: 8 New variety GRIMELASWiGll)) 52 /teecrtersre 7 .375/11.400/50.096| 4.44]. 5.70) 4.80
INR SSOTI RE 9 he SAH AD CoE ESar ooo. 6.369112 315)39 .656| 4.04) 5.87) 3.06.

8 ee

ed

VALUE OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE STALK, ETC. 225

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE STALK OF
SORGHUM FOR SUGAR.

In 1879, there were made a large number of analyses of the juices
of four varieties of sorghum, for the purpose of determining the relative
value of the upper and lower halves of the cane for the production of
syrup and sugar. The canes were, in each case, about equally divided
by weight into upper and lower halves. The results obtained were as
follows: ;

SORGIIUM.

226

¢80 T
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L

L
rire

S
Mnnnndndineir

TROL

‘aornt

SIOA

Wy

yo

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Bl) Eiitime xs aS tet (yes Pfs) ees)
= =| So ro) i) o J oc c
Q] ola ay re ye SsU\os
Ee Vey HER @ 5 ars ios.
etal a fe) a =a rer eyi | oa
Bi = 5 5 a aes

690 |P G 19 § 9 1%
GVO |F' SG IS & 169 16
690 |8'G [4°S 9 |%
zeo fet 9 |Z
|
90'|6'% |4'§ j6°S 1%
60° |0'% IT § IL ¢ 1a
LOIS SG IPS [2S 1G
LO’ |E' 6 |8 § 169 1%
60 11S IP § 19° 16
CLO’ | “16'G |G
SOIL SG IPS 14'S 16
80 |6' LT 16'S ILS ja
90'|6°S |S § |G°S |Z
010 |6S |6 6 ILS |%
G40 15 eS Ss
TS |0'¢ 12
L's j9'¢ |2
€€ |8'¢ |Z
} P96
£90 18'S [66 ja ¢ |G
G10 19'S |6°% IFS |Z
GLO G|8 GILG 16
: G LG IO 8 |G
GIS F 9 16
beat | oes |e ae || |
eH 22i eel feet be
Peal eee ed RT Sie
@ 5/2 | oa] Soa) 2 5
TO tl” ole] Ae
(a) els ere}
a) Bl olFals.
ioe =] stlOolbm
Sy Sea Shee ell pants
= : Bla =
e| SB) og] lee

*(uosuTYOIN A) Ysnop uy
“(agytg aay sabe PUB YLLUE WAI
Pars is (UOSUTY ONT) SUTUMOIG JsN¢

a ete *d) ALU JO [Ny sysny uMOoOIg
“UbaLOT

“-pvop one
“-gsoay AQ pod[[L] SoAvoy
SERS ciation op

Winfehele, ofa: bee, aiey tx Opes

“spaiq Aq AVMB potaivo + Acp pus ody
Ser aA ae Se APOIO AVMV POLI) poos sod ty
au0s Asout puv Aap poos tediy
pod SUPWAINY OUVD JO 010H
coat ee Opirrtss
‘atarattds pe ‘pany paos
aTquysnto yng “4 {ap ApABvOU paes
EERURSS COR IEC COE an ORT STC RCRA ‘Op
Tan “SULIONONS [VIS LWopavy poag
tech ses TaparRey ESUTUMOIg poes
pee se : AYU poos !Surpvroads sypVIs OMO YT
; prods 0) UNnsSoOq SY[VIs LOMO]
a aties omar pe pee LS govdutod !yno ysnl SY[VIS 1eMOT

“juourdopaAog

Aap pus odry |

et ydog
27 dos
gL adeg
IL ‘ydog

mag

‘MAdWNV ATYVA

EARLY AMBER,

VALUE OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE STALK, ETC.

‘uoryezravjod Aq aso1o :
-lis JO Julad tad asvi0AVy 919 :
“uolpzeziuiejod Aq sjjuq am :
Ur vsOdoNS JO Judo. Jog 19 :
“uolyeziaepod Aq sdoq FE Ae prime or Py Ts
UL JSOLUNS JO 1U90 Jog 2, eet C2191 - aes
ae gies, Sateenerees | Slee
-ns 10U ‘SpI[OS oS5ri0AV EEE Se Sn eee eo ee ee Si ee
‘synq Wody vont Beses > sasess. 5 -Se8
ul (a1¥5us jou) sprog an eae et ae tener ate ere ey pean
OyrynNodonod ASk-nisaim~ca ——— i
*sdo} utory aotnt SS SS SS SHSornos So StS
ul (1esus you) SpIjos mA NN C2 > coca NCI OD - oD 03 63 * oD
“9sor0 SSARSSAASR SEE w we
“28 JO Jued ao osuIoAY | ““ASS Sate aaa
s Sey RaSseessSeSrnorErn-r8
-N[5 JO 3ua0 dad asBieay is fe DS NEI EES Sy bee
PONS MMOSCCS MM Mee

*s)ynq woody vont
UL VsSOlONS JO JUV. Jog

SOI SS St St 1 aS
essere reece

*sdo} wtoay ooint
UT asOJONS JO Judd. Jog

NALAOSAGNSCHTLWASLS

SHES ot 09 SH) SHLD SSP Oa SH SSS SHAD

*synq wlory orn
UL VsSOONLS JO 4Udv. Jog

*sdo} wioay aoint
UI BSOON[S JO JUV. Jog

*s}jnq wouy ootnt
UL SpI[OS JO judd log

*sdo} wor ooint SESS 28 SR42 FS =
UI SpI]jos jo jJUv0 Jod Oxn 20 CG 0 Sao oO
Coenen) iol eee Ads re

} Sar =) re SOS rt = O00 oe elas)

‘ootnt Jo SS. = S2S2S22=25 Sos

AYIARVIS oytoods osRIIJAV SF = REY See eae ao ee
2xto ri =S

‘sling wlod] es 2 ars

dotnt yo AJTAVIS OYLoods Se Ss seks

Development.

Date.

delhol ieee cen

Foreign.

ee Ramee are ir An ate Me Tillis, ollie 762. 8 3] 8 8/2. 8h1 10.5! ceria irenate

7|\Flower stalks spreading; sced milky....................

pigs ans mn

s.' ae :°t

=e ue . bal

2: : Deny :
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53.0 (8 12a eo cep itoe a
~-=- J ee =F oe — é ea .
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On 18a Seis S x Dae feast
wm OD = re =) eS Oa | - : :
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= ofp Sees - yo Pe . . .
men noe FS eS ey Eee ES ease i
PoE ore = ro Sa : 7
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as Fagokwotaan. coon.
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hs Rs hs eb Ute = = ne i ere a
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DOmMAMOONSODNAOCNMNSaAD
RN RAR ANADR Se aN SAN
Sh shepaptcapsptpepe Pee eis sss
ape PP BD BD EG BN EDEN BB SB, es 4S $535
AR4A<<4<4<4snnnm“cnooood

Sept. 17'Between hull and dough (D. Smith). Pate: ss rabiee SISTINE

Sept. 11/Brown husks full of milk (D. Smith). ..................
Sept. 15)In dough (Hutchinson).

Sept. 13) Just browning (Hutchinson).

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233

234 SORGHUM.

COMPARISON OF THE UPPER AND LOWER HALVES OF SORGHUM-CANES,

Per cent.

Average per cent of water in 17 specimens of Liberian sorghum.......... tops.. 73 05
Average per cent of water in 16 specimens of Liberian sorghum..... --butts.. 74 46
Average per cent of water in 2) specimens of Honduras sorghum........ tops.. 72.457
Average per cent of water in 20 specimens of Honduras sorghum........ butts.. 76.15
Average per centof water in 23 specimens of White Liberian sorghum... tops... 71.67
Average per cent or water in 23 specimens of White Liberian sorghum. .butts.. 75 22
Average percent of water in 22specimens of Early Amber sorghum..... tODS:. iene
Average per cent of water in 22 specimens of Early Amber sorghum..... Diuttse=) eet
Average per cent of juice from 10 specimens of Liberian sorghum ........ tops.. 45.17
Average per cent of juice from 10 specimens of Liberian sorghum...... butts.. 49.89
Average per cent of juice from 16 specimens of Honduras sorghum .... .tops.. 42.88
Average per cent of juice from 17 specimens of Honduras sorghum... ..butts.. 45 44
Average per cent of juice from 13 specimens of White Liberian sorghum, tops.. 42.63
Average per cent of juice from 13 specimens of White Liberian so:ghum, butts. 44.50
Average per cent of Juice from 11 specimens of Early Amber sorghum....tops.. 46 68
Average per cent of juice from 11 specimens of Early Amber sorghum. butts.. 50.58
Average specific gravity of juice from 17 specimens of Liberian sorghum, tops.. 1.0725
Average specific gravity of juice from 17 specimens of Liberian sorghum, butts. 1.0708
Average specific gravity of juice from 21 specimens of Hondurassorghum, tops. 1.0602
Average specific gravity of juice from 21 specimensof Hondurassorghum, butts 1 0584
Average specifie gravity of juice from 24 specimensof White Liberian sorghum,

(0) poate shoe” cas Alpe aC BDI Se Ne aR cc cra nee ta ey Le Sees Le eee ec EEE. 1.0758
avernee specific gravity of juice from 24 specimensof White Liberian sorghum,

WEtS bs ees SED ek a ee ne Se tn Pee kaa nia ae Oke ke sere tL lin,

Average specific gravity of juice from 22 specimens of Early Amber sorghum,

LODS cece pete fee ee ce os PP ea teacts se Annee Secs hae desis - 1.0765
Average specific gravity of juice from 22 specimens of Early Amber sorghum,

putts. 2.5 ses. 8s A Sy ua! io Ook aoe Sa ysis eee RS are Mice eee ETRE Poe) (U7
Average per cent of solid matter in juice from 16 specimens of Liberian sor-

SMUD ato ek eee teat Se BPs! SEN ict ae) is ..tops.. 16.2%
Average per cent of solid matter in juice from 17 specimens of Liberian sor-

ghum .. Se oe Bee oe - . SN SS re bs ~22. (DUtts Sa Gree
Average percent of solid matter in juice from 19 specimens of Honduras sor-

SET ULE ot plea teeter are SE I) Le ore cir ee ee RR ak he Me tops.. 13.85
Average per cent of solid matter in juice from 20 specimens of Honduras sor-

Ah ilinteoae SaOmoEeee 5 ROA PE ode yee Tee eer butts... 13 82
Average per cent of solid matter in juice from 23 specimens of White Liberian

SOTRUM. = >. ah. ne AE oh GE ee eae en. SP Ace : tops.. -16.91
Average per cent oi solid matter in juice from 22 specimens of White Liberian

SOLE RUNG coh ter atone ne tele «sinh bar tee Bat Nyse gee tetas butts... 16.71
Average per cent of solid matter in juice from 19 specimens of Early Amber

ROLE MUNA E Sa oet en tcerie ti Sa lee ae hg. ates ACTS tae Ot ctatee J. astGpsis lvpag
Average per cent of solid matter in juice from 21 specimens of Early Amber

(OAS) dR Esta Rees UN, EURO RBOy Need eg ato dees aa Deon oUeo seria oe etsr ores butts.. 16 75
Average per cent of water in tops, 79 specimenS............... --.--+++-++--++-+5- 72.45
Average per cent of water ir butts, 79 specimens,. ....... .-.---+-..6+ sees: 74 51
Average per cent of jnice from tops, 50 specimems —......-...-.-. ee eee eee reese 3.96
Average per cent of juice from butts, 51 specimens.............---...-... --- ... 46.99
Average per cent of solids in juice from tops, 77 specimens.......-..-.......+--- 16 18
Average per cent of solids in juice from butts, 80 specimens.......-.....-.--.... 16.02
Average specific gravity of juice from tops, 84 specimens .........-..-+-+-.-++++. 10 71
Average specific gravity of juice from butts, 84 specimens............-.... -.--+- 10.70

From the above comparison it will appear, that there exists no
marked difference in the amount of juice present in the upper and
lower halves of the canes, nor in the quality of this juice, as indi-
cated by either the relative specific gravities or the total amount of

solid matter present in the juices.

It will also appear that, during this early and immature state of the ©
plant, the relative amount of crystallizable sugar (sucrose), as com-
pared with the total sugars present, is much greater in the lower half
of the canes. This condition remains, apparently, until the seed has
reached the milky state, at which time the juices in both parts of the
plant appear to be of equal value. But it must not be understood
that the maximum content of sugar in the plant has been reached at

?
*

VALUE OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE STALK, ETC. 235

this period of development, since, as will be seen by the tables, this is
far from the fact.

From this period in the plant’s development, until the perfect ripen-
ing of the seed, the juices appear to uniformly increase in their con-
tent of crystallizable sugar, and to decrease in their content of un-
crystallizable sugar.

Still later in the growth of the plant, there was observed a slight
deterioration in the quality of the juices from the lower halves of the
stalks, and they were generally found to be somewhat inferior to the
juices at this time present in the upper halves. It was also found that,
in the early examinations, the specific gravity of the juices from the
lower halves was almost invariably greater than that of the juices from
the upper halves, and that equal specific gravities indicated an equal-
ity between the juices, not only in their content of sugar, but in the
relative proportions of sucrose and glucose.

It appears probable that this deterioration of the juice from the
lower part of the cane marks the incipient stages of death, and the
ultimate decay of the plant, the roots and leaves failing in their office
to supply the full amount of nourishment which the plant requires.
It begins to feed upon itself, so tospeak ; and it is to be observed, that,
at this period, the offshoots from the upper joints of the stalk begin a
vigorous growth, and appear to live as parasites upon the parent stalk.

Several experiments were also made with both corn-stalks and sor-
ghum to determine the relative value of the upper and lower half of
the stalks, with the results given in the following table:

Percentage of | Specific gravity | Percentage of
juice to stalks. of juice. syrup in juice.
|—— oe

Corn-stalks, butt ends, No. 3....... 29 04 1053 14 62
Corn-stalks, top ends, No. 4.......... 19 94 1050 13.46
Sorghum, butt ends, No.8........... 47 49 1059 16.41
Sorghum, butt ends, No. 10.......... 41.49 1062 16 47
Sorghum, top ends, No. 9. ........-- 43.16 1057 14.70
Sorghum, top ends, No. 1l............ 34.09 1059 14.26

Nos. § and 9 were the butts and tops of the same stalks, and were
cut just after a rain, as were also Nos. 10 and 11, from which the rain
had evaporated, and the difference in yield of juice and syrup between
butts and tops is nearly constant. The increase in specific gravity of
the juice from butts over that from the top is also worthy of notice.

From the above table the conclusion from the average results is,
that the proportion, by weight, of sugar in the lower half of the stalk,
is to the sugar in the upper half as follows: Corn butts to corn tops
as 159 to 100; sorghum butts to sorghum tops as 131 is to 100. As

236 SORGHUM.

will be seen by reference to the first table, the stalks of both corn and
sorghum in the above experiment were divided almost equally by
weight into butts and tops, so that the above proportion fairly repre-
sents the proportion of yield of sugar in the upper and lower half of
the cane. There was a marked difference in the appearance of the
juice as it flowed from the mill (that from the butts being lighter in
color, especially in the experiments with corn); but, after the clarifi-
cation, no’appreciable difference could be observed, nor was there any
difference in the product except the quantitative one above mentioned,
which was, however, a marked difference; also, there was a marked
difference in granulation in favor of the juice from the butts.

The following analyses are reported by Professors Scovell and Weber.
It will be observed that the great difference in the analyses dues not
accord with the slight difference in specific gravity.

Comparison of the lower and upper half of the cane.—The two follow-
ing analyses were made to show what part of the cane is richest in
sugar :

Amber— October 2nd, 1880.—Juice obtained from the upper half of
the stalks after topping as usual:

SPSCH CON AVELY pect a ceSecee cae bu eieseolein Bouasieeebuisceae’ soci s sae seetias areas 1.069
(ETO hh Cen hoe nn eons IDO das CAMO eC eer a sadn ca sn Eri BaAne err Bas percent . 2.94
Cane SUS Ors ron eae als tele ransretceeentina a w= adage aeebe re beth tiekatehsy netad pede to iehelaye/e caress percent 22-59 767

Amber— October 2nd, 1880.—Juice obtained from the lower half of
stalks:

SPCeiierePaviliy coasetps sp g-ce ce teeta eae criti eae seine mem iene ico sis lonelier et eee eee 1.070
(GIVE) STEMS Rap Os Se sini tue socrinc Home seats? Pee oar aS Seto SN olede ors «<0 atieen sae per cent... - eles
OEM CAS US AT ern nei cv iersionave ho Ca sacs sore nicotene nine thee Silesia expences per cent.... 11.64

The Encyclopedia of Chemistry II., 901, gives the fol layine anal-
yses by F. N. Gill, Madras, India, of ‘the top, middle, and butts of
two samples of sugar-cane :

Water. Sugar. Fiber, Salts. Glucose. Unknown.

dite} dine act So boa Seo Adc SA OO Eon 78.33 10.63 7.63 ol 2.64 46
IVI CONOR Seta a8 ay Beoeesace lo: Ge eoees fia. Gl SSls-al er 4i7, 26 1.51 84
Stine rts pote toni: Eleareeiasieiere seat e 76.12 A3.37 8.30 .23 1.54 46
AN eS pc sco oro red aot a Oe oeee 79.48 9.49 7.58 5D 2.43 AT
Mink MG es hee ts topoe ey epstseetyereseke afete sieet= 75.63 138.64 8 65 36 74 98
15101 ence oes aees Boe icra tee OROA ORs 79.95 13.85 8.29 BD Sil .86

It will be seen that the sugar-cane closely resembles sorghum, in the
relative value of the juices from different parts of the stalk. The
inferior quality of the tops is due to the fact, that the growing part of
the cane is always in a condition of immaturity; and, knowing this,
the planters are accustomed to leave, as trash in the field, the upper
portion of the cane, knowing that it is worthless for sugar making.

Owing to the fact that it is often advised to cut the crop two or
three joints above the ground, under the belief that the butts were
worthless for either syrup or sugar, the following experiments were

VALUE OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE STALK, ETC. 237

made to ascertain whether such a course was advisable, in fact,
whether it did not involve a large waste of sugar. Since, in the ex-
periments above recorded, the stalks were divided, as nearly as possi-
ble into halves by weight, it might still be true that the butts of the
cane were practically worthless; therefore, in the following experi-
ments, the stalks were cut as low down as possible, and were divided
into butts, middle, and tops, the analysis of each of which appears in
the following table.

In each experiment 27 or 29 canes were taken. In the one case the
seed was hard, and in the other in dough. In the former, each cane was
divided in about equal parts by length inte butt, middle, and top; and,
in the latter case, the portion called butt was such portion as might na-
turally be left upon the field if the crop should be cut at the second
or third joint. It will be seen that, in this latter case, the relation of
butt to middle and top was in length as 1 to 8, and in weight of strip-
ped stalk as 1 to 4.6:

ANALYSES OF JUICES FROM BUTT, MIDDLE, AND TOP, OF SORGHUM STALKS.

i a | OF ae = os Pa Me =
a lz (8 blz E12 E
ce) : 2 tel FSB) Sly 8S = ke
o |6 ee i awa) | HE Bulee
le}. . |3|8s| 23 |S leg 2slee| = [Es
HALE Bie a Ee |) SS pS eee See
Variety. a je S zs Se le=|c2| os 2s 2 ies
Geile. L Si lies Bib ells Spa PS ies a ee es
= = = Sa) 28) 98) ealsa lon /Ss|] SS [Ss
s |e = ele Le js fe |e 18s = 182
hes = =a = = We ae Ged a Ge Fe
- = a — 7
oO 1% & SS! iS, la eli? ee ele
eee = Pet ae — ba
Early Amber......- Hard loz DG fee 20) 8 68) 5.25)60.46 1.15/10 27|3.01) 10.53)6.11
aelh= S twos do ..|27 Middle 2-2) 7.94) 4.80/61.21|1.00)10.77/3.03| 10.54|6.74
2G LT las i a I Sa ..do .|27\Top. 2.4) 4.22) 2.48/58.79) .82)11.33|/3.38) 11.16|7.13
ew i -S35.3 - do ..|27 Entire cane 6 6| 20.84! 12.59.60 41/1.05)10.92\3 34) 10.61)6.53
White Liberian. . -|Dough)29| Butt ...... 8} 3.51} 1.91/54.43} .85)12.65}/4 07| 13.09)7 .73
mae 0 (: eee do. ..|29 Middle. 2.3) $8.73! 5.13)58.80) .94/11 64/3 $4, 12.14/6-86
oes: ime ee ot Or: ae ....---| 3-7| 7.53) 4.40/59 23) .73]11.82/4.47| 12.0916 .62
res tk 101 Pay eo | do. - 29) Entire eane| 6.8, 19.77} 11 30/58 19 68 )12 04/328 32 ay a 8s
|

From the above table it will be seen that there was practically very
little difference in the juice obtained from butts, middles, or tops, either
in the amount expressed by the mill or in its composition. It will be
also observed that, in the maturer cane, the’ juice from the butts was in
its per cent of sucrose and available sugar slightly less than that from
the middle, while that from the tops was best of all. In the cane, how-
ever, the seed of which was in the dough, exactly the reverse was true,
the juice from the butts being the best of all. It is, therefore, safe to
say, that the crop should be cut as near the roots as possible, whether
intended for sugar or syrup, since, as will be seen, the butts, though
only about 9 inches long, equaled’ about one-fifth a weight of the
cane.

238 SORGHUM.

GENERAL ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES BY VARIOUS PERSONS.

The following published results of analyses of sorghum juices are
given for purpose of confirming, so far as they go, the more extended
results secured at the Department of Agriculture already recorded, and
also as evidence that these results are not exceptional, since they
have been, to a great extent, reproduced in many sections of the
country, notably in Massachusetts, by Professor Goessmann ; in New
Jersey, by Professor Cooke and Mr. Hughes; in Wisconsin, by Pro-
fessors Henry and Swenson; in Illinois, by Professors Weber and
‘Scovell; and in Indiana, by Professor Wiley; as also in France, by M.
Louis Vilmorin.

In reviewing these several reports, it will be seen that, in very many
instances, they are vitiated by the absence of certain data which
would greatly increase their scientific and practical value, and the con-
clusions often are hardly such as are justified by data so limited. For
example, M. Louis Vilmorin, in 1853, had secured results from sor-
ghum fairly comparable in the content of sugar shown to be present
in juice, with those more recently obtained; but at present no one,
I think, will agree with him in saying that the maximum of sugar is —
reached ‘‘ when the seeds are in the milky stage,” and his conclusion
as to the sugar being more abundant in the middle of the stalk than
in the lower or upper portion.

The very close resemblance between the analyses of Prof. Henry,
showing the ‘‘ Development” of sugar, to those obtained at the De-
partment of Agriculture, is marked; and, his conclusion, that ‘ the
cane sugar gradually and rapidly increased, while the glucose slowly
decreased, from the time of flowering to the maturity of the seed,” is
the exact result established, year after year, with every variety of sor-
ghum cultivated at Washington. It is, however, to be regretted, that
the examinations of the cane were suspended October third, as the in-
crease in sugar, constant up to and including that date, would doubt-
less have increased after, and have fully confirmed, for Wisconsin, re-
sults thus far secured at Washington, and shown to be true in Boston,
Mass., by Prof. Sharpless, in his analysis of the sorghums grown by
Henry B. Blackwell, in 1882, in the juice of which 18 per cent of
sucrose was found, equal to the best sugar-cane of Cuba.

In view of such a result, it is hardly to be wondered at, that the leg-
islature of Massachusetts should have provided by law a bounty to
encourage the development of this new industry.

The analyses of Professors Scovell and Weber, in the main, sustain
those made in Wisconsin and Washington, but appear to justify the
conclusion that the maximum content of sugar is at the time when

GENERAL ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES, ETC. 239

the seed is in the “‘ hardening dough” state. But it is to be said, that
only two varieties were carried beyond that state of maturity; and
this matter is one of such great practical importance, that a fuller dis-
cussion of these apparent exceptions appears justified.

Their results with these two were as follows, averaging the analyses:

Orange. Amber.

Development. B 2 9 2 2 gy

oh S z bo S 2

: = o : 3 SS)

a, = 3 a o =}

mM o we wn i) MD
CCM COME RC aatachcices or. c ttre ay tae se ee nie caters teely 10.55] 5.70) 4.90} 10.58] 8.39) 3.3
Tie SSO MLSE weather et a Vole aichioe esas wore te eey? 10.62) 6.10) 7.12} 10.66] 5.43) 8.42
Tn milk.. Ni Ghee Seat ec coast an dim ine sale seer lO DO }e 0-201" 6 01) 10.67} 3 S80} 10.30
PAINE CO MMETT Ss LOU a 27 are) oie reapers a alse 212 Saxe ciQieuade Sie lera> 10.65} 4.11] 9.76} 10.69} 3.02] 12.56
RaUpe gS OG ite ete cote Wise o Siviessis aieiesale.s 2K diester he 10.78] 4.02} 11.41} 10.68} 2.65} 10.93

From this it appears that these results show, that as at Washington
so in Illinois, the ‘‘ Orange” cane was at its maximum content of
sugar when the seed was ripe, and had increased 1.65 per cent in
amount over that present when the seed was in the ‘hardening
dough.” On the other hand, the ‘“‘Amber” had fallen off 1.63 per
cent in its content of sugar between the ‘‘ hardening dough” stage and
ripe seed. In neither case were the examinations, as reported, carried
beyond this stage, and as the matter stands there is at least an even
ease. In explanation of such a result with the Amber, it has been
found often true of many varieties, that, during the period of ripening
of the seed, there is a slight falling off in the content of the sugar in
the juice, as though the demands of the plant at this period for mate-
rial from which to elaborate the seed was a little in excess of tlie pro-
duction of this material, and that there was, therefore, a drawing upon
the supply already stored up in the plant; but it was found invaria-
bly, as an average result of all the varieties under investigation each
year, that, so soon as the seed had ripened, this slight deficiency in
sugar in the juice was not only speedily made good, but that the
amount of sugar actually increased in the plants. This will be made
clear by the consideration of analyses made in Washington of a few
of the many varieties which have shown such deportments; as, for
example, Early Amber, Early Golden, Golden Syrup, Early Orange,
Neeazana, and others.

But by reference to the charts showing the average resuits of all the
varieties for 1879-82, it will be seen, that the maximum of sugar
was in every case attained after the seed was ripe, and was maintained
long afterward.

240 SORGHTM.

M. Louis Vilmorin on Sorghum.

M. Louis Vilmorin, of Paris, the well-known seedsman, in 1854,
published in the Bon Jardinier Almanac for 1855, pages 41-53, an ar-
ticle on Sorgho sucré of much interest, from which it appears that sor-
ghum was grown as a sugar plant at Florence, in 1766, by Pietro Ar-
duino, and also that M. @Abadie sent to the Museum in Paris from
Abyssinia a collection of seeds containing thirty varieties of sorghum,
some plants of which attracted attention from the sugary flavor of
their stems. M. Vilmorin calls attention, especially, to the fact,
that while the seeds of sorgho from the new importation of Montigny
from China, in 1851 (see Dr. Williams’ notes on the Chinese sorghum,
p- 53), were black, and apparently identical with those of the old col-
lections, the seeds of the Florentine plants were described as of a clear-
brown color, corresponding to well-recognized differences in the sugar
sorghum.

I have not extracted any sugar from sorghum; I have only made some deter-
minations by means of the saccharometer, and verified them generally by
means of evaporation and a treatment with alcohol.

The following are the results presenting the proportion of sugar existing in
the juice from plants gathered at Verriéres:

Per centum.

(OYE OVO 1esi tls Palko) 33h AA Se Oe OO EG OBC O ORCC. Mn ae aO ro Ge mono AIncMA Aces aloe koe 10.04
INGA DE Mal Meals a Boe See atnae SEE L ono ersrenes nh adsan eM onbbbeaon tot Dass Ba stig. 13.08
November Osthils5s Second x Pere br ee coe setts eset oisiw ale’ wlcform) oracle aise iietotn eee 14.06
Metover loth. des GwibROUL WNVETSIOMN)... 2s. shee sated oiler v2ts a geno eee eee 10.14
November 15th, 1854, crystallizable sugar, 113% per cent; uncrystallizable sugar,

AVF YS OC OSi 8) iperieoee Gao Apeok acoroas cr Aten estas mMb cS opood deco sp eucranta na radc G75 5a 16.00

Our calculations, on the basis given above, would show that the returns of one
hectare of sorghum would be as follows:

Stalks and leaves.. .... Ra a I At sor Rabe Naa oe Min aOTIO ae kilograms.. 77,270
TiCALFATSH HU Sofa es cee eek Sy et GeO Meters a ORIN Snes Sonne SER tee AC Cate <d0 =... - 49308
Juice, at 55 per cent to the weight of stalks (271 hectoliters) ......... .... liters.. 27,115
Sugan, ato opemecent tothe Juice... nsec ese che ti? natriercietieelgie oleh olny iam kilograms.. 2,169
Absolute alcohol, at6.3 percent, tothe jmicen. os. aia aie sete wie ole aoe liters... °° 1,708

The analogous returns from the beets would be as follows:

[Se Eby ened MAIO) Clay NVEOIERCh ee gegen ere! = Baek abeios one qbododussnhuanrade kilograms... 45,000
Juice, at 80 per cent to the weight of roots...........--.-.-.--- Sitiahe sate aes do... 0:2 436,008
Sugar, at 6 per cent to the juice..........---- 2-22-22 eee nent eect eee eee do.....22-- 2160
Absolute alcohol, at 3 per cent to the bects...........-..-..-eeeee eee eee eee liters.. 1,350

The 8 per cent sugar on which I have calculated the yield of sorgho will, per-
haps, be considered as too low; but it should not be forgotten that it refers to
the crystallizable sugar that can actually be extracted, and I do not, therefore,
believe my estimate too low. If I were to make a comparison between the
“sorgho” and the “sugar-cane’’ ina more southerly climate, I have no doubt
that the figure representing the product in sugar would rise to a far higher
value; but I lack the data required for such a comparison.

After examining the chances of the industrial culture of sorgho, and the con-
siderations that may lead to the adoption of this plant, I have only to furnish

GENERAL ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES, ETC. 241

some data obtained from our first experiments, which may afford some indica-
tions for further study, or some guide for the first attempts in manufacture.

One of the points which I have endeavored to establish, without, however,
obtaining complete success, was this, viz: What is the time, during the period
of vegetation, when the stalks begin to contain sugar, and, consequently, what
is the moment when the manufagture may commence? It appeared to me that
this time coincided with that of the appearance of the ears; but the proportion
of sugar existing in the cane keeps on increasing upto the time when the seeds
pass into the milky stage. I have noticed that the richness in sugar in a plant
while blooming, diminished gradually from the lower to the upper part of the
stalk in the spaces between the joints, and also that the lower portion of each
one of these interspaces is younger and less rich in sugar than the upper one.
Such being the case, the middle of the stalk is the richest portion, for the lower
joints are hard and small. I have not been able to ascertain it with exactness,
but I suppose that at a later period the spaces between the joints in the lower
part of the stalk become impoverished, or, if the juice does not grow poorer, it
at least diminishes in quantity. ;

The ripeness of seeds does not seem to reduce, to any considerable degree,
the production of sugar, at least in our climate; but as maturity is reached at
the end of the season, and our plants, consequently, continue to advance in
richness with the development of vegetation, the effect of maturity on these
phenomena ean hardly be determined. This question can be solved only in
those countries where the seeds of the plant mature before the warm season is
over. According to’M. de Beauregard’s report, addressed to the “Comice de
Toulon,’ maturity would seem to have had no injurious influence within the
limits of his experience; and he considers seed and sugar as two products,
which can be obtained jointly. On the other hand, the Zulu Caffres are accus-
tomed to snatch, by an abrupt pull, the panicles away from their plants as soon
as they show themselves, in order to increase the sugary quality of the stalks.
But this question has, after all, no importance in respect to France, since here
ripeness will never take place too soon to prove detrimental.

The following analyses were made by Professors Henry and Swenson,
of Wisconsin State University, in 1881-2, and, as they say, the con-
clusions to be drawn from them are very indefinite. It is unfortunate
that the development of each sample is omitted from their report.

16

242 SORGHUM.
SS ee
ep | : “| a lo ° ' a
S) ~~) 4 |o re pref eae 2
| = & (3/5 lec] ss fas] &
= SEA | Ia erect eae) tl emt nce
a Bis) = jem| Saale 8
= ° ag felines
Character of soil. = Saal s BE BT a5| 3 Variety.
= | 9 {gl 283] eslez| e@
As) 3 |3\ 2%o mon joo! 5
ial Q wl Ry Ay ay i=
Sandy LOAM... 2-5 aie May 15./Oct. 5.)1218 |48.0} 7.29)3 94/Oct. 8.|/Early Orange.
PHO MOP HMSL See ado May 20./Oct. 5.)12)1242|60.0) 11.14)3.40)Oct. 8.|EKarly Amber.
GIAVEY Aho iss ok) epee »an| |e! 12) 8 [53.1] 6.50/5.45/Oct. 10.|Early variety.
Clan ey..o cu Seek oecee May 15./Oct. 6./13)103¢|58.8 9.92/2.96/Oct. 10.) Karly Amber.
Chivalonmice cree sceees J’ne 23.}Oct. 5./12)1034/62.8) 6.25/5.12/Oct. 10.|Early Amber.
Sandy loans. 4--eee May 26./Sep. 6 |12)1244|52.0) 12.83)2.94)Oct. 10.|Karly Amber.
A LSP SOE Lae pe SITS eS eter ee 5) 634 |55.5) 10.94)3.59 Oct. 11.|Early Amber.
Heavy clay loam....... Misiyal ost sepa a: 12/1034 )55 8) 4.88)5.23)Oct. 11.|Early Amber.
di EES LCL ene .. a. [eee es 112) 93Z/59.0) 8:98)3.45)Oet. 11.|Early Amber.
Sandy Voamere ne ae se May 20 2 0) 7.01)4.50)Oct. 11.|Early Amber.
A RO oe Boies cobece tec 544|50.0) 6.77|5.78)Oct. 11. Early Amber.
Boa aee apne eee ee ee ae Sie 5| 7.08|5.36)Oct. 11.|Early Amber.
Jota ou yher seep osteane May 15.|C 2:0) 18.11)3.22)Oct. 12.|Early Amber.
linredets Wey biti Se onse as oe May 12.|C 1) 13.63/2.65) Oct. 12.|Early Amber.
BilackolOmMs cea ee ao May 26. 4) 10.87|2.: 2.|Early Amber.
Gl avgeac Onde cece sastes- May 26, 3} 6.00)8.43/Oect. 12.|Early Amber.
Prairieloam...... Cbs June 3. 8.3] 6.23)7.56)Oct. 12.|Early Amber.
SAMGY WOM. cnn ees June 1./€ 3.1) 6.21/3.98)Oct. 14.;Early Amber.
Glaiviand eo ree May 95. 0.7; 7.61/4.50 Oct. 14 | Early Amber.
GlaxcVanideyer occa cite col June 1. 3) 6.59/3.96 Oct. 14.}Early Amber.
Sandi loams:. - ov. ters May 10.|S 3.6) 10.31)6.02 Oet. 14.|/Early Amber.
Black loam. 22 ~~ cke ees May 16. 7| 4.70)9.49 Oct 14.)/Early amber.
NPS er ERNG hey Seeacs Aeee May 12.|/Se 6.6] 9.07/5.36 Oct. 14.|Early Orange.
Senate ly Wor sale A oe sete May 25.|O /.7| 4.50)9.50 Oct. 14.|Stewart’s Hybrid.
Clay. Ghee ees pees May 12. . 8.412) 8} 8.70)8 20 Oet. 21.|Golden Imphee.
Wash of barn-yard .....|May 24./Oct. 11.| 6) 444'58.8| 5.77/5 60 Oct. 21.|Karly Amber.
(Cle Se pata se nies Sopris s May 15.)Oct. 2.) 915 155.5) 8.78/5.62)Oct. 21.|Early Amber.
Pd, sora Sear sede case ....-. {12 1444]51.7| 6.73/6.90| Nov. 2.]Kansas Orange.
Glass Olle anes ences May 20./Sep. 10.|12 1144|58.7| 6.43/5.52/Nov. 2-|Early Amber.
Blaek soils 23%: =< ...|May 20.|Sep. 10.}12,1534|49.0) 7.15)6.85)Nov. 2.|Early Amber.

It is hardly possible to draw any definite conclusions from the above analy- -

ses, as many samples were not received for several weeks after being cut. It
will be seen, however, that nearly all those samples which were analyzed within
but a few days after being cut contain a large proportion of cane sugar, while
those which were analyzed after a longer period of time show a high content of
glucose and a low proportion of cane sugar. This corroborates my statement
in the first part of this report, and shows the necessity of working up the cane
directly from the field, in order to get the best results.

It will also be seen, that all the samples conspicuous for their high content
of cane sugar are raised on a light soil, usually sandy loam, while those raised
on heavy clay land contain large proportions of glucose. It, therefore, appears
that, in order to obtain a maximum content of cane sugar, the cane should be
vrown on a light soil. For making syrup alone, the cane raised on clayey land
will do about as well, as the high content of glucose will not materially affect
the quality of the syrup.

Twenty-six varieties of cane were grown on the university farm during the
p2st season, some of which were from seeds kindly sent by Dr. Collier. The
following table shows the results of my examinations:

GENERAL ANALYSES OF SORGHUM

JUICES, ETC.

243

a Se aks:

oy = |e

S) = es

Fo Stage of the r x

Variety of Cane. on pet Pa
on o=/29
e n 3) bp ~nR
a an ERS)

< = =

Lbs. Oz

NGI SG INO Slee cies cies ots Sse ak whe Leaelsverctna, nya" OUR DOT Clabes ane: 7.28/1.76
ARTI OR CLEN ON. tie teams nore pe eec ms cma estes apema Sa wecens S| Reale ee es ot 7.71'1.88
CHAT ERS MIN CR Sie 9 fin cen ane A ae oi Se Sevag pep ee P4oz MASS ens: 7 26\1.73
TENE COIN Gre eee tes os Sct Seis Ot erccaietiniare win Anus 934|Dough....... 7.80/1.78
RGITIMMESGMIN Os Ones ae ele tic wo ts is wins Ba Sakis wiser o ache dw vie Sees = 9 |Dough....... 7 .1512.08
MULES REIN GRO sree eter ware isi fuie afar ated sts ete eats tre eB ore lsis, see g taal: Tooele" UY eae ee 4.18)1.61
ALN Ae Sect ee Seto ince Sosy ies weil aie culele wciee wie cess 1 6 |Hard dough.| 9.45)1.65
Ape o FRSSUTN [eye Se A Sires One ars Se a oO cae he 14 |Hard dough.| 9 26/1.64
LOT SNRs 522 BS Soa pare DER SU A pain a aeans aia re dary 1 $6, |Doush=: =: 8.91|3.12
Mi Rechte natin Ck ratte oe eee og hee ye.oue | hide tateaeh 105s) RapGs-~. sen. 10.18/2.44
SUES + 2Bs3e ALB Ses oot at ODS OOn SSO Nc GpbepOaes cod+ aeoet 1 6 |Doughy...--.}) 15.77|2.63
EIRENE CRM AEE POR eS te Festa acs ois sige cl venoiuetet io i | Dough. - 275: 13 02/2 42
WuaLee Met MOL. 2.22.) ics aoe ed eaes = Aa voce eae cncaeee 2 1 WL ee $.18|3.26
SOE TRE) the gy Stork 6 ee SA Sl a SER, $e JE 118 |Milk 22) eORDS ZO AY
LS ECE TER sn oy en ne i ae be Ac: is ees 1 334|Hard dough.| 9.12/3.22
AARNE Eee ie es ave tees sakeagees’ @ecweevoss tL 2 Ripe....- ...| 13.08)/1.96
ATT SREAOTIAG re oe meat ae ited cdices ete ovate cele 'eisates rey foes el a 8 es etre 11.88)1.77
TELCOS 9 nian Se ee i ona Se ei dire oe eee pied |0 Wy tl Eee 9 22/3 .45
PID CRIMES eae 5 Freee Nate hota inne owas 4s cabo e arts 1 632;Ripe: -5. 4. 11.30|2.38
Beta OTA Gls aioe nee adam eyes Sade as ache A fe a3 1 344/Hard dough.| 10.99|2.32
EULA UTS Ss Soe Rat eR BO SA Been Cone ae aces Ips Douehe- - so 7.16|3.57
Wg ruled Vays eh a Ae ee ee cee See a PLA rear 1 144%|Doughy.... 11.14}1.78
Canada Amber........ Mays Soa conan saad Bee. beeen eae 12) Ripe sss 2: 10.74|2.97
AE RGAS ASIN DG Let tr eT Pe edie: casafars fink hala halata’aw es Sial aie, scl ers 1 234)Ripe... ...- 13 .65/2.29
EOS AW Glug acm Sears acs se get 2 nk aielata acter = Sata ay IY Rutt) Sins aaguce 11.62)1.65

The only variety used for sugar making was the Early Amber. Three sepa-
rate plats were planted, of 3. 6, 2, and 1} acres respectively. The latter plat
was used for experiments with fertilizers.

Development.

The development of the Early Amber cane raised on this farm may to some
extent be seen from the following analyses, which have been made by me during
the summer and fall:

August 10:

[OR VRE T Go Wes ioe Aes" Sie oe SO SE COU e DS Oe BRUCE ACEO on COPS on Sabie Gsonop nooner 46 3.00

GUEYOD TELA SBOE) bac 8 Se ROR RII eR AISI COE NE SIRO tn ne Sr a a 4.50
August 20:

AG ANEL GS TRE CUT eet ee ES nese emia wclre weiss nica sam Ae aa ee eieinie oes emia ee 8.20

MAO SEO oe Mra een as RS kink soc cis Katee sa ck woe eek stand oak cud setae cee 5.10
September 6:

MERE PLL eee ere ile ate tel a aceeatens 5 oes Hein a ermine ow eG yee Serie Mis eee Slane Seige ee ae nore 9.22

Glucose............. AS ASG SSO OE BESO SEO ORR Ee Ee Oe OG Aner 4.20
September 14:

GANG SUPAE. ee cms oak forsee tn ceyeparsl= oak Seis e Sayeed, we sere atte PSY, eee eh, Ou da shart cite oe ke 9.96

RATING ECO eae eee ee ee erie oie Sale Wea elo wiatisus hint ane Sv eete wale ayers «a aie avapcre,wiania etelielaas deo 3.45
September 17:

INE UA AN oe, ora eng ra Pole, Saray aiat pet aol siwtnts iy visions Slate si tiieiwiaicuovouala'e:ne Sal ae y vidtelese a sree. 9 86

CT COS Csr ce een ee an SE ciers eigent a heen ION eS cl Piaiw'h s Sectors de setae winele 3.32
September 20:

CLIENTS oS Se Se ES a ot Cae O SOLS Men eee ee eee mee ae Am Pe istete 10.02

GINGOSE ae ee eccos te 89S OUR CaT 0 Spo Eg D CRE CRN te Ages HUCARE GCROE TDF DEC enGs Corto 3.23
September 22: :

Ganeisurar..< s.002.. 05 Sete © SbSaen does oreuSe Ns BR DCE TA EE Re EC ROR CL LIE IAe 11.05

Glucose.. ... Ps eee eet reese omnis SOR ae tae chines Gurr asin cick alco een eich aie aie vate 2.60

244 SORGHUM.

September 29:*

OAC SUSAR. suc s ce. aatece anaes nis aber SATA. SUES tae te eee dhe tore ete tears 2b 2 se0'e aR RS 8.59

GU GOSE co ih csi Se ee ee ieee csi ih a io sate nan SIREN oy Stee ale) =a: a/= ayo ateta folie 3.50
Sey/ ember 29:*

WE Witt 01 orl SopepaemcoLetio concen Samepaanaooocacocnt o¢ jb scobeSionspeneae ete oie eiotote aeetre 8.60

(Cin ilelec( eRe - - mero Gamo SObr: ba Aco SRROG ONE Gemcints copScUdeC oD NA OeaeLare ds Lucot 3.50
September 29:*

CANE SUGAT.. ...2-- fee esse cee eee ee ees teen ee cnet nace e et eee ees seen ctaseessaeses 8 61

CTA COB Gra ccc hele nic se as Sascha nis clea 5 ah aes ee Ime er ea Iate te te wal ot- Co olat oat tetenee 3.44
October 3:

(OPiS E-P) semibocase con: (ocr npoREApUTe Sanaa on racdtaond ca dconeyoeoneMman dr doc co OO Or 12.67

(GIMCOSC.so esa eee einer Sond, Jy ahaiveiclia'o EWS a ote ee ee Me gale ae taisys aes Serr eesenenenets 2.43

From these we see that the cane sugar gradually and rapidly increased,
while the glucose slowly decreased, from the time of flowering to the matur-
ity of the seed. During the latter part of September, most of the cane was
lodyed by a very violent wind and rain storm. The juice from the stalks that
were lodged was charged with a red coloring matter, the inside of the entire
stalk being in many cases of a bright red color. Several of the stalks con-
tained but a small portion of red coloring matter, but instead had a peculiar
yellow and watery appearance, and quite a disagreeable taste. The juices
from these contained on an average only 8 per cent sugar, and 4.8 per cent
glucose.

The following letter, giving the results obtained by Mr. Blackwell,
will be read with interest: \

Mate Beer Svucar Company, 5 Park St., Boston, December 7th, 1882.
To the Cane Growers’ Association, St. Louis, Mo.

Grents—Having been a sugar refiner, and, more recently, the treasurer and
managing director of the Maine Beet Sugar Company, which made in two years
(1879 and 1880) $200,000 worth of sugar and syrup from beets, raised in New
England, I desire to make some practical suggestions for the manufacture of
sugar from sorghum. I have recently become convinced, by the experiments
of Prof. Collier, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.,
that the juice of well matured sorghum is equal to that of the sugar-cane.
This summer, I raised an experimental crop of ‘‘ Karly Amber” and ‘“‘ White
Liberian,” from seed obtained at Washington, in my garden here in Boston. In
the last week of October, I cut this cane, fully matured, and still uninjured by
frost. The juice gauged 11° Baume, when clarified, and proved so fine that I
had it analyzed by S. P. Sharpless, state assayer, 114 State street, Boston, with
the following result:

A; ll Oe Ra EEE D hd oro Ub or COBO RED Dome DCO ODOR RODUC eo arHOnar ooneeandrsceaeuee 78.18 per cent.

PAE ORS ToE dal oe choeieOO ace CUD ORROD Dee e Deed eaecesroc ao Soccer tumanuopuedcedas: 18. ms

ibid @ancte Pride a .5or os sob coe eecteosean Be A ean Soo ODODE EC DE SEB ae e nN 2.09 ff

Ash a at ts Ae eta RT T= stag © caztcs <= 8 “citi a Spenensdanete tage Reale afavuastecaial ay ajetererete atc) fo eteete .89 i

GAIN) CEC ois oases velo we loin wei alsleleys ic @ + nieivim a injeinieisivini a) atein\\eidinlajer ds i>mie'® rddaoncoodcane 84 a
100.00

This juice had been defecated by lime in excess—the lime being mostly pre-
cipitated afterward by phosphoric acid. The “Ash ” indicated above was
largely lime and phosphate of lime held in solution, the result of defecation.

This being fully equal to average West India juice. I made a few pounds of

*This.cane was lodged by storm.

GENERAL ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES, ETC. 245

sugar over the open fire, without the use of bone-black, or of any chemical ex-
cept lime. I send you a sample of the sugar obtained. It was not washed in
the centrifugal, and so is darkened by the adhering alkaline syrup. Still, the
sample polarized 90 per cent pure sugar. I got exactly one-half the weight of
the boiled syrup in this sugar at the first running. Thesyrup] filtered through
bone-black to remove the lime. From it I got 50 per cent of sugar at second
running, a sample of which I also inclose. Thus I obtained without any method
of evaporation but open fire, 75 per cent of sugar from the boiled juice.

I kept a part of my canes for five weeks in a shed, a part of the time at a
freezing temperature. December 4th, I worked some of these, and got, by the
diffusion process, 10 per cent of weight of canes in excellent syrup, weighing
twelve pounds to the gallon, and of quality equal to that from the same cane
when first cut.

I will now make a few suggestions for the profitable making of sugar from
sorghum. Two conditions are needed: 1. The cane should not be worked until
nearly ripe; the seed should be hard before the cane is cut. 2. The same pro-
cesses, so successfully applied to the beet in Europe, should be applied to the
sorghum. These processes are, briefly, as follows:

1. The juice should be treated with a very considerable excess of lime, so as
to make it decidedly alkaline, at a temperature not exceeding 160° F. With-
out this excess of lime, a perfect defecation is impossible.

2. The lime should then be almost wholly precipitated in the juice, by the
injection of carbonic acid gas.

3. The slightly alkaline thin juice should then be filtered through cloth by
filter presses, or otherwise.

4, It should then be passed through bone-black, and thoroughly decolorized.

5. It should then be boiled down, either by open evaporator, or, far better
and cheaper, by exhaust steam in a double-effect vacuum pan to about 25°
Baume.

6. It should again be filtered through fresh bone-black, to remove all color.

7. It should then be grained in the vacuum pan.

8. It should be purged in a centrifugal.

The first product should be standard granulated sugar; the second product
should be bright yellow, and the third product light brown, refined sugar—a to-
tal product of about 75 per cent of the boiled juice. The process above de-
scribed will be substantially adopted when the manufacture of sugar from sor-
ghum is put upon its permanent business basis. It will be done, if at all, ona
large scale, and with large profit.

The gumminess and difficulty of crystallization complained of in sorghum is
due either to unripeness, or to injury by frost, or to an imperfect defecation. No
properly defecated juice ever needs to be skimmed while boiling It must be
remembered that syrups designed for sugar require different treatment from
those which are not intended to crystallize. The presence of gum and vegeta-
ble matter add to the volume of syrup, without greatly deteriorating its color,
if carefully handled, but is extremely detrimental to crystallization. No subse-
quent manipulation will eure an imperfect defecation.

Another important consideration is, that the mills now in use, no matter how
powerful, do not express more than about two-thirds of thesaccharine juice. These

246 SORGHUM.

should be supplemented, wherever plenty of water can be had, by a diffusion
battery, whereby the whole of the sugar can be washed out of the cane bya
stream of warm water (170° F.), which displaces and drives the sweet juice be-
fore it. This, however, can not be profitably done without a double-effect vac-
uum pan, whereby an economical evaporation is effected.

The improved processes above described are not my own invention, but are
used in hundreds of factories here and in Europe. They can not be patented
or monopolized, and are not likely ever to be superseded, because they are the
result of a century of scientific research.

Yours, respectfully,
Henry B. BLackKweE.u.

Professors Weber and Scovell report the following results of their
analyses, in 1880 and 1881:

TABLE SHOWING THE DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE OF SUGARS IN SORGHUM.

|

Ie -
| eo aS H cg
Stage of development. Date. 5 aes a toe
| Ste) eae eee
2) 3 rota & a eo
Zi > 0) eo) eS) <4
Beginning to head....-......-- eae 1)Aug. 14, 1880. .|Orange. .{1.055 |5.70) 4.90)) 4 44
2\Aug. 10, 1881..}Amber.../1 058 |§.89} 3.38)) ~~
Thatilel koys¥xouttWes-, pA aaoG Sood SuqCODOABa One 3lAug. 25, 1880..}Orange. .|1.062 |6 10} 7.12 777
4| Aug. 10, 1881..}Amber...|1.066 |5 43] 8 ral us
Seed soft and milky.................. 5\Aug. 14, 1880. .}Amber...}1.065 |3 34) 10.75
6|/Sept. 6, 1880. |Orange..|1.068 {5.00} 9 15
7|Aug. 10, 1881 .|'Amber...]1.068 |4.25|] 9.84 8 56
8|Aug. 12, 1881. | ... do...|1.070 |3.75| 12.75] f “°
9\Sept. 1, 1881..'Orange..|1.048 |6 11) 3.71 |
10/Sept. 2, 1851. /Orange..|]1 048 |6.58) 5.19
Seed in hardening dough............ 11]Aug. 25, 1880. |Amber...|1.068 |2 47) 12.48) )
12\Sept. 16, 1880..J}Orange..|1.065 /4.11| 9.76
13/Aug. 10, 188L..|Amber...|1.074 |5 65) 10.10 |
14/Aug. 12, 1881..]....do...|1 074 12.65) 13.37
15|/Aug. 16, 1881 Jao }..(2°070" 13-92) AASS
16) Aug. 16, 1881 do ...|1 072 |3.00) 13.66
17)Aug. 19, 1881 . do.. |1.067 13.46] 12 49
18|)Aug. 19, 1881 ..do.. {1.074 |8.10} 18.18} $11.95
19} Ang. 19, 1881 ...@0.. |1.076 |2.97| 13.64
20! Aug. 19, 1881 ..do...]1.070 }2.98} 12.80 |
21) Aug. 19, 1881 ..d0...|1-070 3.26) 12:52
22/Sept. 1, 1881..|Liberian |1.060 |3.67| 10.24
23/Sept. 1, 1881 |Amber.. .|1.063 |2.61) 15 47
24'!Sept. 1, 1881 do ...!1 056 {2.18} 11.14
25\Sept. 1, 1881. |Chinese. }1.052 |4.15) 8 60
Seed Tipe... 2. cece ccc emis nese 26|Sept. 6, 1880 .|Amber...!1 064 |2.13) 11 42/)
27|Sept. 16, 1580 "aax 1.065 |2 79) 41 02
298lOct. 2, 1880..|....do...|1.069 |2.47| 10.06 |
29/Oet. 6, 1880 |Orange..}1.078 |4 02) 11.41 tay 18
30/Sept. 9, 1881..11. 1.U .. |1.070 |2 93) 12.48 :
3i|Sept. 1, 1881. |Amber.. {1 070 [2 71| 10 7] |
32|Sept. 2, 1881 ...AO...|1.070 {2.61} 10.57)
33/Sept. 5, 1881..| ...do+..|1.067 |3.16| 11 76) J

The analyses made in 1880, numbers 1, 3, 5, 6, 11, 12, 26, 20285
and 29, were from cane grown upon the University farm,

GENERAL ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES, ETC,

FIELD CROPS IN 1882

247

S yas Date of plant-|Date of head-;|Date of harden- Days
vA Variety oa ing. ing dough. | required.
1jEarly Golden. :..:..: .?.. April 29)... : Augugt = .|September 5.... 128
ABUL ONAN Gc ioy oer. hasta is) Tie oe August Shore: September 24.. 147

oO Minn AMIDEL!: s.55>8e 5%. +2 Bethe ote ee August 3. ; September 5 .. 128

4) Kansas Orange.....2.....- a REO Pon hae neeonene September 30.. 1538
5|Missouri Amber........... rete h August 8. September 5... 128

GiB ear TOUS 32 en clases Sac knees August Siac 4 September 5 .. 128
EARS Ev PE oe ete eves OF he ASS io ee . ....../September 30... 153

S Honduras ® did. os, 2 os see s August 26...../October Medes 160
ELE WaN GE so Ser. so. ss as gene Si -|August 8.....|September 5 ... 128
HOWNGGAZ AR treed seek ac: SP SR a8 August Bet oke September 5... 128
11])White Mammoth.......... $8 juve te cee August 8..... September 30.. 153
SPUDRRIADA ocr aes oso es 6 22 See) eee eee eerie apart = seins sph (Soto etittcore
PUGTAVELOP i ssaes es asta ue eae 3 OOR| DP eeet cetin, Sms ee September 30... 153
14|New Variety, Stump...... Sy eke te August’ 8.2-.- September 5.. . 128
15|[linois Amber........... U3 .|August 8...../September 5.... 128

ANALYSIS OF FIELD CROPS.

Variety. Specifie gravity Cane sugar. Grape sugar.
PATINTOUMIINEC. 2 as ceo ec afte Sati ts oc 1 059 10.50 ee |
RG Uy DLC arte co geleieinsts aistetes 1.067 12 30 1.60
SPS UR VESEY ATR ccc ttre och yk is Saya re ate ae 1.060 10.70 2.95

a ons, Date of hardening | Days re-
Plot. Date of planting. Date of heading. dough. quired.
I Aprii 20 Aug. 1 Aug. 31 13
9 iad oa of 131
3 April 20 s ac 124
4 ae ‘ce o 124
5 May 26 Aug. 14 Sept. 16 112
6 “oe “ ae 112
7 oe ae ae 112
8 oo ae ace 112
9 ee oe o = A be
10 hs Aug. 2 Aug. 31 96
11 oe Aug. 14 Sept. 16 112
ANALYSIS OF PLATS | To 11.

Plat. Specific gravity. Cane sugar. Grape sugar.

Sept. 2 1 14 20 8.3 3 48

ss 2 14 20 8.31 3.48

ie 3 14.20 8.3 3 48

Lt 4 14 20 83 3.48

ss 5 14.20 8.3 3.48

a 6 14.20 8.3 3.48

a ji 14 20 8.3 3.48

bk 8 14.20 8.3 3.48

sf 9 14 20 83 8.48

me 10 14.10 9 45 Siali

es 11 14.10 9 45 3.11

Oct. 21 1 1.070 11.55 1.74

"ie 10 1 074 12.55 1.52

ferret 1.058 8.31 5.49

1 1.057 411 3.70

6 14.6 7.80 4.80

76 17.2 G2, 2.58

* Stripped one week.

+ Topped while in blossom.

248 - SORGHUM.

Professor Geo. H. Cook, director of the New Jersey Experiment
Station, reports the following results of his analyses of several varieties
of Sorghum in 1881:

The sorghum was grown on the college farm, and the chemical work carried
out in the laboratory of the experiment station. The investigation includes
the trial of different varieties of sorghum, with special reference to their time
of ripening and percentage of sugar, as well as the study of the effect of differ-
ent fertilizing ingredients, applied singly and in combination, upon the yield of
sugar and seed.

The field selected for the experiment is thoroughly underdrained, rather
heavy piece of land, cropped last year with field corn grown on sod, to which a
liberal dressing of barn-yard manure had been applied. On that portion de-
voted to the trial of different varieties, Mape’s sorghum manure was used this
year immediately before planting, at the rate of 600 pounds per acre. , The
seeds were kindly furnished by Dr. Peter Collier, chemist of the United States
Department of Agriculture.

Dr. Collier, in his valuable reports, has clearly shown that the condition of the
ripening seed may be taken as an index to the condition of the juice of the
plant. When the seeds have become so hard that they can no longer be split
with the finger-nail, the stalks will contain the maximum amount of sugar and
minimum of glucose, and when this stage is reached, the plant may be regarded
as matured. :

The importance of using great care in the choice of seed is illustrated by the
following list of varieties:

VO LEmUred perce at ene Acta vanities eral xara eters miata eters ete slayer Failed to mature before frost.
UGS PE TL tae oters, leei< teresa) misis's seo ciate Slee ee oe rere «Stes re do.

UO VGETE Soe ek ats seh cls aloes cicrsise cere ttee aislsmnan eile ces a vere do.

VO Sribe Ati Oe Gaga Rear mEGOCUCAEAL maOOr oaobep aoe eGA mcruoe cSt seed failed to germinate.

IN VEGHICT IE RR eet Goan Ge Sa an RE CERIO CERO ree Te eeriene Failed to mature before frost.
GONSCRRICCER Sock otis Hae ombrsite dee. Oot cene ae nsec lets dees nie siaanenay tees Matured,

DOT OM Saye tae civics siya kin iene rscaceea a pie cree ore craweralers erarstoveiniecaperere do.

PamiveOTAN GO as eet Aceh ou se ste seat ab eras 2eemMes ceca Failed to mature before frost.
OOMBER AT ACE eh erie. een ace tat ahce re eh een tee matey ects Matured.

GEA VUNG Men ecp cree dep sey ociaiueisiosta d ser anagah anys sowie epee onions Failed to mature before frost.
ATTU UG SUTD sca eer oratey otal rcors or cies eats folate oaao' aa Sart male see see es ears Matured.

RGGI AS Hersh ice ae SR ere hide sane Cia cn eee ene ee ... ...Failed to mature before frost.
(aU 9 Cee Exey tgs Gs tos cS EERO NS ae TER eee tele, Sie do.

Bier yA OG SM ee areicr acta sean trie aegis recone eee aim anole arevert Matured.

Of the fourteen varieties, five only matured. Their relative value to the
manufacturer is shown below:

|

S

a ¢ 2

S) : S cS

iS =I a )

= ¢ c

A 3 o & oS

o a n > e

ag ch re = =

5 5 S Ba 5

o Wn iS < i
Percentage of juice. .......... Sysco) He vsishens neers eset ere Te .| 60.3 | 61.4 | 58 8 | 57 5 | 60.0
Percentace OL SuCara MUNG Cas vaeeee ee mae Jepasi-cs ee Sees ne 8.58] 7.28} 6.50} 7.60) 14.06

Pounds of extractable sugar per. ton... ..-. 5. «0:5. 2+.00--- 104 89 76 87 169

GENERAL ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES, ETC. 249

Professor Cook says that the Early Amber also matured, yielding, under
favorable conditions, 162 pounds of sugar per ton of stripped and topped cane.
Judging from this experiment, the choice of variety for this section of the State

is limited to the Early Amber and Early Golden.
Professor Wiley, of the Indiana State University, reports the follow-
ing analyses of sorghum juices, made in 1882

ANALYSIS OF CANE JUICE OBTAINED FROM THE MILL OF THE LAFAYETTESUGAR,

REFINERY.
= 5 a2
- e |g [2 | 8 25
Z 2, Sel EA =z
2 3 ° 2 <= z = |
= Variety of cane. = Bhs ss & (a Remarks.
3 4 cS) fs > 53 ae
4 iS) aout be\ea ll oes mae
S 2 S) = 5 ap et |Ones
- ~ H s oO 5 2 4c
(>) 3 2 2 a o |2
A A I = wm - =
GANT ET eens ards ines os Oct. 8} 7.23} 4.76!1.0604! 11.99}2 81] River bottom.
214 O) etree ee ae Oct. 9} 9.02} 4.23/1 0568] 13 35/0 65) College Farm,
3) LO} oa ae anes eae Oct. 9] 8.76) 4.34/1-0553) 13.10)0 50) College Farm.
2s ENTE GTS) Sa eet EA Ss Oct. 11] 8.00} 3 40!1.0510) 11 .40)1.20) Seeond bottom.
BPOmnee esos. 2 she Oct. 11} 10.46] 8 83/1.1630) 14.29)1.11
GDATA DORs. 1c. 2)aents +. Oct. 12} 8.39} 4.88/1 0630} 13.27|2.13| Clay upland.
Te CREAN PS Oe yates es Oct. 12) 5.55} 4.87/1.0630} 10.42/4 98
OP AMET. riots fob cic sien 2 Oct. 13] 7.85} 6.06)1.0591) 13 9/0 61] *
Ol Oranee ts. Sov. -heacs Oet. 13) 8.74} 5.09)/1 0553) 13.83!0 Ou
fp nine way 22s.c50 = Oct. 14] 7.80} 2 96)1.0568) 10.76/3.14) +
DMWORAUECS ose saons odes Oct 14] 4.81) 11.72/1.0669) 16 0310.27
IO PAI DCL oss hoc See Oct. 14, 7.84) 5.54/1.0607) 13. 38/1.42) Kept 5 days in shed.
15] One ree SR sees nce Oet. 14) 2.63) 13.57/1.0709) 16 20)1.00) f
I4V OTANGE.. + o08 25125552 Oct. 16} 9.33) 3.37/1.6529) 12.70)0 40
ISI PATA DEL. oc on.e nase be oe Oct. 21} 5 79) 6.61)1.0529) 12.40)0.70
16| Orange .... .... -..* | Oct. 23) 4.69] 5.15/1.0453] 9.84/1 36
PALGMIENOWD: .<7.,6. 52). Oct. 23} 6 97) 5.87|1.0510} 12 84/0.00
PS IOA DEI cecasa lenis coerce Oct. 23} 9.21) 4.01|/1.0591} 13.22:1.28) Very small and ripe.
TOW AMPERES cs 2) eine see Oct. 27} 7.80) 5.62)1.0607| 13.42/1 48) Stood in shed 4 weeks.
POW OPEC I. ne Se oe eee Oct. 27} 8.06) 5.43)1.0591| 13 .49]1.01) Stood in shed 8 days.
SthlOranpe.ts 2230. 585.5.8: Oct. 27} 9 03) 5.53)1.0665) 14.55)1.65) Stood in shed 2 weeks.

*Upland. Sentin dy car load, and stood over a week.
+ Creek bottom, but cut and left in field 5 days.
] Cut and left in field 7 days; warm, rainy weather.

250 SORGHUM.

ANALYSIS OF JUICE OF SORGHUM, FROM AN EXPERIMENTAL FARM.

alesis 6 |o.| 6 |ws
: Y A & |§ os =) 7 OMe Kee,
o n S 5 Ss) = =| mo = owas?
5 2 tp £ = = a=) = en
Sylar Bi So laie Ws. | (6. )7B | leat
| Sh | 2 | eae [ee ees
S| 3) 2| es | eee heme at le) = |g eae
Variety = q a | Disa | 3 al = z ot) 2 ISe
= Ss) to |ec,3/8s sola & iS) og Sen
m®| 3s |a]/2|n] 2? UN he 1A Reith Wa Stil ieee: =
OM Te 2 | 45 [as | eye (SSS a = = ae 3 es
= S S| BO |S SIS y < is rales
5 a |e/5]5| 2 |SHoa a] = es an lee
@\ 2 |=) 2) 2 53 bee S| S | Sat cae
Sice | S| S| Sema 2. | lai

& ia => ||] me a 14 - 0) i= Ala
1 | White Liberian....} 550) 28149] 185/33.7/66.3) 7 .00|4 27/1. 64 7 .50)1.0553] 11 27| 86 50)2.25
2*| White Liberian....| 220) 10542). .|_.--| ---] 11.00)4.67|2 36)8.0011 0536} 15 67) $4.3510 00
35 Grek ese bce toi 390 17325] 120]/34.3]65.7| 5.99]8.21/1.85)8 .00)1 0586} 9.14) 85 50 5 3b
4o\ (Beary Rail sea. - 360| 17820] 130]36.1/63.9} 6.00|3.75)1.60/7-75|1 0566) 9.75) 86.10)4 15
Dy | PADEI Galt teem ee ton 280] 13860]... | ...| .. | 6.67]6.06)1.10)8.00/1 0586) 12.73] 85.60)1.77
6 | Goose Neck....... 320) 15840) 80 ye WD 5 63|/7 640 74 7-79|1.0566] 13.27} 86. 20)0.53
72 VO DULENM Poy gna aya © (ol 600) 27000) 208)34.7/65 3) 5.04 5 37.0.94/8 -00)1 0586] 10.41) $5 50|4.09
8 ; Neeazana...-...- _| 465} 20925] 188]41.7|58.3] 10.48]6.11/1.71/9 50|1 0709) 16.59) 82 90)0 61
9) HOnGuraS.=2= 2. - B86 127.8172.2! 6.95]5.80)1.20]7.00)1.0501| 12.75; 87.25) .00
AOD SEOTMENeeet saris 3.3161.7| 6.64/6.11/1.08)7.50]1.0555| 12.75) 86.40)0 75
i) KAS geet here : : 6 .23/6.19|1.01]8 50)1 0626) 12.41) 84.70)2.89
12 | White Mammoth..| = 4) 3.6! 7.9214.07'1.9417.75]1 0566] 11.99) 86 20/151
LSE CAV ee Ope frei. ois 605) 29947 207/83 2\65.8] 6.38\4 48|1 42\5.75)1 0645} 10.86) 83.18/4.96
LEG ECA IG Pe Reo sasee 370} 18936) 148)40 |60 § 92/4 28|2.09.8 00}1.0586) 13.21) 85.60)1.29
LST OVA Sree eee! ~ ee 1020] 32500} 335|32.5167.5} 6.69)5.28)1 27)8.79)1 0645 11.97} 84.30/3 73

REMARKS.—Nos. 1, 2, and 3, lay in shed 4 days after cutting; Nos. 4. 5, 6, and 7, lay 9 or
6. All after this were worked within 3 or4 days after cutting.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM.
Professors Weber and Scovell give the following analysis of sorghum
in their report:
Composition of stalks of Orange Cane in 100 parts:

BUY Tee pa casera o teicte chet oaey «aston eletare yer ea SEI Nemes eS, -eorans feiss. 3a pet Ate a 76 58
GTAPCNUBATS «- o-oo sc imierem tn ci cine meine cise = seri aieiwiaie Slee me oir loin ale nls ain 3 00
(CamelSUP AL... once. 2 circ ceeine opine ene Sarasa als cilaesaryatminne elel= Meda ine eteyelei ola Eolas cea
Spare hae fee cis = BO fa he rk tere ae 2 | eR ea EN Tyee ohio ate ae ee eee Ate
TADS EN eee cee Sack ee escine poclscare's pr sels oie te ee eerie ers c Shame ede 3 cJogeteta Adie fale Za ele 4 54
Oil etee aoe: Pee ae te ie penne eee Ry a an Me Cn mann aS es lat sae sGee - 0n0n
Gums and vegetable acids... .....-..-0ee seco teen ence nee eee eee 2. dORS8
Soluble albumenoids.........-.... -- BS 28 Satan Roe eesti tae! 0.23
MPS OU eee at ale teres areas me onset ceeint ote oN E eee A poh eet ene o Wesel sistas 520 ARE 016
WILLEN LTS EMC ee crore aca ria a fe Grote ehn. clots Hiayailh everamnocerettafalotell te dietegedetevokals wie aieofasslete el ied agate 0.68
IGMSOINbU NUL Gisi fle a Bae mob oon S opr ROeboaT bee occ caes or pa tb mmararc tc Te bere nee ee 0 06

99.45

According to the above analysis it will be seen, that, if in the juice
we include the water and soluble constituents, there would be present
91 per cent of juice, and 9 per cent of insoluble matter, starch, fiber,
ash, ete. But it is well known that in pressing the cane a certain
portion of these insoluble matters are mechanically removed, and go to
increase the estimated amount of juice yielded by the mill, which is

* In this specimen, I think some was lost in taking to mill, or was mixed with some
other variety.

+ An average sample of what grew on alittle more than four acres. The total yield
of the field was sixty-five tons.

ae:

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM. a5

rarely as high as 60 per cent, often not over 45 per cent, of the weight
of the stalk pressed. It is clear, therefore, that there is a loss of
from one-third to one-half of the juice, and approximately the same
loss of the sugar present in the cane.

The extent of this loss is such, that it will be more fully discussed in
the chapter on ‘‘ Waste products,” page 376.

Character and Composition of Sorghum Juice—Chemical Changes tv Sugar
Making. —

In order that the sugar boiler may understand the nature of this
operation, and the character of the problem to be solved in defecation,
as also to assist those who may desire to experiment for themselves in
an effort to improve the present method, the following statement as to
the character and chemical composition of the juice of sorghum is
given, as also an account of certain of the chemical changes to which
it is subject under certain conditions which naturally would exist in
the ordinary operations of sugar making.

Sorghum Juice.

The juice expressed from the sorghum at or near maturity isa liquid
containing quite a large amount of suspended matter, giving it a color
varying from green to a deep brown. This suspended matter is depos-
ited to a greater or less extent on standing, and consists of very fine
starch granules, colored violet blue by iodine, and easily discolored by
the acids of the juice, fiber, and albumen, with the green coloring
matter of the outer portions of the stalk, and sometimes a red coloring
matter from the center of the stalk.

After allowing it to settle a few minutes, it has a specific gravity of
from 1.06 to 1.09, and contains in solution, in addition to the substances
in suspension, most prominently sucrose, with smaller amounts of glu-
cose, aconitie acid, soluble albumen, amide bodies, and inorganic salts.
It can be freed from albumen, organic, and some inorganic acids, by
means of basic acetate of lead—and this method of defecation is in use
in most laboratories in the analytical determination of the content of
sugar in the cane. The filtrate, after the addition of the acetate of
lead, contains in addition to the sugars nothing which reduces Feh-
ling’s copper solution, with the exception possibly of a very small
amount of amide substances.

The following examination of a juice collected on November 2nd,
1881, though somewhat late in the season and after a slight frost, will
illustrate some points in the general composition :

psy SORGHUM.

WHITE LIBERIAN CANE JUICE.

Por Ceut/ Of juMlCem series: sac cus e sess toate eee a a MpSib vals ySnotens ai pian s 2 ae pictopteesaate
SPOCK Kee aes) Ph AeA Aeneas Se © Eee Wt Gains Patio 0.10 > ee.c HOneDpeSna LABOR tao ciao
Wotalis@lidsigas sya7 stirs «2 serio: s ore eS HSC oho sao eee BHC 3 Bae

GU COSE ae ee Mio See sth oe nasi eles Mele ae ee ae ey ee ate eines sera eee

VET Koo Chyb hh Ada} nV) loka Re eee eneenren este nes V6 sc 5d GAs Shan basoebaetne cic ake
Sucrose by polarization
SOlIGSMOMS Wea ss aes SEAS Se Sale prs aol- section Sore Chew omer ec eb iecka «el bige ec

Containing—

/ Millay irr (eine 3 ee One ee eee co chic foes BOOB GEE Sore Acie OSU R OOM E Coe percent.. .13
Amide bodies, including ammonia (Salts: 5.5.2.2 cease es nies = eee Gone: 37
IAA B ey Ree Oogles Seemann Sask aN AG Si AOR AR \-cigin bec OS ae Seo Fern sai G0;. 5259 BOs
TOMA aS ae keer ee eee ote Seg Pare erie oe ee ie eg fe wre ololate ns alee Ook sens 1112
Oreanic acids aad ber... .a-.14-226o -ee Bae. Se gale Sa SAR Ee rTPA OF dois. 2- 1.90

The inorganic part of the juice consists of soluble silica, iron, lime,
magnesia, potash, phosphates, sulphates, chlorides, nitrates.

All attempts to detect gum or any carbo-hydrates other than glucose
and sucrose in the juice, before it has changed its character by stand-
ing, have failed.

After the juice has been left to itself, with or without the addition
of ferments, it undergoes certain changes.

In the first place, it deposits a white substance which, under the mi-
croscope, shows the organized structure of starch. The granules are,
however, much smaller than most starches, and do not give as deep a
blue color with iodine, the color fading out in a short time. On longer
standing, there collects a greenish precipitate on the surface of the
starch, containing fiber, albumen, and coloring matter. The super-
natant liquor, however, never becomes entirely clear.

During the course of from twenty-four to forty-eight hours in warm
weather fermentation sets in, even with no addition of yeast. The pro-
ducts are not strictly those of the vinous fermentation, neither are they
entirely like the lactic. Much lactic acid is, however, formed, together
with a large amount of mannite and a smaller amount of alcohol, acetic
acid, glycerine, and succinic acid. The same thing takes place even
when quite large quantities of yeast have been added to the juice.

It the juice immediately on extraction is filtered through paper and
allowed to stand, the cellulosic fermentation sets in, and over night
white clots of cellulose, or a similar substance, settle out on the walls
of the containing vessel. What the products in solution are, under
these vircumstances, has not been investigated. If the expressed juice
is immediately mixed with numerous slices of fresh cane and left to
itself, lactic fermentation is probably the form to be expected. The

ame form of fermentation always occurs on adding slices of cane to a
pure sugar solution. If, however, to the juice sufficient slices of cane
are added to fill the vessel as nearly as possible with them, then the
mucous fermentation takes place. After a few days the liquid becomes
sticky, and alcohol precipitates from it a ropy slime, not easily soluble
in water, and resembling the gum found in many sorghum syrups.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM. ies

The Acidity of Corn and Sorghum Juices.

The juices of four varieties of sorghum and two of corn have been
examined at various intervals during the growth of the canes to de-
termine their acidity, and with the result presented in the following
tables.

While it is impossible to draw any very definite general conclusions,
owing to the great irregularity.in the amount of acid present in juices
expressed from canes in the same stage of development, it is apparent
that in all but one of the varieties which have been examined, there is
a greater amount of free acid in the juice during the later stages of
growth. Two of the sorghums show besides an apparent decrease
to about the eighth or ninth stage, followed by an increase later on
in the development of the canes. Beyond these conclusions it is im-
possible to go.

The determinations were made in the following manner:

The method employed for the volumetric determination of the acid
present in sorghum or maize stalk juice was as follows:

50 ¢.c. of the juice, usually of a greenish or greenish brown
color, was titrated with a fiftieth normal solution of sodium hydrate
(3,Naon)

The acié was calculated as malic acid—=(H,C,H,0,).

lec. of HNaO= 00134 malic acid.

As the most practical indicator for the final test of saturation of the
acid juice by soda solution, a dilute solution of extract of logwood was .
used, which, when added to the juice containing a slight excess of
NaOH, turned toa bluish purple or violet color. This final reaction
was made in small porcelain dishes, into which a few drops of juice
were brought and some drops of logwood added by means of a glass
rod. Before this point of neutrality was reached, red and blue lit-
mus paper was employed.

The calculation was as foilows :

A sample of sorghum juice, 50 c. ec. required—

jhe ee of 5 HNa0O solution for saturation ; hence 100 c. ¢. of juice
44x 2—88.0.
2. 88 <.00154 (malic acid)= .11792.

.11792 (malic acid) as . eee hice, g
' 1.0660 (specific grav. of juice) Tere ee

100 grams of juice.

coy

*¢ i

k,' on ®

SORGHUM JUICE ACIDITY.

*F
Early Amber.
= i “af : v
a ea
: r 7 é :
ce. ¢c. of paar
Bi Specific | Percent |
DATE. Stage.*| 5 pee. gravity of | of acid —
for 100¢.c.| | juice. jasmalic.
of juice. oa

\ =.
Golden Syrup.
, @ie@vor
: mls Specific | Per cent m

ye DATE. Stage. | 5 poeta! gravity of | of acid se
for100¢.c.| juice. jas malic. Y 4
of juice. 4
aaa ae,
lols, ek ees Oa ncetiah thse he -ccan oka Sener Torn roe. 10 132 1.089 .170
TNT ON at ga, dc Se i 156 1.073 195 bi
Ob Ch hatte oe ae ein IND Gotan Os Soe ae a eR EAR ee Sea 12 160 1.075 200 -
Aug. 19 14 184 1.083 228 im
oz 1 0 : .

¢ 1

€ ‘

: - ij f ps
4y

* For explanation of ‘“‘stage,’’ see page 119, Mi

oe er a ip tae | Se Oe
ej - - * “"
Te eae SF 4. Ne ‘>
a 24. 's . c.-2 ’
t ~ * * -
* a), ‘ <4
2 ; > * -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM. 255
ar ‘ i
; ty Wolf Tail. ‘
x |
. Gate OF :
PWN Specific | Per cent
: DATE. Stage. | 5 oH = gravity of | of acid
ss for100¢.c.| juice. jas malie.
‘ of juice.
it |
AIR CAL CARO ite si Bias, Scene = cane ee nee a 3 128 1.043 164
TIGHT aH eee SA it of FS EE Gn 4 120 1 042 2154
ACU eat a Ris oe oie 2 le 0 ee ae ore 5 122 1.049 156
TQ TREN) cones pitas Pap eye teas a in a I 6 S4 1.053 107
: CANOSA SE 9A ae eee Rete aoe 5 92 1.054 a i bf
. RA a Lee ee er he nica acc tt sat Seen 8 88 1.066 SEL
i PATEL ESL AD i Sel srad se eaciet as ela/a hols mea vid ayejais sterd miss rae wi bcanea ss 9 120 1.077 9
x ANTE ge Nyc, SRN ay Br ch 3 ny FoR: Co ee eee ee 9 8s 1.065 Shh
POM eet he ieloe aeteie oy eon ws sere sce sc oa sen eae 10 108 1.078 134
PUNTO nS Lae A eee SSPE Said ahs ates Es! Sion os < Se SOS 11 156 1.086 155
SCS Utell Se er ee eae ee gyn ane 12 120 1 087 148
SUSTLS Wa © hoe PUA er Eee a a ee 13 152 1.084 189
SUSIE Wea Se ct sal es ter Se ea ee eg 14 148 1.094 -181
ae Lee ye Mn eres See Cee eat ec, cnc eau ers 15 152 1.090 187
Spe mmae ne ero rere te fo ke ee So eee 156 1.086 192
Oomseeana.
c.c. of - fi x r
n = Specific ercen
Date. Stage. |. 39 HNa0} gravity of | of acid
for 100¢.¢.| juice. as malic.
of juice.
POLE NS nr Score atInn hile sive eactetes es Ole ixthsycn aay l= & 1 152 1.032 171
PANE OR ee = Shen eRe See ee eta/e osies Genial = cue est 1 64 1.0385 OS3
LATENT aR SRNR Se aR ont aol ne er ee 2 92 1 045 -118
wn PHS WSS See sss sc Hence Seog He SenE nc Hane 3 se 1.044 103
Pern Pita e he oI han owe eae Pie os Coen St Shas vse 4 92 1.043 118
Eee Ls Ane RRS ESS Been ie ete Re Se 5 72 1.055 -091
ENTE SU Se PP Spee eee Cc ee E On BO OR Eee 6 62 1.055 079
BEND Nate este ahora lara’ a 0 alse Sie oie wine aia’ s eens See eey 7 sO 1.062 101
PROD Mii $2 oni cies claw axle sists Sia we aie einis, ate 8 80 1.061 101
PRETO PReT IAG ae rer, = Mita See whe aPnclni at Sh yefarsad a enters 9 100 1.072 -125
RNa et eaten oie mts oats lS org Sia Wiis “Sal Aran olan 10 96 1.075 -119
RRM eet mice | eat ea sa alae, hires a/eei de a 11 100 1.073 125
SD Ar eee ORS ere a eee eee 12 68 1.065 OS4
ETL ents to ec Pe cea when shadows See sh 15 152 1.076 190
SVT USA ESR JU Cae ane ee ee eel (Ate See 160 1,072 -200

Composition of Ash of Canes and Juices of Sorghum.

The actual composition of the pure ash, both of the whole cane and
the expressed juice, are matters of interest and importance.
careful study of the following figures, it will be seen that the amount
of potash extracted from the soil, is much greater than the amount of
any otherash ingredient, while the quantity of phosphoric acid is small.
It would seem, then, that the farmer should supply these two con-
stituents, when his soil seems to need them, in about the relative pro-

portions in which they exist in the ash.

From a

The following are analyses

of two lots of ash from sorghum, and two samples of ash from sorghum

juices :

256 SORGHUM.

* ANALYSES OF ASH FROM SORGHUM CANES AND JUICES,

Canes, Juices.
Constituents.

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Worl, No. 2.
POtas ly kc Om wee snetic toe cme neta terete : 49 66 33.77 46 48 +50 .31 794.76
12fojmIcoinouTele NG Sone hn Gon se oe GAs cep ooe 4.31 14.58 HOO! Wiser 25 cael Oe seteteean eae
Yolhohsp ten: iene aA, BAGG OS dor taboooon OFOOA | lbte paoraod (hgnanor ec 90 Trace 07
IB hei OL KO jaa oreo ones Aor shots cOORnee con 13.49 9 00 6.82 7.20 7.40
Maemesiay Me Oe orc = aacctre atnetetetscfersevaes-tarete 10.47 10.28 4 64 6.3 7.85
Iron Oxide, P3202 ...... ...-- 9. eG cae eel oct eee 14 2.01 1.63
STU RSH an Cee Sear puck ones Oeste SOT 8.97 2.93 27.91 6.381 2.00
SiC ACLU SOS eae eerie rated 5.55 11.70 6.23 5.11 4.11
Phosphorie acid, P7205... 1.0... -...-...--. 3.64 4.50 Die 8.22 aT
Chikomine mG leat sera -= re aelent sia Sais a 3.91 13.24 ad 9.08 15.89
Manganese Oxide......... 60.0 .:00ceer see [eee eens eee fee eee eee yok? id | aeareres oeet) | b2 Peis ot 36

100.00 100.00 99.63 100.00 100.00
ae

* Analyses Nos. 1 and 2 of canes and juices, were made at the Department of Agricul-
ture. Cane Analysis No. 3 is reported by Professors Weber and Scoyell, of Illinois
Industrial University.

+ It was thought best in these analyses, to state all the potassium as oxide, although,
doubtless, a part existed in the juice in combination with chlorine.

EXTRACTION OF JUICE FROM CANE. yay |

CHAPTER VIII.

(a.) Extraction of juice from cane.
(b.) Roll mills. :
(c.) Various methods for the extraction of juice.

EXTRACTION OF JUICE FROM CANE.

In the production of sugar from plants, the first step is the extrac-
tion of the juice; and in this operation the methods generally applied
to sugar-cane and sorgum or maize stalks, on the one hand, and to
beets upon the other, differ radically, and those methods employed
with beets are in their principles and in their results vastly superior
to those in general use in the production of sugar from cane.

A recent writer, eminently qualified from long experience to judge
of these matters, declares that “‘ the sugar beet industry in all its de-
tails has been so exhaustively investigated, in Europe, that it may,
without exaggeration, be declared to be at present the most thoroughly
developed department in the whole range of industrial science. The
question of the successful introduction of this industry into the United
States rests on purely economic considerations.”

In no respect is the perfection to which this industry has been
brought more manifest than in the success which attends the processes
for the extraction of the juice from the beets, and in no respect are
the two methods of sugar production from cane and beets more at
variance than in this preliminary step in manufacture.

A glance at the results obtained will suffice to show how much yet
remains to be done before the sugar-cane industry shall even approach
in practical economy that of the sugar beet.

The results ordinarily obtained in making beet sugar are as follows:

100 pounds of beet roots give—

PRES SUS AUS meee Bee wercinn So Sah efor dctomis eo <,a a 5 FETS ree See eRe eee el 5.00 pounds.
Heron (OES Sires as sek Ace al tec melee st Olsen's s cFies CaSsbhtamaecianeueans 1.50 iy
PERRY et Jochen Eso enna iga mces s eke oe A eons Ste Aetc da chien ce eiene.e 50 *
RR ENS SOS io re rene eee ra Se nic ok aie co's oe aa wed Geen Ceealte dss aren eae ee 1.50 =
pss) SU Par in ple regen eae cht or toe ieee geasnea awe tr na dee eas of Oe,
ns ¥: a OEE Sere teh Satis catia wn ee Ses aes ee oa bo sterner aoe it)
ae aE OER RG Pie he Merete sate oe Bia ee 2.5 ain s Sh ampere os sjtine mio oS eae ae eee Be .59 ¢
. MEINCOLISNOCO Us. 2 eg eer an tate err hak Oe cece ae ne coe ee ee -06 -
MP ty ipa ey is te oe he een Ye etre tu ae tee 10.00 pounds.

The above estimate is from ‘‘ Sugar Growing and Refining,” page
387.
With beets of higher sugar content than 10 per cent, the losses
17

258 SORGHUM.

would be proportionately less, and vice versa; but it will be seen that
only 5 per cent of the total sugar of the beet is lost in the pulp, while
the amount of sugar ordinarily lost in the bagasse of sugar-cane or
sorghum is fully one-third of the total amount present in the canes.

This amazing loss, a loss which aggregates at least $100,000,000
worth of sugar annually, is due entirely to the imperfect extraction
of the juice by the ordinary cane mill.

Tn the main, the principle of extraction has suffered no change for
centuries. The most elaborate and expensive mills of the sugar plan-
tations of Cuba, capable of crushing hundreds of tons of cane daily,
are but modifications of the primitive mills of centuries ago, when,
with greater labor and greater loss, a few armsful of cane was the
daily capacity of the rude and inexpensive mill.

In the hope that the skill and ingenuity, which has satisfactorily
solved so many practical problems which have hindered the full de-
velopment of many new industries, may be also successfnlly applied
to this, it is well to consider briefly the nature of the problem to be
solved.

This problem—the complete extraction of the sugar from the
plant—is by no means beyond hope of satisfactory solution. It is
now brought to the attention of a new class of people, proverbially -
clever and full of invention, and fortunate in this, that, with a full
knowledge of its conditions, they are largely free from the prejudices
of long established methods, the practical knowledge of which is
likely to retard rather than stimulate invention.

To such a class was the extraction of sugar from beets presented,
and, although a comparatively new industry, it has been from its in-
fancy, and to-day is exclusively, in the fostering hands of science, and,
as an industry, is fully abreast of the most advanced science of the
day. Itis to this that the beet is entirely indebted for its success in
having become the only rival practically of the sugar-cane in the
production of sugar. When but a fraction of the attention which has
so far advanced the beet sugar industry shall have been given to sor-
ghum, there can be no doubt but that it will speedily become to us as a
people the most profitable and economical source of our sugar supply.

Structure of the Cane.

The stalks of sugar-cane and of sorghum, when mature, very closely
resemble each other in their general character. The stalk of sorghum
consists of a solid stem, from # to 14 inches in diameter, and from 6
to 12 feet long, according to the variety, separated into joints from 6
to 10 inches apart. These joints are nearer together at the butt end

EXTRACTION OF JUICE FROM CANE. 259

of the stalk than at the upper portion. At each joint a leaf develops
alternately upon the side of the stalk, and, as the plant matures, those
leaves at the lower parts of the stalk gradually die. The leaves partly
enwrap the stalk, and then fall away in blades from 2 to 4 inches
in breadth, and from 2 to 3 feet in length. The stalk terminates in a
panicle (seed head), which is diffuse and spreading, or close and com-
pact, with seeds varying from brown to white, according to variety.

By cutting across the stalk between the joints, and treating with a
solution of iodine, there are seen to exist numerous large fibers, about.
each uf which are clustered small cells of nitrogenous material, with
intermediate cells of ordinary cellulai tissue, containing the sugar in
solution. By splitting the stalk lengthwise through the joint, there is
shown, upon the application of iodine, a belt of highly nitrogenized
tissue, about one-eighth to three-sixteenth of an inch in width, while
distributed along the portion of the stalk between the joints the blue
grains of starch appear. The exterior of the stalk is composed of
more compacted fibers of woody matter, enveloped in a hard siliceous
covering, much resembling the sugar-cane, but less hard. Like the
sugar-cane, a slight coating of a waxy substance (cerosie) covers the
stalk, especially at the joints. Except that the joints are not so close
on the sorghum, and that the stalk is softer in its structure and gen-
erally less in diameter than the sugar-cane, the resemblance of the
stripped stalks of these two plants is very close.

Owing to the fact, that the water present in the juice of the plant is
always far in excess of the amount necessary to hold the sugar in solu-
tion, there is no reason to be seen that the sugar is ever present in the .
fresh cane in a solid form, as has sometimes been asserted. By means
of diffusion, the contents of the cells readily pass from one portion to
another of the plant; and during the life of the plant this circulation
is constantly going on, such matters of the juice as are necessary being
supplied to the growing parts, while the sugar, which is being elabo-
rated in the leaf cells, is accumulated in the cellular tissue of the
stalk, gradually increasing in quantity as the plant approaches ma-
turity.

Mills for Extracting Juice.

The principle of nearly every mill for the extraction of juice from
cane or sorghum, at present in use, depends upon rupturing the cells
of the cane by pressure, and in this way expressing the juice. In
certain mills this pressure is estimated as equal to 1,200 pounds to the
square inch, or a pressure upon the entire roller of 500 tons. This
pressure is generally produced by three rolls—one upper and two
lower—the cane passing first between the upper and one of the lower

260 SORGHUM.

rollers; and then, by assistance of a returning bar, or knife, as it is
termed, the partially crushed cane again passes between the upper and
second lower roller. The mills may be classed as upright, or horizon-
tal, according to the position of the rolls. All mills of large size are
with horizontal] rollers. They are also two, three, and four roll mills,
generally three.

In the case of four rolls being used, it is customary to separate
them, and, by means of a jet of steam or water, to moisten the partially
expressed cane before subjecting it to pressure between the second pair.

In the construction of mills upon this general principle, it is doubt-
ful whether there is left much, if any, room for improvement.
The amount of juice expressed varies from 45 to 65 per cent of the
weight of the stripped cane, and in exceptional cases, where, as in
competition trial of mills, every precaution is taken, the amount of
juice may reach 70 per cent, but it is doubtful whether the average re-
sults will equal 60 per cent of juice extracted by the sugar mills.

We have seen that the average of juice present in the cane is at
least 90 per cent of its weight; and there is reason, therefore, to con-
sider the principle of these mills, to learn whether such waste of juice
is necessary and inevitable in their use. It appears that such loss is
inevitable, owing to the following reasons:

1. The cells of the cane, which contain the juice, are microscopic in
size, and many of them escape rupture, even under the enormous
pressure to which the cane is subjected, and it is not unlikely (though,
perhaps, this can not be experimentally determined) that the elasticity
of the cell walls is such, as to permit a certain degree of pressure be-
fore they are ruptured.

2. Owing to capillarity, the bagasse (or pressed cane) rapidly ab-
sorbs the juice the instant the pressure is removed; and, since a portion
of the juice will follow the cane through the rolls, such portion is at
once taken up by the bagasse. It is, of course, mathematically true,
that the maximum of pressure exerted, even with the largest rolls and
with the slowest revolution, is but instantaneous; and, as the escape
of the juice can not be as rapid, a large share of it must be lost. In
fact, such is found to be the case. Although, in common language,
we often hear the bagasse spoken of as ‘‘ perfectly dry,” it is never
found with less than half its weight of water, even after having come
from the best mills; and generally it will be found, that the percentage
of water still remaining in the bagasse is equal, approximately, to that
present in the cane before it was pressed. With this water is, of
course, a large amount of sugar, estimated as being equal te the half
of that expressed in the juice.

ROLL MILLS. 261

ROLL MILLS.

The following illustrations will show the different styles of mills at
present in use in the United States, adapted for horse, water, or steam
power. It is always advisable to have a mill at least a size larger than
appears to be necessary for the remaining apparatus, since the supply
of juice, for continuous work, must be maintained, and any excess
may be easily avoided. It is also a matter of economy to secure the
strongest mill of any given capacity; for any break down may so
interrupt the work of the season as to imperil the entire crop. It is
desirable, also, that the power applied be in excess of what is really
demanded for regular work, since it often happens, through improper
feeding, that there is danger of choking the mill, and thus causing
delay, if not breakage of some of the parts.

The object of the illustrations of mills, is to enable the farmer to see
their general character. Those who may desire mills of larger capacity
than these represented, need only to be informed that they may be
sécured of any capacity up to several hundred tons daily, and are, in
all respects, identical with those in use upon the large sugar planta-
tions of Cuba and Louisiana.

These illustrations are inserted solely for the purpose of information
to the reader, and not as advertisements of those who have kindly fur-
nished the plates for use. There are, doubtless, other manufacturers
of mills and other apparatus similar to these represented in this
volume, but whose models do not appear. The general fact, however,
is one that should be had in mind, viz.: that it is true economy to
buy a mill of somewhat greater capacity than that which is thought
necessary ; also, that extra weight and extra strength will far more
than compensate for a little additional cost.

262 SORGHUM.

S=> .
SS ; lll | |

(—S—=
li

Plate XXII.

Plate XXII. shows the Victor Cane Mill, an apparatus in very common use. It is
constructed with vertical rollers, on a plan suited to horse-power, Or with horizontal
rollers for water or steam power. The horizontal mills are fitted with extra gearing,
are necessarily heavier, and require greater motive power to accomplish the same
result.

The follovring list of sizes and capacity of mills, of this style, will be of value. These
mills are made by Blymyer &Co., Cincinnati, Ohio:

Tons cane Acres cane

Size. Weight. in 12 hours. per season.
No. 0, Light One-horse........ ... 390 Ibs. 2 to 2% 5 to 8
Worl, Jite OUG-DOTSC eres ste cls s =i odio 234 to 38 7 to 10
No. 1, Heavy One-horse............ 750s 8 to 3% ; 8 to 12
INGac EE WiO-DOUSC apie ett i iisie occ 875 4 to 6 12 to 18
No. 3, Heavy Two-horse.. ......... 12:00 6 to 7 20 to 30
No. 4, Large Two-horse ........... 1300) Nise 8 to 9 25 to 35
INO 16; HOUL-NOTSE metinccters oe <)s1r)c.-' <7. 1,800 ‘‘ it tos 35 to 45

The same mill, with the sweep below, is furnished by the same parties. For many,
such a mill is greatly to be preferred, since it permits full access to the mill for bringing
cane, removing bagasse, and it may be used in the second story of any suitable
building.

ROLL MILLS. 263

Sas SNC Si hae
Behe SAN
> Pe Sey IS 8

= ioe SS

Plate XXIII.

VERTICAL VICTOR MILL.
[With horse-power below. j
The mill with sweep, shown above, presents these advantages over the common
Victor mill: 1. The millis more steady. 2. The horses do not interfere with bringing
cane to the mill, feeding or removing the bagasse. 3. The juice can flow, by gravity,
to the juice tank and defecation, on lower level, thus avoiding pumping.

264 SORGHUM.

coca eA AA

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a

Plate XXIV.
HORIZONTAL MILL.

The above represents a good form of a mill, adapted to horse-power, and with hori-
zontal rolls. The size, capacity, weight, and price list of these is as follows:

Power. Size of rollers. Weight.

No. 1—2 to 4 horse. 1—15 x 12. 2-15 x 9. 2,100 Ibs.
No.2-4to6 “ 1—20x 12%. 2-20x 9%. 2,400 lbs.

ROLL MILLS. 265

HAAN

HORIZONTAL, SELF-ADJUSTING ANIMAL-POWER MILL.

The above plate represents a horse-power, horizontal roll mill, made by Geo. L. Squier,
Buffalo, N.Y. The following list of sizes and weights are given:

Pearl No. 1. Main Roller, 8x 8. Weight, about 800 lbs.
Pearl No. 2. Main Roller, 10 x 10. Weight, about 1,200 lbs. ,
Pearl No, 3. Main Roller, 10 x 12. Weight, about 1,400 lbs,

. Pearl No. 4. Main Roller, 12 x 16. Weight, about 3,000 lbs.

me

266 SORGHUM.

S

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Plate X XVI.

The Horizontal Victor, illustrated in above cut, has the plan of dispensing with the
return plate between the rolls. These mills have three rolls, and are made extra heavy
and strong. A Bagasse Carrier, 10 to 15 feet long, is furnished, and is included in the
prices given of the mills,

Acres Cane

Size. Tons Cane in 24 hours. per season. Weight.
No. 0, four horse, 16 to 20 tons, 50 to 60 acres. 2,300 lbs.
No. 1, six uf 24 to 30 tons, 60 to 80 acres. 8,200 lbs.
No.2,eight ‘“ 30 to 40 tons, 70 to 90 acres. 3,600 Ibs.
No. 3, ten as 40 to 50 tons, 80 to 100 acres. 4,000 lbs.

No. 4, fifteen ‘ 70 to 90 tons, 250 to 300 acres. 10,000 lbs.

ROLL MILLS. 267

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ALON,

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Plate X XVII.

HEAVY HORIZONTAL HORSE-POWER MILLS, WITH SWEEP BELOW OR SWEEP
ABOVE, AS DESIRED. FIVE SIZES.

There are many advantages in a Sweep Below Mill, when the planter has a proper
building in which to run it. The mill is placed in the second story of the building, and
a shaft extends from thence to the ground, to which the team working on the ground
floor is attached. The team and sweeps are entirely out of the way of the mill; the
cane can be unloaded from the cart directly into the second story of the building, and
piled near the mill under cover; the bagasse can be carried by a shute into the cart and
carted off, and the juice spouted to the defecator or evaporator, without lifting or
pumping. A Feed Table or Cane Carrier can be used with the mill as described.

Texas No. 0. Main Roller, 12x 15. Weight, 2,000 lbs.
Texas No. 1. Rollers, 12 x 20. Weight, 3,500 lbs.
Texas No. 2. Rollers, 12 x 20. Weight, 4,100 lbs.
Texas No. 3. Rollers, 16 x 24. Weight, 6,600 Ibs.
Texas No. 4. Rollers, 20 x 30. Weight, 13,150 lbs.

The above mill, Plate X XVII, is made by George L. Squier, Buffalo, N. Y.

263

SORGHUM.

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34%,

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Plate XXVIII.

ROLL MILLIS.

269

The engraving, Plate XX VIII, represents the Niles Three Roll Cane

Mill, which is in very

Louisiana.

The following lists of

wishing to buy.

general use upon the sugar plantations of

sizes and weights, will be of interest to those

They are manufactured by Blymyer and Co., Cincinnati, Ohio,

Ue

Size. Length and
Number. |Diameter of Rolls. |

_
BE Swmwnsrcm ome w

16 in.
20 in.
24 in.
24 in.
30 in.
36 in.
36 in.
42 in.
48 in.
48 in.

x 16in.
x 16 in.
x 16in.
x 20 in.
x 20in.
x 20 in.
x 2in.
x 24 in.
x 24 in.
x 26 in.

"

7,200 lbs.

8,500 lbs.
10,200 Ibs.
20,500 Ibs.
22,000 lbs.
30,000 lbs.
35,000 Ibs.
38,000 lbs.
41,000 lbs.
47,000 lbs.

Size.
Number.

Length and

Diameter of Rolls.

d4 in.
54 in.
60 in.
54 in.
60 in.
66 in.
72 in.
60 in.

66 in.
72 in.

x 26 in.
x 28 in.
x 28 in.
x 30 in.
x 30 in.
x 30in.
x 30 in.
x 34in.
x 34 in.
x 34 in.

Weight.

52,000 lbs.
56,000 Ibs.

$63,500 Ibs.

75,000 Ibs.
80,500 lbs.
$2,500 Ibs.
97,000 lbs.
120,000 Ibs.
130,000 Ibs.
140,000 lbs.

270 SORGHUM.

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Plate XXIX.

ROLL MILLS. Lik

Plate XXIX represents a plan of cane mill, showing the three
rolls, cheek pieces, cane and trash carrier pulleys; also, how they are
actuated by the geared wheels by a linked iron belt.

The mill as shown represents a single-geared mill—that is, the pin-
ion is connected directly on the main shaft of engine, and operates into
the main wheel, secured to the shaft of the top roll. A better way is
to make it compound geared, speeding it so that a point on the surface
of the roll will travel about fifteen feet per minute, and the engine
about thirty revolutions to one of the mill.

The top roll is arranged in connection with a knife, so as to direct
the cane toward the center of the bagasse side, and by this, hindering
it from passing out between the ends of the rolls and dropping into
the juice pan, which is placed between the cheeks so as to catch the
juice as it falls.

The cane carrier is a long traveling table of ash slats, as wide as the
rolls, secured at each end in the long links of a chain, and passing
over the inboard pulleys, which have projections to catch into the short
links of the chain. The outboard pulleys and shaft are plain, and se-
cured to a suitable foundation. This carrier is set in action by means
of a chain belt, receiving its motion from the cane roll, the shaft of it
being longer on this end to receive the wheel. If the cane carrier
should be too much loaded, so as to crowd the mill, the carrier can be
stopped by means of the lever V, which throws out the noiseless fric-
tion clutch, allowing the carrier to be idle while the mill revolves and
clears itself.

The deliverer, or trash carrier, is arranged in the same manner, but
has no need of the stop motion, as the trash can be carted away as
fast as made.

We are now making mills with steel shafts, crown wheels, and pin-
ions—much stronger than wrought 01 cast iron.

There is also arranged, in connection with the mill, a juice tank and
plunger pump, operated from one of the shafts by means of a crank,
and of capacity about double what could be anticipated of the mill, in
order that it may never choke.

This mill is manufactured by Colwell Iron Works, New York, and
of any size desired.

272 ' SORGHUM.

Plate XXX.

To those engaged in the examination of canes, whether of sorghum,
maize, or sugar-cane, it is of the greatest importance to have at hand
a small mill, by which the juice of a single stalk may be obtained for
examination.

To the planter who desires to learn the condition of his crop,
such a mill is almost indispensable. The above plates represent mills
of this discription made by George L. Squier, Buffalo, N. Y. The
weight of the mills is from 170 to 270 pounds, and the rolls are from
4 inches long and 4 inches in diameter, to 5 inches long and 5 inches
in diameter, and are said to give a yield of juice fully equal to the
large mills.

Importance of a good Mill.

It is most desirable, in order to secure the best results possible, that
great care be exercised in the selection of a mill, since there is, even
with the best mill, a very considerable amount of sugar left in the ba-
gasse. According to the testimony of an experienced sugar chemist
and engineer, it is probably true that nearly, if not one-half, of the
sugar present in the cane of Louisiana is left in the bagasse, for he
says: oe

To a great many it may appear startling, that about 50 per cent of the sugar

ROLL MILLS. 273

is left in the cane after it passes through the ordinary mill. Some who doubt
this base their opinion on the apparent dryness of ordinary bagasse, while
others arrive at their conclusions from experiments which, from their nature,
are fallacious. The fallacy lies in the high percentage of juice claimed for the
mills. It is probably quite correct that, by taking a few hundred, or even a few
thousand, pounds of cane, and passing them carefully through a good mill, such
high percentages may be secured; but, with the average mill, grinding in the
ordinary way, I have reason to believe that the percentage of juice obtained, on
the whole weight of the cane, is more frequently under fifty than over.

The above estimate of loss is undoubtedly too high, but all are
agreed that there is a very great loss in this operation of expressing
the juice.

To illustrate this more fully, let us take the average results of the
analyses made in 1881 ot the sorghums during those three periods
when the best results in sugar were found.

The average composition of the juices at this time was as follows,
and it must remembered that these canes were passed singly through a
mill, giving, as will be seen, excellént results in juice:

Per cent.
SCE XD ECRSE Goh oe ines im eas eine c= oe Sta les ay tea rata s hater sae eerie erate 58.57
ACM SPAIN EGE SS oho aos Ol ae re Sash ete s See ee Ps pita ee es cet ae ey Pens 16.18
PUTTS ET GMI Bape secre em ee 2 Soon soe robEean Ooh age esamee Sada Sees caehoon Seana nade 1.83
Solids in juice ........ ete Least Sapte oie at Sore aa ieee. Teele rere toe ates mere meie 3.07

But 21.08 per cent of the juice, the amount of total solids, is 12.35,
which, subtracted from the percentage of juice, leaves 46.22 per cent,
as the amount of water expressed in the juice.

Now, the amount of water actually present in the cane at this period
is probably not less than 75 percent, which would leave in the bagasse
28.78 per cent of the weight of the cane as water; and, since the ba-
gasse constitutes 41.43 per cent of the weight of the cane, there would
still remain in the bagasse 69.47 per cent of its weight of water.
This, to the ordinary observer, would appear incredible, since the ba-
gasse is so generally spoken of as being perfectly dry when it passes
from the mill.

It is obvious, therefore, that, since even a good mill leaves 58.37 per
cent of the water of the cane in the bagasse, there also remains along
with this water a large amount uf sugar, and that this amount, if not
equal to that estimated above, is yet sufficiently great to demand that
only such mills should be used as will secure the greatest percentage
of juice.

If, in the above calculation, the amount of sugar lost is in propor-
tion to the per cent of water remaining in the bagasse, it is clear that
46.22 : 28.78 :: 9.477 : 5.901; 7. e., while, in the expressed juice there is
an amount of sugar equal to 9.48 per cent of the weight of the cane,

18

274 SORGHUM.

there is an amount of sugar equal to 5.90 per cent of the weight of the
cane left in the bagasse, equal to 62.27 per cent of the amount actually
expressed in the juice, and equal to 38.40 per cent of the total amount
present in the cane, which, as will be seen, is equal to 15.38 per cent
of the weight of the stripped stalk.

From this it would appear, that the general estimate as to the pro-
portion of sugar actually recovered in a marketable condition is not far
from the truth, the several sources of loss being given as follows:

Per cent.
Wiehtsin, Dae asec ese tcc ee, acre eats cote mle tenatota es eka caer sha ato SYeut¥a, 4 ciaia\eialstat atest iene 6
POSH 1 SMA MIIN Ge ae hee aoe eis aieteen eo eerie cite naa ace a Wien dinhaelatery: Renee ems 2.5
Lost in molasses......... De Ee ee ert tee a eas ayn Aaa eth OOS AE IT Sea OSs Or 3
RA Wes aT ODPAME ee gece erce Ale ter om aicjeleinste oie fe sleiete ote mietotes~ asalatiesstate’s aici icles» con hereto 6.5
Gay FeM lh GaW(tts} a1e 4 aA ee aE OO LOD Oo TEES SSe SOUP HO OHS Oo Mc Srcaigo eons CODE eAGICE CUB bo. 18.

Loss of Sugar in Bagasse.

In 1879, the following experiments were made at the Department
of Agriculture, at Washington, to determine the loss of sugar in the
bagasse :

Two varieties of sorghum and one of maize stalks were selected for
the experiment. Carefully selected stripped stalks of each kind were
taken, and, in order to obtain an average, each stalk was split length-
wise into halves. The half of each kind was carefully weighed, dried,
and analyzed ; the other half of each variety was passed through the
mill, and the bagasse weighed, dried, and also analyzed. From the
results given below it will be seen, that in each case the per cent of
water present in the cane was less than the per cent remaining in the
bagasse ; the average per cent of water in the three varieties of cane
analyzed being 80.2 per cent, while the average per cent of water in
the three bagasses is 85.5 per cent. This rather surprising result is
of course due to the fact that the expressed juice, which averaged
48.24 per cent of the weight of the stripped stalks, contained a larger
percentage of solid matter than did the fresh cane.

Tt will be observed also in these results, that the amount of sugar
expressed in the juice was greater in proportion than would be due to
the amount of water expressed ; for, while not more than half the water
was expressed, it appears that an average of four-fifths of the sugar in
the cane was expressed with the water. From the published results
of numerous other experiments, it would appear that the proportional
amount of sugar which is expressed with the ordinary mill pressure is
not a constant quantity, but depends upon the amount present, since the
following results show a wide variation in this respect; for, while the
per cent of water in the Honduras and Sugar Corn was nearly the same,
as also the per cent of juice expressed, the total sugar found in the

ROLL MILLS. 275

Honduras was nearly twice the amount found in the Sugar Corn, and,
while only 15.2 per cent was lost in the bagasse from the Sugar Corn,
there was 23.8 per cent lost in the bagasse from the Honduras. It is
of great practical importance that this matter should be more thor-

oughly investigated.

LOSS OF SUGAR IN THE BAGASSE.

ro =
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fal ted We ol Nie

= Be <i|< oS oO

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33} Hi sa| al al @

eae a

Weight of stripped cane........ Benes ocewen es ccad pounds..| 1,428] 1,390] 651] 905] 832) 875
UE Gece ne eee ere ee pounds..|...... 666} ...-| 417]..... 415
Weight of bugasse........... DERE CE RS ee pounds..|......| 724) ....| 458}..... 460
POE a a ey A ee aS [.220..] 47 ga} <7 249-39) °° -SJa743
Se eR SS RMRU ET UY RIEANNES 2008 Soe Sia pecine n'a ba 5 cagburn Ie Pes aeee 52.09} ....|50.61!..... 52.57
PERCCHM OL WHtCr. AI CHNG: 2. - <2 5225.52 sentewepseseneks 80.0 |.....-|75.7 |84.9 a
PEErenMOk WAter Bt DACASSG,. - 25-2522 222552 5l. nice 302 SAO ye is ob see
Mexceus Of Ory Muaiter IM. CANG.2--.-- 2.6 .cc ks tacnn- ss Ae enter 8 ih 2
Per cent of dry matter in bagasse....... 16.0 | -| 3
Per cent of sugars in dry bagasse....-.... ; : Fis
Percent of sugars in dry cane. ..-..-..--.-.s0- ceed ees - vi: ee
Per cent of sngars in fresh cane..-....-.....-.....-.0---- | easel :
Per cent of sugars in fresh bagasse 3. | 3.16! 7
Per cent of sugars in bagasse to thatin cane............]...... Ey) esd 5Y er ore |29.0
Per cent of sugars lostin bagasse...........-.-..-.---... | 7 ae /18.9 fb

In 1882, experiments were made with a large variety of sorghums,
the results of which were as follows:

Analyses of Bagasses from Sorghum.

The following table gives the analyses of twenty samples of bagasses
from nine varieties of sorghum; also, for purpose of comparison,
analyses of the juices expressed from the canes are given on page 223.

Excluding the analyses of the suckers and leaves, as not being com-
parable with the others, the average result of the proximate analyses

is as follows:
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF EIGHTEEN BAGASSES.

Percent.

Miner etre lair emlOripH yh ClO)... 02. 2c-.. oes tea ican dan nade dane doon ame 1 43
ICON GxtrHEe EN PmTt eNOS) | 2a 5 22 i 5 ass warganb an neeenewee ara 20.75
Water extract (soluble albumenoids, gum, ete.) ....... Bad acing nets Otten g Nae eae 1.48
Presb RRLLEF (ON REICH, Cbs). 2.2 on). cola laccske wane ucassaeenngeneaanete 76 34
100.00

Albumenoids (N., X 6.25) 3.17
Crude fiber 23.19
PIEROHE Sot. (SEER Ocoee. 5 CoO Lr eo Sore a wenn ewer danea Q 94
SLL TS 8 ee Ree 3&4
BS - at
SO CS eI a a gi ores Si ee oh Gs oa oko mannc « coewaenan ame Dace 4.41
Undetermined 52.68
100.00

The average percentage of juice and bagasse obtained, and the com-
position of the juice, was as follows:

ol . 7 + 7 w
oF
a a “
4 *
¥ 4
a a
276 SORGHUM.

; Per cent.
Ba leteve>-4 04d:\-131215 PAR Rte ARES HOME CaO Sree AMER EDT AGC Boe Han af aio Sone aor oumelie aoe ae 57 61
Bagwasse hs J. CEU Lia iats acts hahscls oslawisiguhte sebiala sine ctale elatete amtgtat nite Cin aeer ta eterno 42.39
WidbOTi DASASSE cass cjnie.s velstoisia sie ais’s </as a oteeteloianlntar tates Chale eiaialelovanicl a sralais bie) “fo bina eres 54.24
pin otc eee ce BEA CROA CB oO Abo pabemens Ibbnone: Dasresl Sieve acteials Fete aes ote ene 45.76.
SiO vor Cw he afb etee SREB SOA Soe MBps OURS ESOS. ornne ha aposebos Skeenchseseade sc 12.92
GINICOSE AMEN COS Sthens stan erciaysine eioietereisreteia a aletate Chotos tacoma tonetoneiatotalet econ iateTet=t eet wet teens ete ater ames 1.29
Solids not-sieweim JUICE! 92. eb eae once eiee pea tee Soiree tye oe ae eee 2.94
Polarization Of WGiCess) 422s cede seen sleet een orate ile sel he ora. emteereintenctae 12.72:

Specific gravity of juice, 1.0726.

ANALYSES OF DRIED BAGASSES.
Be VS 1s wl oe eas
® | Su i2 | o8 sea
$s | es if | es | a
oie 7s = . cai »
~ sort Psi wro [fa
Date. Variety. as| £3 les] 28 |935
on! C4 lol o- Ss
Fh cl linrewee d eta More 5a
ye om ye? oF orreo
a a a Ay Ay
Sept. 14|New variety (H. S. Coll).........ssscssee--.+--+----.--| 1.84] 19.46]1.37) 77.33) 2 813
TA Wane bnibpeniamé(NGSDIG) ons. str ste tse- atsheielelevore =.) 1.25) 18733)1 84) 78 58) v3 es
RiNewavaricty (ES. Coll) casecencet «ie sclsiele teense tare 1.20} 18.25]1.58] 78.97) 2.813
21|White Liberian (Nesbit). Lshacer eos Soe Ape tae 1.72] 20.97|1.60} 75.71) 3 125
DS IME Wav lle UVIK Les oF COU) roceucetto ich tsk tele n Sentero nist 1.07} 20.52)1°46] 76.95} 2.813
93|White Liberian (NeSDIR) Meck? tacks. ere 1.17} 19.50)1.21} 78.12} 3.000
Oct.) 3iSuckersfrom rows 2,5) 4,.0.ccsctsc sc ckere cm eaec ae 2.20] 11.78]1.08] 84.94] 5.625
SVLGAVES FON TOWS2) 0). 4, 10s0 = seems cence cl eisiecians 5.26] 12.70}1.17] 80.87] 13.125
10|Neeazana ... OL URN toca e arhs iprtecks leis ereve ie /stnsibieta.d sehen 1.75} 23.17}1.34] 73.74] 3.000
11|Link’s Hy jig Col EMRIs WAAR LIGETI RA ID SOARS ADD 1.55} 23 .27)1.55) 73.63] 3.500
12| White Liberian (Nesbit) Be tae OM AOSD OT BON IA ic 1.28] 17.83]1.79} 79.10} 3.000
SiWihite waibentan (leamine)) sessile twiciens + esis 1.57] 17.68] .90) 79.85} 3.125
18)White Liberian (Leaming) ...................-....- 1.19] 22.22)1.71| 74.88) 4.000
IUS|Da Chaba Ay waa oyebdAer ae onan enpase saaoneantaou Loo ORpE SHY: 1.55} 21.26)1.39] 75.80] 2.125
IUD TAD MATIN S hidepgks Ieyeue HomeacneOsGReoc Bea Bre (ota so esate ered= oie toe 1.43] 19.18}1.58] 77.81} 3.125
SOUVICS b IMG Gee coerce ve sist stein ntererareleletererofaleriois\@ c\elersia ase 1.52] 22.92)1.37| 74.19) 3.318
SUIREO MOONE Omer pees «4 cisttip caer pierre lee 7 ater= eictovene sie te 1.22) 19.51)1.17] 78.10) 3.125
INOW>. DIESE Gass Moaecrcor Benes wrt tee outs setierrele ot 1.85] 22 .95}2.02] 73.18) 3.500
CIN AS I=iiel Nal I AE Seance ee a emas Soe iso LEO COREA E- 1.49] 22.17|1.38] 74.96] 4.000
Dee. 8|New variety (R. Haswell)............--.02--2.02.-0- 1.11] 24.34]/1.32} 73.23) 3.500
AVOTAD Creatas sae ilas oeltetes omen setae nine iets 1.43) 20.75/1.48) 76.35 167
' ' S| '
ey |
SH) Sh se ana lee =|
; Be le 9.| ealeeaio 2
Date. : Variety. 88 @ 3| © z as oe o 3
5a |So| BS |BS| So | ge
Ay oy ay Autos | Ay a
Sept. 14/New variety (H. 5S. Coll)..................--.-- 27 .475/3.25| 9.75] .84| 2.70 4.25
14\White Liberian ANCE IE ig Rates noe ...|21.875}4.25) 7.10] .93] 2.60 3.75:
91|New variety (H.S. Coll)........-...5........-. 21.600|3.25) 8 80) .88} 2.45 4 00
Tilivyhite WlberisMi(NGSDUb). 2 <<. se nes mirereecleten iss 21.050|3 75} 7.40)1.03} 2.95 4 65
23|New variety (H. 8. Coll)............-.-..2-.--- 20.775/2.75| 10.45) .87| 3.05 5.20
23}White Liberian (Nesbit). Bays Bua eteleeeie ec rre 95 21 .475/3.75) ‘7.60|1.00) 2.80 4 55
Oct. *8\Suckers from rows 2, 38, 4, 5........s.cccc-e-.- 25 .525/2 .00 .95/1.58) 4.10 3.95
3|Leaves from rows 2, 3 Bk ies. Jee cei ae MIO ORO DS .50/1.82] 5.90 3.95
OKA NEA pee coo aoe baeraocdoobSAnacooosds 21.100)5.50} 10.00] .74) 3.00 4 40
UNDER Te hyorelol. Ws 85e ak nopspoobetoccodooo nec 23.725/6.75| '7.10)1.20) 3.00 5.90
12|White Liberian (Nesbit) Fa eat 4-1 POC ae 19.975} . 7. : 89} 2.50 5.15
3|White Liberian (Leaming)...............-.... 25 .550|3 2.85 3.80
18|White Liberian (Leaming)................. 22 .025)2 .'7é 2.70 5.65
WS Barliy Ami Den oh oie = eee sins eieininle’e cle nie = sisrms were 22 .625)2.£ 2.20 5.00
ils|italaersp Te hd onetsls 5 Se So caggdsa wndaderasdoss om 23 .975|3 2.95 4.30
SOM eS tps Games eens seoislveteretere sie etetelerarieratattets 24 .400/4. 2.75 4 65
SA ROM SONe I Onemee aioe circ sine stieuals i ciese oie sperstaefete 25 3 2.60 4.20
In Coys AU ALVES IhaVo lt sto Acoaaecormododnee, seseet ac 23 4 2.95 8.10
INVER LCi sven ace bein scbeiee sa cetepisiercietcletstcieps Sm poiheD |e 2:55 4 45
Dec. 8|/New variety (R. Haswell). .......0..0..... <.. 26 .950]3 3.20 3185
PAV CL ALO rope secre heps adel fale oiplelaintare ernst bre eiaten 23.192/3.84] 9.94) .96] 2.77 4.41

‘ROLL MILLS. 277

LOSS OF SUGAR IN THE BAGASSE.

The most important point established by these analyses, is the very consider-
able loss of sugar, owing to the impossibility of a mill to express all the juice.
We otten hear of bagasse as coming from the mill “ perfectly dry ;” but it will
be seen that although the juice obtained from these canes was much greater in
amount (57.61 per cent) than is usually obtained in practice, still the average
amount of water remaining in the bagasse was 56.26 per cent, and if to this we
add the alcohol and water extracts of the bagasse, which would naturally con-
stitute the juice, we should have remaining in the bagasse (20.75+1.48)x
.4576=10.17+56.26=66.43 per cent of juice still remaining in the bagasse;
that is, 64.41 per cent of the weight of the bagasse as it came from the mill.

_ Surprising as this may appear to those who have not considered it, there can
be no doubt but that the above is even short of the truth.

The average amount of juice obtained was 57.61 per cent, and the total su-
gars in the juices averaged 14.21 per cent, or 8.19 per cent of the weight of
stripped cane. The average of the dry bagasses gave 13.78 per cent of total
sugars, or 6.31 per cent of total sugars in the fresh bagasses; it follows, there-
fore, that the bagasses, as they came from the mill, contained 77.05 per cent as
much sugar as was expressed by the mill from the fresh canes.

Since there was 6.31 per cent of total sugars in the fresh bagasses, it follows
that the amount of sugars in the bagasse equaled 2.67 per cent of the weight
of the stripped cane; also as the total sugars in the expressed juice was 14.21
per cent, it follows that the amount of sugars in the juices equaled 8.19 per
cent of the weight of the stripped cane, and, therefore, the total sugars in the
stripped cane was equal to 10.86 per cent of the weight of the cane; and there
was lost in the bagasse 24.62 per cent of the total sugar present in the cane.

That this estimate falls short of the truth is obvious, when we consider that
the juices were analyzed the day they were expressed, while the bagasses in
drying had lost much of their sugar through fermentation, as was seen to be
true in the analyses of fresh juices as compared with the analyses of the same
juices when dried.

Since the water contained in the plant is far more than sufficient to hold in
solution all the sugars present, there appears no good reason to doubt that the
juice Jeft in the bagasse is identical in its composition with that expressed ;
but if we examine the average results of the analyses of juices and bagasses in
the table, we find that the per cent of sucrose in the total sugars of the juices
was 90.92, while in the bagasses it was 72.13; while, if we examine certain of
the analyses, we find a discrepancy still greater. For example, analysis,
(page 223) of the juice of Link’s Hybrid, gives us in the juice 95.39 per
cent of sucrose and 4.61 percent of glucose in the total sugars; while the
analysis of the bagasse from this cane shows the two sugars to be in this ra-
tiv: Glucose, 48.74 per cent; sucrose, 51.26 per cent.

Such a result is, beyond question, due to the fact that, during the process of
drying the bazasses, there had been an inversion of much of the sucrose, and
in all probability a loss of glucose by fermentation.

Prof. Geo. H. Cook, director of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Sta-
dion, at New Brunswick, in the report on his work, alludes to the waste in the

278 SORGHUM.

use of the ordinary mills for extracting the juice, and estimates the loss as be
ing equal to 40 per cent of the sugar present in the cane.

When we consider the magnitude of this industry, this estimated loss assumes
immense proportions.

Fully $300,000,000 worth of sugar is now annually produced from cane by
practically the same methods used in the production of sorghum sugar. Ac-
cording to the estimate of Prof. Cook, then, it appears that there is annually
lost in the bagasse two-thirds as much, or $200,000,000 worth of sugar. It would
appear most desirable, that some method be devised by which this enormous
waste may be prevented.

The following analyses of bagasse from sugar-cane show results com-
parable with the above:

A Be C.
JEU Gia HONE ApONMGey (@b-9 NASI cL6 |, Abe Rohe Odns cogs an aos Ioucer od sonodootecORedc 60.0 700 800
Percent Ol water iN) DALASSE® fc55i. cence Mae «eine sin we wieciclas ses need uma aacr 23'0 15°27 sie
Pencentiol SUcAD IM DATASSEr: «5 <- Ate sae eine cs loam Chimie nines oes 6.0 3:85 Ies
Percent Of Ger, GlC., 1 DAPASSC ho oie. cate cielo ae ial Scere She Sts 10° AO s hie

100.0 100.0 100 0

The percentage composition of the bagasses is as follows:

Agee GE
\ UE oh eee ak op eames oo ge A eee Ria a Oe eR Oh A SAO ee SOOO GAO bid. +0 Boa
BURT CUG here amici ticite wis Seite dee sheen) leleive .. 15:50 Dee
UIE Th GUC ee ict etcrciewiereic eh ical oieon aves erciclepet sve tela etarale areleiclomwisrciowiwln ators nvore > eieiee oe 27.5. 3637 pani

100.0 100.1 100 0

It will be seen that, when 60 per cent of the weight of the cane was
expressed as juice, there yet remained in the bagasse 15 per cent of
its weight as sugar, and an.amount of water quite equal to that in
the unpressed cane. It appears also that even in the cane where the
percentage of juice was 80, the fresh bagasse contained 9 per cent of
its weight of sugar.

The importance, then, of a mill which shall express the greatest
amount of juice is obvious, provided the juice obtained by the increased
‘pressure is of equal purity with that obtained by less.

Upon this point there exists a diversity of opinion, but the matter
does not appear to have been made the subject of such experimental
investigation as its importance demands. It seems rather, in many
cases, to serve as a convenient excuse for what would otherwise appear
as a wasteful method of manufacture; as also for the makers of mills,
who have found it practically impossible to surpass a certain limit in
the amount of juice expressed.

In several experiments with a second-hand mill, as compared with
a new one, the following results were obtained :

ROLL MILLS. 279

RS ie toes ae
pe r
ou | & =
—-s = —
o=— > >
<8 S 2
=m _
°o to
— = =
= ss a.
28 ao oo
Ss | sz | 2S
ur os eo
o@2 om o-=
rw a av
|
GAIL sitter eee ee castes ses 5 seas tk cee ee eee 48.96 | 1058 | 1518
WG yy etee be ee es OE Unc bea ES Gab CEES Cee cot ca, moecnebecmane-= 3 57.16 1087 20.29

‘By comparing the percentage of juice obtained and the specific grav-
ity of the juice in the first and last experiments, it will be seen that
the former results are to the latter as 100 to 175; while, if we com-
pare the percentage of juice obtained and the percentage of syrup
in the juice, the former experiments in their results are to the latter
as 100 is to 156. This apparent discrepancy is due to the fact that,
when the latter experiments were made, it was possible te carry the
concentration of the ‘syrup to a greater density than in the former
cases, and hence a given amount of syrup in this latter case represents
a far higher content of sugar than in the former; but these results
clearly indicate that, with a good mill, results from 50 to 75 per cent
greater than those obtained in the first experiments could be confidently
relied upon.

As has been said above, this matter is too important to rest upon
other than repeated and well established experimental results.

The Speed of the Rolls.

This is a matter of extreme importance. We have already seen
that the maximum pressure exerted by any mill is instantaneous, but
the length of time during which the pressure upon the cane is approx-
imately at its maximum, will depend upon the diameter of the rolls
and their velocity of revolution. Careful experiments have shown
that, without any change in the relative position of the rolls, a greatly
increased amount of juice may be secured by diminishing their speed.
It is generally true that the speed of the mill is too great.

Repeated experiments have all tended to prove that, while only 46
per cent of the juice is extracted by a speed of 8 revolutions per min-
ute, as much as 70 per cent is obtained by the same mill when the
speed is reduced to 25 revolutions per minute.

Comparative trials were made with a mill, the rollers of which were
22 inches in diameter and 48 inches long, the average speed being 24

280 SORGITUM.

feet per minute, and another with rolls 86 inches in diameter, and 66
inches long, the average speed being 9 feet per minute.

The first gave 59.9 pounds of juice from each 100 pounds of cane,
and the latter 77.61 pounds of juice to 100 pounds of cane. The first
gave 9.36 pounds of sugar from each 100 pounds of cane, the latter
14.87. One gallon of juice from the first gave .572 pounds of mo-
lasses, and 1.672 pounds of sugar, and 1 gallon of juice from the
other gave .66 pounds of molasses, and 2.07 pounds of sugar.

According to this calculation, there was lost in the bagasse of
each 100 pounds of cane ground 7.53 pounds of sugar in the first case
and 2.47 pounds in the latter, equivalent to an increase on the crop of
46.6 per cent by the slow mill. The above experiments were made
with sugar-cane, but will illustrate the principle. Very many experi-
ments are reported from Louisiana bearing upon this question, but
generally a difference in the cane used in the two cases vitiates the
result.

VARIOUS METHODS FOR THE EXTRACTION OF JUICE.

Although the three-roll mill of capacity suited to the requirements
is the ordinary method employed in the extraction of the juices from
sugar-cane and sorghum, it is, of course, to be expected that many
other methods have been devised to accomplish this result without the
enormous and inevitable loss which the system of simple crushing of
the cane involves.

It is proposed briefly to refer to those several methods which have
been devised, more for the purpose of stimulating experiments and in-
vention than for the full elucidation of the different processes.

The several methods devised for the extraction of sugar may be
classed as follows: 1. Multiple rolls; 2. Disintegration of the cane;
3. Maceration; 4. Diffusion.

1. Multiple Rolls—Aualiary Mills—Double Crushing.

One of the largest mills in the world is that belonging to the Khed-
ive at Aba-el-Wakf, in Upper Egypt. ‘This is a three-roll mill, each
roll being 48 inches in diameter and 5 feet 6 inches long. The length
of time during which the cane remains under pressure (the surface
velocity of the rolls being the same) is proportioned to the diameter of
the rolls, and although running with a velocity of 36 feet per minute,
this immense mill is said to express as high a percentage of juice as
the ordinary three-roll mills do at half the velocity. This large per-
centage of juice obtained with large rolls is due not alone to increased
and prolonged pressure, but to the fact that the juice escapes from

contact with the bagasse, and thus less of it is absorbed. There is an.

VARIOUS METHODS FOR THE EXTRACTION OF JUICE. 281

impression widely prevailing, although not sustained by the tests of
repeated experiments, as its importance demands, that the juice ex-
pressed by heavy and slowly-revolving rolls has its increased quantity
fully offset by its diminished quality.

It is urged, therefore, that, in the place of increased pressure and
heavier mills, the pressure should rather be diminished, but continu-
ally repeated; and this view has led to the experimental adoption of
more rolls—as four arranged in two pairs—the bagasse from the first
two being received and again pressed by the second pair. This is, in
effect, only a modification of the three-roll mill, so far as repeated
pressure is concerned; but, by separating the two pairs of rolls, op-
portunity is offered to sprinkle the bagasse, or steam it, before it passes
the second rolls. This is called maceration, and will be considered by
itself, below. Mills with five, six, and even nine rolls, have been
employed ; but generally the result of such experiments has been the
final return to the three-roll mill.

The objections to the use of the greater number of rolls being the
cost of mill, the increased power required, and the grinding up of the
bagasse by the repeated pressure.

2, Disintegration of the Cane.

Several methods have been devised, depending for their efficiency
upon the grinding up of the cane in a pulp, and the extraction of the
juice by hydraulic presses. One machine, in its construction resem-
bling the common mill for mincing meat, consists of a series of knives
on a central shaft, revolving in a cylinder, upon the inner surface of
which another series of knives are arranged, which meet those upon
the central shaft in the manner of shear blades. By the spiral ar-
rangement of these sets of knives, the cane, which is fed in at one end,
is cut up, carried along, and discharged as pulp at the other end of
the machine. A machine of the above construction, at Guadeloupe,
having a capacity of five tons of cane per hour, gave, in five experi-
ments, the following per cent of juice, the pulp being subjected to
pressure by means of a hydraulic press : 70.0, 72:7, 75.65 16:2 16,8:
or an average of 74.26 per cent.

Another machine consists of a series of circular saws upon a common
shaft, the bundles of cane being by them converted into sawdust,
which is subjected to pressure, as in the former case.

38. Maceration.

This process, which, by one method or another, has been the subject
of repeated experiment, consists in moistening the bagasse as it comes

282 SORGHUM.

from the ordinary three-roil mill, by either hot or cold water or steam,
and then subjecting it to pressure again. For this purpose, the ba-
gasse is received upon a continuous carrier of wood or cloth, and, while
slowly passing to the second set of rolls, is exposed to a spray of water
-or steam. The diluted juice obtained in this second pressure is gen-
erally used as sprinkling water, to moisten fresh portions of bagasse,
until it attains, by repeated use, density sufficient for the sugar to be
extracted from it economically.

In this process there is a very considerable saving of sugar, which
amounted, with sugar-cane, according to the data given in ‘‘ Sugar Grow-
ing and Refining” (page 159), to 15.7 cents upon each 100 pounds of
cane used, or, estimating 10 tons of canes to every hogshead of sugar
produced, to a saving of $35.16 on each hogshead.

But from this must be deducted’ the increased cost of the ‘‘ plant
of labor, and of manufacture, owing to the greater amount of water
necessary to be evaporated, so that the conclusion given is as follows:
‘Tt would appear, from numerous statements, that the total extra cost
of procuring the extra yield of sugar is about 50 per cent of the value
of the extra sugar.”

Diffusion.

All the processes thus far mentioned for the extraction of the juice
from sugar-cane and sorghum, depend, for their success, upon the rup-
ture of the cells of the plant, and the pressing out of the juice; and,
in the process of maceration, the principle is mainly the washing off
of the juice remaining in the bagasse. In the process of which we
are now to speak, the extraction of the sugar depends upon an entirely
different principle, known in science as Diffusion, Dialysis and, Osmo-
sis; and to fully understand the matter, it is necessary to again refer
to the physiological structure of the stalk of cane or sorghum.

We have seen, p. 259, that the stalk is made up of an outer rind or
shell, firm and woody in its structure, containing within a soft, juicy
pith, and that this pith consists of numberless cells, composed of cellu-
lose similar to the woody fiber of other plants, the juice being con-
tained in these cells, as is the juice of an orange in the larger cells
which make up the pulpy portion of that fruit.

Now, it has been found that, if slices of cane, or of sorghum, or of
the sugar beet, are immersed in water, in a short time the water will
have become perceptibly sweet, and this sweetness will increase up to
a certain degree, after which it will remain ,the same. If now we re-
place this sweet water with a fresh portion of pure water, we may ex-
tract an additional amount of sugar, and by repeating this operation a
few times, it will be found that the sugar has been entirely removed

VARIOUS METHODS FOR THE EXTRACTION OF JUICE. 283

from the slices of stalks or beets. This result is due to the principle of
diffusion, dialysis, or osmose, as it is termed. It has been found that
certain substances, when in solution, will thus pass through animal or
vegetable membranes, as bladder, animal or vegetable parchment,
when such solution is separated from water by the intervention of either
of these materials. The cells of plants are composed of matter, which
also permits the passage of such materials under similar conditions.
The process will continue, until the amount of the material in solution
outside is equal to that inside the containing vessel.

But, while certain substances will thus readily diffuse, another class
of substances will not. To the former the name erystalloids has been
given, because it is found that those substances which crystallize, as
sugar, salt, and similar bodies, are diffusible; to the latter class the
name colloids has been given (a word meaning glue-like), because those
substances which, like glue, do not crystallize, are also found not to be
diffusible.

It is now interesting and important to observe that, in the cells of
the cane, sorghum, or beet, there are found in the juice substances be-
longing to both these classes, and also that, while the desirable sub-
stance sugar is quite diffusible, those substances which are most trouble-
some to the manufacturer of sugar, as the nitrogenous matter, the gum,
and the starch, are not diffusible. These substances existing together
in the juice are expressed by the common mill, and, in addition, there
is always a considerable amount of mechanical impurity, as dirt, frag-
ments of caue, and so forth, all of which add to the difficulty of secur-
ing the sugar in a commercial condition.

Besides the sugar, there are several other constituents of the juice
which are also diffusible, as the many salts. Owing to the large quan-
tity of these relatively in the beet, the advantage of this system for
beets does not appear to be so decided as it seems that it might prove
if applied to sorghum and cane. But, while this system is in almost
universal use in the production of beet sugar, it appears as yet scarcely
to have made other than an experimental advance in the working of
cane or sorghum.

It is possible, by this system, to remove practically all the sugar from
the stalks or beets; and we have seen that, by the roller mill, it is es-
timated that fully one-third the juice is left in the bagasse; and many
experiments show that the juice remaining in the bagasse is equally
rich in sugar with that expréssed.

A review of the attempts to apply this system to sugar-cane will,
therefore, be of interest. The methods are practically the same, and
consist in cutting the cane in slices from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of

284 SORGHUM.

an inch in thickness. These slices are packed in appropriate recep-
tacles, which are arranged in a train in such a manner that, after fill-
ing the first with water, it may, after a certain time, be discharged
into the second, the third, fourth, and so on, until the water has be-
come as rich in sugar, approximately, as the juice of the stalks or
beets. So soon as the water is discharged from the first receptacle to
the second, fresh water is again added to the contents, and this is in
succession delivered into the second, third, fourth, ete. By this means,
the sliced cane or beet is successively treated with fresh portions of
water, until at last the sugar has been entirely removed. The diffusion
water being necessarily used upon portions increasing in their content
of sugar, until the water contains sufficient to be profitably treated for
sugar.

In order to render insoluble certain constituents of the juice, it has
been the practice to first steam the fresh slices, or treat them with hot
water; and, to remove from the diffused liquor other impurities, it has
been advised to sprinkle lime over the slices in filling the receptacles.
It would appear desirable to use for this purpose a mixture of lime and
sulphite of lime, in order to avoid any tendency to fermentation.

The following results are recorded in ‘‘ Sugar Growing and Refining,”
p- 190—the juice from the canes giving 73° B. The water had, in suc-
cession, been passed through the series, until seven vessels, each con-
taining 120 cubic feet, and holding 4,200 pounds of cane chips, and
3,250 pounds of water, were filled with the diffusion liquor:

No. of Temperature Specific Per cent Density,
vessels. of juice. gravity. sucrose. Beaumeé.
iocee eon AAD CCEBS 21°C = 7088. 1.00030 0.08 0.048
Dace aed neta. ea sister es 29°C.—= 85°R. 1.00310 0.80 0.44
Di cctssterninea are Bes cieraiacte 82°C.= 90°F. 1.00554 1.40 0.80
AYN Nee Deicae Nee ertrac cs 49°C.= 120°F. 1.01134 2.90 1.6
Bes rete dscns Sti Ser ce 93°C.= 200°F. 1-01618 4.12 2.3
Ort iiscisrsaceiste sissisrecec 87°C.= 189°F. 1.02537 6.45 3.6
Wee sesh e owes taMiewlene 91°C —— 196° R. 1.04599 11.40 6.3

It will be observed, that, if the diffusion liquor in vessel 7 be re-
garded at the maximum of saturation with such cane chips as were used
in this experiment, that the following represents the per cent of the
total sugar removed from the successive vessels :

No. 1. No. 2. INOsio: No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. No. 7.
Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent.. Percent. Per cent.
99 74 93.0 87.3 74.6 63.5 42.9 0.0

The complete extraction of the sugar by this process, appears, then,
to be easy of accomplishment.

An analysis of the mill juice and diffusion liquor of the cane, shows
their relative composition :

R 4 +2 ¢
.- oe
$ =}
VARIOUS METHODS FOR THE EXTRATION OF JUICE. 285

ANALYSES MILL AND DIFFUSION JUICES.

Mill juice. Diffusion iuice.
1 G7 Oe a eee fe ee Sen ee ee Lee Specific gravity.
SO per cent -=.---..- eae Od ee Eien ea ee es Sucrose.
EGS per eis: so -2 2. 1.38 per cent..-..- ahah eter Glucose.
(Gamer ecertie-<23: 2.2. 42 per cent. -........-.-. Other solids.
1D per Genie 22.722. 4 POR Cen s. ssct =~ Total.

The difference in strength of the two juices is due to the fact, that
the diffusion juice was diluted by about 20 per cent additional water
used in the operation. The evaporation of this excess of water must
be taken into account in the estimate of cost of production of sugar by
this process. In the above experiments, each vessel contained 4,200
pounds of sliced cane; and from each 4,290 pounds of diffusion juice
was drawn off; 115 gallons of this diffusion juice being equivalent to
100 gallons of mill juice. The 4,290 pounds was equal, therefore, to
3,796 pounds of mill juice, or 88.5 per cent of the weight of the
cane.

In the Aska District, Madras, India, the following results were
obtained in the diffusion process:

The average composition of the juice of the canes, obtained by dif-
fusion, was as follows:

SIUIBPOR Eat erates dah seuss se onod~« oote Sada amae eee eee 81.70 per cent.

Gp nnet eee hs ao ea ne cae re ee oe ne ae nad eee 12.72 per cent.

| DES Sa eae ek et acs Smt ge 1.77 per cent.

CMiGrinabitin eters ee ieee. 2b coda e ec cese ean ade oaee 3.81 per cent.
100.

The per cent of total solids in the juice averaged 16.53.
The composition of the *‘masse cuite” (the mixture of sugar and
molasses obtained by evaporation) was as follows:

DUN RRES Ie stn ater SS aie aa le 5.110 per cent.

SUT er eS ey ae Sei oe Sie ee 76 .000 per cent ....... 80.09 per cent.

SUITES DR ee 2 SS ee 12.740 per cent -..-..- 13.43 per cent.

alts d2 5 hy Ae ee 1:507 per cent..-...... 1.59 per cent.

JT GEYS TG 1 ia a a A ae 4.643 percent.. --.--.-. 4.89 per cent.
100. 100.

Tt will be seen how close in composition the masse cuite is to that of
the diffusion juice, showing that the amount of inversion of sugar,
during the process, was very little—certainly no greater than that in-
curred in the ordinary processes. But results of an experiment with
the same diffusion process, in the West Indies, were apparently not so
satisfactory, it being claimed that the syrup from diffusion juices
would not crystallize so readily as ordinary syrup, and that much
of the sugar was therefore lost in the molasses. The following analysis
of the molasses obtained would apparently justify such conclusion :

286 SORGHUM.

VE IEDs ganar AE GOD MOOR epic pinGnacecrnadker ccahacnrares: 20.08 per cent.

SUCTOSG ra araie it nll ce sane Wea aieiet cla aaiolelobie celal dee ates rere od 63.82 per cent.

GIN COSC Le . cocicicin asistelcic a eiaivicisieloieiats sack ase aermeiaee es net = a: 38 per cent.

Othersoldse eee. sen -cc secre ee asia eeeer eae Pere 3.72 per cent.
100.

In the experiment in which the above given molasses was obtained,
the following results were secured in sugar and molasses:

SUPOI. Joes ds clas aa sacen sass 5 e552 54-)0 eos er Cent of Weifhhof eane,
IMI LASSER i eeolatys niece nde nen ememowialts 21. 5.193 per cent of weight of cane.

But it was held, that a much larger amount of sugar could have
been obtained from the molasses by subsequent treatment, as seems
very probable in consideration of its composition, as given above.

In conclusion, it would appear that, although the results are not yet
such as could be desired, there is reasonable expectation that this
process may be, by a little care, brought to perfection, and wholly sup-
plant the present wasteful method of manufacture.

At present, the following points Appear established: 1. The possibility
to completely remove the sugar from the cane by this process.
2. The separation, at the outset, of all of those mechanical impurities,
and many of those chemical constituents of the juice which invariably
are present when it is expressed by the common mill, and which are
obstacles to the production of sugar.

This matter will again be discussed under the chapter upon Waste
Products, and the experiments made in recovering sugar from the
bagasse.

DEFECATION, PRINCIPLES OF. 287

CHAPTER IX. ,

(a.) Defecation, principles of.

(b.) Defecation with lime.

(c.) Other agents in defecation.

(d.) Sulphurous acid and sulphites in defecation.
(e.) Experiments in defecation.

DEFECATION, PRINCIPLES OF.

The juice extracted from the sorghum, or cane, by either of the
processes already described, is found to consist of a solution of not only
sugar, but of other soluble constituents of the cane which may be
present. Besides, the juice secured by the roller mill contains a
considerable portion of mechanical impurities, 7. e., those which are
suspended in the juice as solid particles, and are visible to the eye,
often being in a state of subdivision so small that the effect of these
impurities may be only to render the juice turbid instead of clear,
as it should be when free from them.

The juice obtained by the process of diffusion, is quite free from such
impurities, and is generally clear, containing only those substances
which are in solution with the sugar.

The composition of the juice of sorghum, as obtained by the roller
mill, is given upon page 252.

The production of sugar from the juice is accomplished by the re-
moval of the water and those constituents of the juice, wholly or in
part, which are present with the sugar. The more perfectly this is
done, the larger the amount of sugar which may be obtained from any
juice.

Defecation, as the word implies, is the removal of impurities; and
from what has already been said, it is obviously the most important
operation in the manufacture of sugar. All the other operations are
mechanical merely.

Defecation is both a mechanical and chemical problem, since the
impurities are both mechanical and chemical, and even the removal
of the latter is only possible, for the most part, after, by some means,
they have been converted into mechanical impurities.

288 SORGHUM.

As the character and composition varies so greatly, as to the im-
purities of the juice, it naturally follows that the methods which have
been suggested, and which have been adopted in practice, have differed
as widely. That there yet remains great room for improvement, none
will more readily admit than those fully conversant with the advan-
tages and defects of the present methods. In the hope that the in-
ventive faculties of those who are engaged in this new sorghum sugar
industry may be stimulated and directed, it will be the aim of this
chapter, not only to describe the methods of defecation in use or sug-
gested, but also, so far as is possible, to consider the principles in-
volved in the several methods.

Mechanical Impurities of Juice—Nature of, and Methods of Removal.

The mechanical impurities of the juice of sorghum are fragments
of the cane, dirt, wax, and starch.

We have already seen how readily fermentation is excited in a sam-
ple of juice by the presence of the bagasse with the formation of what
appears to be the so-called gum, which has proved so troublesome in
the extraction of sugar from syrups. The most careful experiments
with freshly expressed juices, have invariably failed to reveal even a
trace of this gum; so that its subsequent presence in the products proves
conclusively that it must be the result of the method of manufacture.
Owing to the trouble it produces in purging the sugar, and the loss of
sugar it causes, the source whence it is derived, and the method by
which it is produced, should be carefully investigated, so that the
source may be removed, or the method of its production avoided or
modified.

Nearly every sample of sorghum juice will reveal the presence of
starch grains, which will give their characteristic color with iodine so-
lution; and we have already referred to the presence of the starch in
the slices of cane when examined under the microscope. In the crush-
ing of the cane these grains are mechanically carried along with the
juice.

The presence of this starch, although the actual amount is small, is
beyond question highly detrimental to the juice, and does not appear
to have received the attention it demands. Its removal must be ac-
complished at the outset, if at all, since the heat employed in the ordi-
nary methods of defecation would speedily convert it into a form ren-
dering its removal, by mechanical means at least, quite impossible.
The size of these starch g rains is such as to preclude their separation
by ordinary filtration, such as would readily suftice for the removal of
the principal mechanical impurities.

DEFECATION, PRINCIPLES OF. 289

Preliminary Filtering.

This may be accomplished in many ways. Many are accustomed
to allow the juice, as it flows from the mill, to fall into a large bucket,
from the bottom of which a pipe conveys the juice to the storage tank.
(See Plate, small mill.) This bucket is nearly filled with clean hay or
straw pressed closely down, by which all fragments of cane and the
coarser impurities are removed from the juice. In larger mills the
juice from the mill flows through a wire gauze, with meshes from 50
to 70 to the linear inch, and this guaze filter is arranged as a continu-
ous belt, which, by its slow revolution, presents a fresh surface to the
stream of juice. The accumulating impurities are removed during its
revolution by scrubbing brushes and a tank of water through which
the belt is made to pass.

Another cheap and very efficient filter is made by having a box
about 30 inches deep, 30 to 40 inches square at the top, and tapering
to 20 to 30 inches at the bottom. About four inches from the bottom
a false bottom is placed perforated with holes, and upon this coarse
gravel, covered by layers of increasing fineness in succession to the
top, which is clean, fine sand. The juice is admitted into the open
space below, under a slight pressure, and, filtering upward through the
gravel and sand, éscapes by a pipe above. Properly constructed, this
fiiter will deliver the juice quite free from mechanical impurities. In
case the filter becomes stopped up, the fluid contents may be removed
by a stop-cock, which is inserted into the open space at the bottom,
when a pail or so of water will wash out the accumulated impurities.
This filter should be thoroughly washed with water when not in use,
and a little lime should be added to the last washings in order to avoid
fermentation.

A convenient and effective filter may be prepared by taking an ordi-
nary grain bag, holding 2 bushels, and splitting it lengthwise, then
stitching each half into a bag equal in length to the original but of
half the width. Into each of these an entire bag may be inserted, and
the upper edges of the two ‘bags sewed together. The inclosed bag
will thus be compressed into a series of folds, and in this way present
an increased surface to the juice to be filtered. It will be found an
advantage to pack the inner bag as full as possible with fine, clean
hay, which will greatly assist the filtering by keeping the surface of
the bag from being stopped up by the impurities filtered out.

For convenience, four such filters may be fastened to a frame, and
placed in a common barrel, with a stop-cock at the bottom for draw-
ing off the cero juice. These, and all other filters, should be fre-

290 SORGHUM.

quently cleansed, and the straw, hay, sand, and gravel, should be
either replaced by fresh material, or thoroughly washed with water, to
which a little lime has been added.
_ Where large quantities of juice are to to be filtered, a large number
of bag filters are so arranged as to be fed from a common tank, and
filtering into a common receptacle.

Bags of suitable texture are woven seamless for such purpose.
‘Filter presses of many different constructions have been devised, the
general principle being to present large surfaces of the filter to the
juice. For a full description of these, reference is made to the more
elaborate works which treat of the manufacture and refining of sugar.
Besides the several varieties of filters already described, all of which
depend upon the removal of impurities through their mechanical en-
tanglements in the material of the filter, there is in very extensive
use, for the removal of other impurities, filters of charcoal and bone-
black, i. e., an animal charcoal prepared by burning bones in ovens or
retorts, with the exclusion of the air, in a manner similar to the pro-
duction of ordinary wood charcoal.

It is found by filtering juice or semi-syrup through a layer of bone-
black of sufficient depth, that not only are the mechanical impurities
removed, as would’ be expected, but all the coloring matter also, so
that the juice or syrup becomes not only clear, but colorless as pure water.
It is also found that the bone-black retains other of the impurities of
the juice or syrup, as the albumenoid or nitrogenous substances, gum,

c., but it is found that the bone-black soon becomes so charged with
these impurities, that it ceases to have any effect, and must then be
washed, dried, and reburned before it is again fit for use.

In the process of refining the raw sugar, filters varying in length
from 10 to 50 feet are used, and it is found that generally about one ton
of fresh bone-black is needed for each ton of sugar refined; but, since
it may be used over and over again, only needing this revivification,
as it is termed, with the addition of so much as may be lost in the
operation of washing, drying, and burning, the expense attending it is
largely the original cost of the plant and material, as also the additional
labor involved in its use. .

The use of bone-black is only practicable with large central factories
working up very large quantities of cane, or refineries receiving the
product of many smaller manufacturers. It is not within the limits
of the farmer or sugar planter; and, although as invaluable to the re-
finer as it is indispensable, its economical use involves the investment
of a large capital.

DEFECATION, PRINCIPLES OF. 291

Settling Tanks.

Besides the use of filters, for the removal of mechanical impurities,
the employment of settling tanks for the fresh juice, has been practiced
by some with excellent results.

The only danger in this practice is, that fermentation is likely to
take place by letting the juice stand; but this has been obviated by
treating the juice with sulphurous acid between the mill and the settling
tank. In this way it has been found practicable to keep the juice of
sugar-cane from 6 to 10 hours, and, upon standing, a large amount of
slimy sediment was separated from the juice. It is well to have the
juice drawn off from an inch or two above the bottom of the tank; the
sediments being reserved for vinegar, or passed through the filter be-
fore it is added to the remainder of the juice.

Ejject of Heat on Juice.

The juice, even after the most careful filtration, still retains many
impurities, which may by other means be removed. We have seen
that, in its natural state, it has an acid reaction due to the presence of
acid salts of organic acids, of the nature of which we as yet know little.

There are also present certain nitrogenous matters, besides the inor-
ganic constituents or ash of the juice. The effect of heat alone, is to
cause the coagulation of at least most of the nitrogenous matters, and
the formation of an abundant scum ; and very many, seeingsuch quan-
tities of impurities removed by heat alone, are accustomed to rely upon
it solely in defecation. This is a serious error, although it must be ad-
mitted that excellent syrup, in appearance at least, has been made
without the use of any thing but the skimmer to remove those im-
purities which arose as the juice was being evaporated. Heat also, by
destroying the germs, prevents or retards fermentation. Heat is a
valuable, but not a complete agent in the defecation of the juice.

Effect of Lime on Juice.
The agent which is almost universally employed in the defecation of
eaccharine juices is lime, and, owing to its cheapness, general accessi-
bility, and the excellent results which attend its intelligent use, a de

' scription of its chemical properties, preparation, and use in defeca-

tion, is important.

Lime belongs to the class of bodies known to the chemist as alkaline
earths, because, in its chemical nature, it appears to stand midway be-
tween the alkalies and the earths. Athough far less soluble in water
than are the alkalies, it is yet sufficiently soluble to form a solution
pretty strongly alkaline in character, a clear colorless liquid, known as

292 SORGHUM.

lime-water, which contains, at ordinary temperatures, about one part
of lime by weight to 730 parts of water. Its solution gives the ordin-
ary reactions for alkalies, viz.: it will turn reddened litmus paper blue,
and imparts a brownish red color to yellow turmeric paper. These test
papers are invaluable to the sugar manufacturer, and they may be had
of any druggist at a few cents cost for enough to last during the
season. They are prepared by extracting with water the coloring
matter of the commercial litmus, which consists of little clay pellets
saturated with the coloring matter of this lichen, and then wetting
strips of white unsized paper with the solution and drying them. The
turmeric is prepared from the powdered curcuma root of the shops,
which, extracted with alcohol, will give a yellow color to strips of
paper immersed in it, and then dried. These papers are best kept in a
stoppered bottle, and in the dark.

Lime is generally used in defecating saccharine juices in’ the form
of the milk or cream of lime, both being practically the same, except
that the latter is the stronger.

Cream or milk of lime is prepared by carefully selecting the best
specimens of well burned lime, and then slaking them with water,
precisely as though the preparation of a white wash for the walls was
the object. After slaking, it would be well to pour the whole through
a sieve, in order to remove any lumps which had not perfectly slaked.
Water is added in quantity sufficient to make, when thoroughly stirred
up, a thin cream or thick milk in appearance and consistence; hence
the name.

It may be kept for almost any length of time, as only a small portion of
it will suffer change from the carbonic acid of the air, by which such
portion is converted into the carbonate of lime. It is well to make, in
advance of the season’s work, a quantity sufficient to last through the
season, in order that a supply may be always at hand.

The effect of the addition of lime to the juice of sorghum or cane,
is to neutralize the acidity which these juices have in their normal
state. This change may be known by the effect produced upon the
test papers, the normal juice being without effect upon the yellow tur-
meric paper, but turning the blue litmus paper red. (In thus testing
a sample of juice, a slip of the paper two inches long and one-fourth inch
wide will suffice, and this should be moved about.in the juice, in order
to bring it in contact with different portions, and allow a few seconds
for the reaction to manifest itself.)

After adding the milk or cream of lime in quantity a little more
than sufficient to neutralize the acidity of the juice, it will be found
that the action upon the test paper's is to turn the yellow turmeric to a

DEFECATION. WITH LIME. 293

brownish-red, and the blue litmus to a purple or red, according as the
lime present is in less or greater excess.

The visible effect produced by adding the lime will be the formation
of a precipitate throughout the liquid, which was before comparatively
clear. This cloudy precipitate will be seen to gather itself in flocks,
and these will either slowly settle to the bottom or rise to the top of
the mass of juice, leaving at last the intermediate portion quite clear.
It will also be observed, that the green color of the juice will change
toa yellow (brownish-yellow), leaving the juice, after the separation
of the precipitate, of a light sherry-wine color.

The chemical effect of lime upon these saccharine juices is to decom-
pose the several salts of organic acids present, uniting with the acids
to form insoluble lime salts, which are precipitated. It is said also to
render certain compounds, which were soluble in the acid solution, in-
soluble, and thus effect their removal. It also, especially in connection
with the heat, effects the destruction of the germs of fermentation,
and thus keeps the juice sweet. It is, on this account, advisable that
the mill, and those vessels in which the juice is stored, should be, when
not in use, rinsed out with water, to which enough lime has been
added to render it a little milky.

DEFECATION WITH LIME.

After the preliminary filtering or settling of the juice, it is taken
into the defecator, and there receives the treatment with lime. The
defecator may be either round or square; may be heated hy steam
coils or by direct heat; although steam is much to be preferred. It is
desirable that it should be deep, so that the sediment and scum formed
by defecation may, together, occupy but a small section of the depth,
thus permitting a large proportion of the clear defecated juice to be
drawn off directly, without the necessity of being passed through the
filters. A defecator 4 feet wide, 5 feet long, and 33 feet deep, isa
convenient size, and would hold 500 gallons of juice. It should not
be filled more than about five-sixths of its capacity, in order to permit
the juice to be actively stirred about while adding the lime, and to
avoid the danger of overflowing when it is brought to the boiling
point. So soon as the steam pipes are well covered with juice, ora
sufficient amount has run into the defecator to more than absorb all
the heat of the steam or fire, the heat may be applied; and when
enough juice has been brought into the defecator, the tempering with
lime may begin. For this purpose, a bucket of the cream of lime, with
a dipper for ladling it out, an assistant, with a strong paddle, for stirring

294 SORGHUM.

up the juice, and several slips of fresh litmus paper, previously red-
dened by dipping them in fresh juice, should be right at hand.

The lime should be added gradually, with constant stirring, in order
that it may be thoroughly distributed through the mass of liquid, and
repeated tests are to be made with the litmus paper, until the reddened
litmus is turned purple, but not blue; since that would show that too
much lime had been added. The turmeric paper would show a faint
brownish-red, instead of the yellow, which is its color, in juice which
had received the right amount of lime. As the amount of lime which
is approximately correct will soon become known, the additions at
first may be more rapid than at the close; but, as the point of neutral-
ization is being approached, the greatest care should be exercised to
avoid an excess. Should too much lime be accidentally added, a little
more fresh juice may be brought into the defecator, although, with
care, this will very rarely be necessary.

Owing to the impossibility of having the samples of cream of lime
of the same strength, as also the difference in the acidity of juice, it is
impossible to lay down any exact rule as to quantity to be added; and
the good defecator will always proceed with caution, until experience
has taught him how to advance more rapidly. But, with an ordinary
defecation of from 300 to 500 gallons of juice, there is always ample
time to complete the additior of the lime before the boiling point is
reached. So soon as the proper amount of lime has been added, the
juice should be left at rest, and the heat increased to bring the whole
to the boiling point.

The following phenomena will appear in a good defecation: As the
temperature increases, a dark green scum will rise upon the surface,
and, if a portion of it is pushed aside, a heavy, floceulent precipitate
will be seen distributed through the clear and almost colorless juice.
The scum will increase in quantity, and gradually grow darker in color,
and more compact, resembling a thick ‘‘ blanket,” as it has been termed.
Shortly after, seams will form in the scum ‘‘cracking,” and here
and there the juice (now about reaching the boiling point) will bubble
up through points in these cracks, showing a perfectly white foam. So
soon as the boiling point is reached, and before the scum has been
broken up by boiling, the steam is wholly turned off, or the fire is with-
drawn. And here is one of the great advantages of steam, that the
heat may be almost instantaneously withdrawn. If direct heat is used,
care should be exercised that the fire be nearly through. by this time,
and the heat, at the last, urged by a few sticks of light wood, which
may be easily quenched. The object of preventing the boiling of the

DEFECATION WITH LIME. 295

juice, is to avoid the mixing up of the scum in the juice, as it is
now in a condition to be completely removed with almost no loss of
juice.

Many experiments have been made (as will be seen by reference to

ge 316) for the purpose of learning at what temperature the lime
should be added; and there appears to be no difference whether the
lime is added to the juice at the ordinary temperature, or at any point
under boiling. Owing to the possibility that the acids of the juice may
cause the inversion of some of the sugar after the heating is begun,
also in order to have ample time for adding the proper amount of lime
before the boiling point is reached, it would seem to be desirable to add
the lime as soon as possible after turning on the heat.

If an excess of lime is used, it will result in giving a darker color to
the juice and to the syrup produced from it.

After having withdrawn the heat, the contents of the defecator are
left at rest for from fifteen to twenty minutes, after which the scum
may be carefully removed by a large skimmer, pierced with holes not
over one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter; and this scum may be
emptied into a gutter, upon one side of the defecator, by which a a
run to the scum tank for future treatment.

The disposition of the skimmings will be discussed in the chapter on
waste products, page 376. It will be found possible to remove almost
every along of scum in this manner, with but little loss of juice.

It is, with many, the practice to fill the defecator with the fresh
juice, aod then, after liming, bring it to the boiling point, and letting
it boil gently, to sweep off the dense scum into a gutter attached to one
side of the defecator, which is about four inches lower than the other
three, so that whatever boils over shall be saved with the scum. This
method is very wasteful, unless the scum is treated by filters to recover
the juice lost, and is uneconomical, since it necessitates the filtering of
very much more juice. It is a practice, in short, having ae to
commend it.

After skimming the contents of the defecator, it will be found, when
the juice has fallen to a temperature of about 85°C. (185°F-.), that the
sediment has quite subsided, and occupies a depth of about two inches,
the defecated juice above being eee clear and almost colorless,
resembling a very pale sherry.

Such a result may be regarded as an indication of a successful defe-
cation. Too little lime will be indicated by a turbid, cloudy liquor;
and too much lime by 2 bright, clear juice, but darker color.

For the purpose of watching the progress of the precipitation of the
sediment, and to learn when it is completed, it is convenient to have

t

296 SORGHUM.

a strong open glass tube, cut square off at each end, with an interior
diameter of not over one-quarter of an inch. By carefully thrusting
this to the bottom of the defecator, while holding it upright, and then
after placing the finger firmly over the opened upper end and with-
drawing carefully, a good section may be taken out of the defecator
for inspection.

By having a series of cocks up and down the defecator at intervals
of six or eight inches, it will be possible to draw off the clear juice
from above the sediment, without waiting for its complete subsidence.
The last cock should be an inch or an inch and a half from the bottom
of the defecator, so that nearly all the juice may be drawn off without
disturbing the sediment. Finally, the sediment itself is drawn off, by
a cock in the lower part of the pan, which empties into a tank, the
same or similar to the one for the scum, and the juice remaining in it
may be secured by the bag filters or filter press.

By proceeding as above, it will be found practicable to secure the
juice so clear as to permit its going at once to the evaporators, without
being passed through any filter.

It has been the practice of many to draw the contents of the defe-
cator immediately after skimming into settling tanks, where it is al-
lowed to stand, as in the defecator; but it would seem desirable to
have two or more defecators in use, so that they may take the place of
settling tanks, and thus avoid the necessity of disturbing the juice dur-
ing the subsidence of the sediment.

The plates will illustrate some of the several forms of defecators in
use among sugar makers. See page 344.

OTHER AGENTS IN DEFECATION.
Effect of adding Water to the Juice during Defecation.

It may frequently happen, where the specific gravity of the juice is
very high, from 1.075 to 1.090 (10° to 12° Beaume), that, owing to
this great density, the precipitate will not subside in the process of
defecation, but will remain permanently suspended in the defecated
juice. As it has been found upon trial, that, during the process of
evaporation, this suspended matter was but partially brought to the
surface as scum, and remained in the syrup, giving it a disagreeble
appearance and taste, the experiment was made of diluting the juice
after defecation by adding buckets of cold water directly after having
removed the scum, and it was in every case found entirely satisfactory,
causing the sediment to subside, and only necessitating the romGual
of this additional amount of water by evaporation.

Fourteen experiments were made, with an average of about 1,000

OTHER_AGENTS IN DEFECATION. 297

pounds of juice in each experiment, and different quantities of water
were added, according to the density of the juice operated upon, vary-
ing from 10 to 35 per cent of the weight of the juice. In each ease,
the actual amount of sucrose and glucose present in the juice, and in
the syrup obtained from the juice, was determined, and it was found,
as an average of the fourteen experiments, that 90.4 per cent of the
sucrose, and 88.0 per cent of the glucose, in the juices was recovered
in the syrup—an amount of loss easily accounted for as indispensable
in the necessary operations of manufacture.

Action of Lime upon the Glucose and Sucrose in Juices during Evaporation.

The following experiments were made, for the purpose of determin-
ing the effect of lime upon the sucrose and glucose in juices during
evaporation, and will be studied with much interest by the sugar
maker, as the results are, in some respects, surprising and of very great
practical importance.

In the three sets of experiments, the results of which are given be-
low, a solution of the strength given, equal in volume to 2,000 ec. ¢.,
was placed in a large glass flask, and boiled in the open air over a gas
stove for several hours.

Samples were taken at first, and at intervals during the process of
boiling, and subjected to analysis. These samples were always taken
just after the evaporated water had been replaced. The amount evap-
orated was determined by graduations upon the side of the flask; but,
on account of the width of the column of liquid, it was difficult al-
ways to bring the solution back to the exact volume of the original,
and, doubtless, some of the irregularities recorded below are due to
this cause.

In each sample taken for analysis, the acidity or alkalinity, glucose
and sucrose, were determined, the sugars being estimated by the same
methods used in the analysis of juices.

In the series of experiments No. 1, no color appeared until sample
No. 5 was taken, at the end of four and a half hours’ boiling; the so-
lution then became gradually darker, until sample No. 8 was taken,
which was very much darker than sample No. 7.

No. 9 was still much darker, and then the coloration proceeded grad-
ually until the end, sample No. 11 being of a sherry-wine color.

In the series of experiments No. 2, there was a gradual darkening
of color till the end, sample No. 24 in this series resembling a dark
whisky in color.

In the series No. 5, sample No. 1 was colorless; No. 2 was dark-
brown, with a heavy precipitate. The color gradually darkened to the
end. Sample No. 12 was a very dark-red wine color.

298

SORGHUM.

EFFECT OF LIME DURING EVAPORATION OF JUICES.
Experiment No. 1.—No Lime added to Solution.

; S oie 3 3 é
on = if 3 3 2 g
aS) ui Eire = S 1 a
3 A Shaler qi = 5 3
No. of sample. a st, pat & & & z
sa oe) eee o o I =
4 =) Ss Z - =
2 es oS 3 a | n
ae: 3 aire = 3 3 S
ial o oO 1) n ie) 4
Hours. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Per cent.| Percent.
1s Sere eee alas | Mean ae 004 2.24 14.3 3s eee eee Ste
Digest eeasa Aeon Dio Wh ka Ase 3 005 2.88 14.22 29 1
ay a ° rb Ae | Miiinns ag -002 3.19 13 69 42 4
oe CREDO OREO ree Sale ena ee 2 002 3 55 3.00 538 9
3) gu Gaeoe et a SEaOe ats kane tere O04 4.73 12.13 111 15
Gide eer bey ee 002 8.83 8.35 294 42
Hess cea eas rene Ozer ae 009 12 13 5.53 442 61
Se Ser Ones Beer LEY Sil le eeeteoe 020 15.67 1.57 600 89
aan: Pero are en NGzesll Scere: 022 17.20 1.52 668 89
LOS meter: TSK se pee 029 18 70 SL 735 94
BLT fag TAS eee eae ae 22 032 20.3 00 506 100
Experiment No. 2.—A Little Lime added to Solution.
ado noe lonaone 0 -067 sate, Geert 2.34 20)-29). ||-.<,.f-cataca% el teens
7 lia tte PRS ALe Ae \% a Rs pare 2.38 19.61 2 3
Bid sag: Sen rae i SOR3 | serene: 2.43 19 57 4 4
ioe doc dauscdecéads 14g OST | eae ec 2.57 19 58 10 3
DE ERC AAA ASAE OA STE 2 MOBI S| Steere 2.66 18.16 14 11
(eh aS asco oeeeda tees 234 EODS'A-| Her Me 2 86 18.37 22 9
JEP ERRORS Score 4 JONAS | hess 3 44 17.88 47 12
BS eecieetrndiatiecine: cate 5% LOU S| Geet emccer 3 90 17.22 67 15
Peete eae 5M xT | eerie ree 3.95 16 68 69 18
Jt. eaeUCse Gone onae 7 LOU OAIS aeetees teen 5.08 14 94 117 . 26
cee ae afiiee ace 8i¢ 005 : 6 40 14 26 174 30
Tagua 5 gE at ee i a ADS leas fr 005 7.95 12.20 210 40
Oi ecigdas seen ee LB att Sees aes 013 10 28 10 45 339 49
ea einen enseetac TB tik a ek 020 12 50 8.66 434 57
OMon Rimcectre strana © IBY 9) cennodens 025 14.90 7.73 537 62
Lease orber ae tee fee Pe ae 029 15.68 5.18 570 74
ACE SELL cians erect HG Se Wfsaeeeerronc 03 16 73 4.44 615 73
a1 OE aah aa cae fied oh ee 036 17.28 De 638 88
AEE eres ie iN ee ee te 050 18.83 1.82 705 91
QO ere oneertomalelee'ela- Oa eps ae 072 20.73 0.38 786 98
Me Aare SOREN BOOS UA Meisel 063 20.3 0.40 768 98
PBs oye BOG PHS Os OF BE 2 esas 104 20.60 | —0.3 780 101
27 POG Sta SORLICE det pa eevee Ae = 115 21 80 —0.78 852 104
Pe. ae PQ oO Seto) 6 cSae | Gy). “iSebaceds 115 21.65 —0.05 825 100
Experiment No. 3—Much Lime added to Solution.
sl peste arate es ave eee 0 0 000 | Be Ae rae 2.31 14.76 | PE (tire os. ic
DES S AES a LS 0 AL OUSTE ||. Aac eee .28 6.60 87.9 55 38
Pee agent Siais ease res % SLL Ois | pues eiehee 10 6 56 95.7 55 6
2 licen BEC EME Ue 134 FS Ftc etter 07 6 66 97.0 549
DS eiaape leapt ete 3 PROD. |). ites .05 6 68 97.8 54.7
Gee Sasi iets 4\6 Zoid tice ctenee: OL 7.43 99 6 49.7
Hct eee 7% RBG Sill ene 02 aly 99.1 51 4
hs bb oh wae OU Ooms: 1044 PLAT | arse Seas & 04 6.93 93.3 53.1
HEP phopomeners kaa Je 1334 Pare PE oer on 04 6 63 98.3 535 1
IDO geeecgebudisocdes 1634 TUS tle esctocianind 02 6.94 99.1 53.0
1D ee awopsaes wees 18 1.321 02 6.77 99.1 54.0
Mien cnaieioe terse ectsia 22 TPIS (leis bono 7 7.18 97.0 51.4

OTHER AGENTS IN DEFECATION. 299

In considering the results of the above experiments, it will be ob-
served that, in the series of the first experiment, where no lime was
added, there was a continuous increase in the amount of glucose, and
a decrease in the amount of sucrose, as the result of the boiling. After
an interval of two hours, the actual Joss in sucrose was only .09 gram.
while the increase in the glucose was .64 gram.; but the .09 gram. su-
crose would furnish, by its inversion, only .0947 + gram. of glucose,
which is much less than the gain shown. It is probable that the com-
mercial glucose was composed of other compounds largely intermediate
between starch and glucose—compounds which would have no effect
upon Fehling’s solution, but which, by boiling, were readily converted
into glucose, or some copper-reducing compound.

The general result, however, is manifest, viz: the rapid and cen-
tinuous inversion of the sucrose present, until, at the close of the ex-
periment, sample 11 showed nosucrose present, and an increase of over
800 per cent in the amount of glucose.

The increase in the acidity of the solution is noticeable, amounting
to 800 per cent, and determined by the amount of lime required to
neutralize the solution, 1,000 c. c. requiring at the beginning only
.004 gram., but at the end of the experiment .032 gram. This increase
was by no means constant, but was most marked after about eleven
hours’ boiling.

In the series of experiments No. 2, where a small amount of lime
was added to the solution, the solution, at first alkaline, becomes, after
about nine hours’ boiling, slightly acid, and this acidity increases
steadily to the end of the experiment, until, at the end of thirty-five
hours boiling, the amount of lime necessary to restore neutrality is
twice as much as that originally added to the solution. After the so-
lution had become distinctly acid, the inversion of the sugar became
much more rapid.

Also, during the earlier periods of this experiment the amount of
glucose increases but slightly, although there is a gradual decrease of
sucrose. This is doubtless due to the fact, that the action of the lime
is mainly exerted in the destruction of glucose, as has been shown in
my reports to be true in experiments in sugar making from sorghum
and maize juices. ’

The practical point, however, to be observed is, that, so long as the
solution remained distinctly alkaline, there was but very slight loss in
sugar and slight increase in glucose, two desirable conditions in the
economical production of sugar from sorghum. And so svon as this
alkalinity was destroyed, through the formation of acid products during
the boiling, the inversion of sugar became rapid, and the accumulation

300 SORGHUM.

of glucose very marked. ‘These results are, obviously, most undesira-
ble in sugar making. The conclusion thus far would be, that the so-
lution should, during boiling, be kept slightly alkaline.

In the series of Experiments, No. 3, where a larger quantity of lime
was added to the solution, its effect at the outset was to remove from
tle solution as a precipitate about half of the sugar, and the remainder
during eighteen hours of boiling was found to be unchanged in amount; *
on the other hand, the action of this excess of lime upon the glucose
was very marked, effecting practically its destruction within two hours,
and producing from the glucose other compounds of high color, which
dissolved in the liquid and gave ita deep wine-red color.

It would appear from this last series of experiments that an excess of
lime has no action upon cane sugar, as has already been established,
and that its effect is to diminish rapidly the glucose present, and darken
the soJution.

The above experiments corroborate the results of practical working
with large quantities of juice, and explain fully the loss of the glucose
shown to be present in the fresh juices, but which was found in com-
paratively small quantity in the syrups manufactured from these
juices.

Effect on Juice of Standing after Defecation.

In the daily work at the Department of Agriculture, it became fre-
quently desirable to keep a supply of juice over night; and it was found
that, after defecating as usual with lime and heat, the juice could re-
main in the defecator without suffering any detriment. As this is a
matter of considerable practical importance in working up large
quantities of juice, especially if the work is not carried on through
the night, -by enabling one to have a fresh lot of juice for the evapo-
rator early in the morning, the following results of these experiments
are given, including the analysis of juice before defecation and after
standing over night in the defecator, of the syrups produced, and the
percentage of sugar present in the juice and obtained in the syrup. It
will be seen that the results show no effects fairly to be charged against
this mode of procedure.

OTHER AGENTS IN DEFECATION. 301
. EFFECT OF JUICE ON STANDING AFTER DEFECATION.
2 |
Oe Per cent Percent of
ES! Pounds Time in Pounds |snerose by| St cent ofjPer cent of| -olids not
EE! juice defecator water | polariza- | S/Ucos€ in} sucrose in| soear in
= 2 : added. tion. | SYTUP- syrup. sylup.
“*~-
e
/
1 627.5 |17_hours.... 105 30.91 16.15 45.32 | 12.98
2 WO 114-5 NODES. =... 1. --.-- eee. 32 40 28 00 38 05 13.45
3 682 15.3 hours. ... 126 606 | 18 00 38 00 | 15.40
4| 1,162.5 [15.5hours...-!....... .... 271 | 37.00 30.50 | 57
5 746 Li itt eh Ae a » 3B = 40 36.39 12.21
6 Posted LESS TO eae i arora 55.40 6.50 59.85 | 17.45
naar oe |
= Analysis of juice. |Analysis of juice after defe
ee cation.
= | Percent Per cent
== fa a glucose
ce | Percent} of juice | of juice
=| Percent} Percent} Percent | Percent) Percent} Ss ea a - bs
He! of glu- | ofsu- | of solids | of glu- | of su- | en ae AY SUS) ee
iS} cose. ecrose. | not sugar. | cose. ) erose. | snear )
: ’ ee
- SL Sant beat) Rear | Peat) ae pee wae | 98.7 | 965
<a ees pee re] eee Seat - | oa eee 3 ey ee Apna wee 98.5 783
il eT Ce we ees ae pee) ete ee eel PEE 5 ee ot Te ‘fois 71.8
7.10 7.26 1.19 8 40 7.43 1.72 $0.1 99 4
5 6.01 6.95 1 59 6.91 7.12 2.05 76.0 $1
6 1.79 14.29 3. 1.8 i 14.73 2.60 69.9 69.7

It will be seen that in those juices which were analyzed before defe-
cation, defecated and allowed to stand on an average of 15 hours,
there was no loss of sucrose sustained, and that the average of the 6
experiments showed that 85.1 per cent of both the sucrose and glucose
present in the juice was recovered in the syrup.

Use of Clay in Defecation.

In order to effect the more rapid and complete subsidence of the
lime precipitate produced by defecation, it has been the practice of
some sugar makers to mix, with the cream of lime, clay or finely pul-
verized gypsum (plaster), whiting, sulphate of baryta, ete., the object
being to entangle in the flocculent precipitate this heavier material,
and thus cause its more rapid subsidence. To accomplish this, the clay
or other material, isstirred up into a thin cream with water, and mixed
in with the cream of lime in proportion so that for each 100 gallons of
juice to be defecated there shall be added along with the lime about a
gallon of the clay or other cream. After skimming, as usual, the con-
tents of the defecator are allowed to stand, to be drawn off as in the

302 SORGHUM.

ordinary defecation, or the defecator is at once emptied into a sub-
siding tank where the defecated juice is left until complete subsidence
is effected, when the juice is drawn off for evaporation as usual.

Superphosphate of Lime.

The use of this compound has been very highly commended in defe-
cation. It is added in solution to the juice just before the neutrali-
- zation with lime. The superphosphate of lime forms, with some of
the lime which is added in liming the juice, an insoluble phosphate
of lime, which is readily precipitated, carrying with it the lighter sedi-
ment which would the more slowly settle. As superphosphate of lime
of a high grade may now be readily obtained in the market, a solution of
it in water may be easily prepared for use.

Alumina in Defecation.

The use of alumina, either as the sulphate, phosphate, hydrate, or in
other forms, depends upon its property of forming, when precipitated
from its solutions, a gelatinous mass, which mechanically entangles the
impurities rendered insoluble by heat and lime, and in its subsidence
carrying such impurities along with it. Its use in clarifying water for
the purpose of the laundry, depends upon this same principle.

The various forms in which it is used, are the sulphate (porous
alum so-called), and a mixture patented in England, over a half
century ago, known as ‘‘ Howard’s Finings,” which, patented in -
England, October 31st, 1812, by Edward Charles Howard, the in-
ventor of the Vacuum Pan, was largely used in the refining of sugar.
Similar mixtures are largely used in the United States. The ob-
jection to the use of alum is, that by it compounds of potash would
be introduced into the juice, the presence of which are very in-
jurious.

Howard’s Finings may be prepared, by boiling in a convenient vessel
thin cream of lime, until, after a few minutes, a sort of lime curd is
formed. Then, for each 100 gallons of juice, 2} pounds of alum are
dissolved in 6 gallons of water, and 3 ounces of whiting, finely pul-
verized, is added to the alum solution, the mixture being stirred until
all effervescence ceases. It is then allowed to settle, and the clear
liquor is poured off. To the residue from which the/liquor has been
drawn, enough of the curdy lime previously prepared is added, with
thorough intermixture, until a slip of yellow turmeric paper is just
turned a slight brownish red when placed in the mixture. Then, after
letting the mixture settle and pouring off any supernatant liquid, it is

OTHER AGENTS IN DEFECATION. 303

placed upon a blanket filter, until it has so far dried as to begin to crack,
when it may be kept for use in defecation.

The method of using this is, to mix it up into a cream and apply in
the amount above stated, using for each 100 gallons as much of the
finings as would be made from 23 pounds of alum.

The details of the process as given, in “‘ Sugar Growing and Refin-
ing,” are as follows:

The juice is strained before entering the defecator, and is then gently heated;
to each 100 gallons of juice, 2 ounces (more is necessary with sorghum juice)
of finely sifted quick-lime are made into a cream with water and added to the
contents of the defecator, with thorough stirring, and the heat is increased to
82° C. (180° F.), until a thick crust forms on the surface and shows a disposi-
tion to crack. This may take 15 to 20 minutes after the addition of the lime;
if it is very slow in forming, the heat may be raised to 93° C. (200° F.), but not
beyond. When the crust of scum has formed and shows signs of cracking, the
heat is withdrawn, and the juice is allowed to stand for 10 minutes, when it is
drawn off through a fine strainer into a second vessel, called the precipitator.
Here, again, the juice is heated up to the boiling point, but is not allowed to
boil, and the scum is removed as fast as it forms. The juice is then boiled for
10 or 15 minutes, with constant skimming, and then the “ finings”’ are added,
with stirring, and the boiling is continued for 2 or 3 minutes more, when the
juice is quickly run off into a subsiding tank, and allowed to rest for from 2 to 6
hours. It is generally then passed through charcoal filters, and thence goes
to the evaporators.

It will be seen that the ‘‘ finings ” are composed of a mixture of sul-
phate of lime, alumina, and lime, and that, in short, this mixture is
used after the removal of the scum of the ordinary lime defecation, to |
effect the more complete subsidence of the precipitate, which it does
mechanically.

Porous alum, an impure sulphate of alumina, prepared by dissolving 4
ounces of the salt in a gallon of water, and, after allowing it to settle,
pouring off the clear solution for use, is used in a similar way, for the
clarification of defecated juices and semi-syrups.

Basie alum and defecating compound are two forms of alumina recom-
mended by certain manufacturers. They are prepared, being practi-
cally identical, by adding to a solution of porous alum (crude alumina
sulphate) a solution of sal-soda in water, until a slight permanent pre-
cipitate is produced.

The materials are used in connection with the cream of lime in or-
dinary defecation, and also with the clay cream already referred to.

A solution of water glass, basic silicate of soda, has been recom-
mended—the gelatinous silica which is produced mechanically carrying
down the impurities.

The principal objection to several of these preparations is the intro-

304 SORGHUM.

duction into the syrup of the soluble salts of potash or soda, and their
use is not to be advised under any circumstances, unless solely by way
of experiment. Theyare nearly all based upon the principle of Howard’s
Finings, for which they are a very poor substitute.

The use of sulphate of alumina for the removal of the potash pres-
ent in the juices is, however, a most important matter, and is largely
used in beet sugar manufactories and the refining of raw sugars, the
potash being crystallized out as alum.

Lime-Sucrate Defecation.

In 1865, Boivin and Loiseau, of Paris, invented a process for the
refining of raw sugars and the defecation of juices, by a process which,
although complicated and requiring careful supervision, appears to
have given excellent results. It is known as the lime-sucrate process,
and the general procedure is as follows:

The freshly expressed juice is received into a tank, where it is agitated
with cream of lime, the amount of which is equal to from 1 to 2 per
cent of the juice. In this form, the juice will remain unchanged, and
may be kept even for weeks, if desired.

When thoroughly agitated, the limed juice is treated with carbonic
acid (obtained from the lime-kiln or coal furnace) in large tanks, which,
owing to the frothing up of the juice in this operation, are filled to
only one-fourth or one-fifth their capacity, and by means of revolving
stirrers, it is kept in agitation during this process.

When the frothing ceases, the addition of carbonic acid is discontin-
ued, and a portion of the juice is now tested by boiling for a few min-
utes and filtering. If the filtrate is of a pale straw color, and the pre-
cipitate upon the filter is not too gelatinous, indicating that not enough

arbonic acid has been added, or too granular, showing that too much
has been added (in the latter case, the filtered juice would be of a
darker color), the operation is successful.

The es aimed at is to introduce sufficient carbonic acid to nearly
precipitate t he lime present, and yet to leave enough in combination
with sugar in the form of sucrate of hydro-carbonate of lime, that, in
the boiling of the juice, the flocculent precipitate produced may carry
down the impurities of the juice. This, then, is the critical point of
the whole operation. When it is found that the lime remaining dis-
solved in the juice is the right amount, the juice is boiled rapidly for
a few minutes, and a pricipitate is thrown down containing nearly all the
impurities of the juice.

It is now filtered by means of filter presses, and the juice, which,
after filtering, should be of a light straw color, is again treated with

SULPHUROUS ACID AND SULPHITES IN DEFECATION. 305

carbonic acid, to remove the lime which remains and which was not
thrown down by the first treatment with carbonic acid nor by the
boiling. It is then boiled, passed through bag filters, after having
stood in the subsiding tanks for the subsidence of the carbonate of
lime, and is ready for concentration. In expert hands, the process
is most highly commended. Details may be found in ‘‘ Sugar Growing
and Retining.”

SULPHUROUS ACID AND SULPHITES IN DEFECATION.

The employment of this re-agent in the defecation of saccharine
juices was suggested by Proust, in 1810, and has been very general,
and the results attending its use seem to justify it. This gas is the
product of burning sulphur, and is readily made available by burning
sulphur in such a way that the products of the combustion may be
drawn from the furnace and brought in contact directly with the juice,
or with water, in both of which the gas is very soluble.

The bleaching properties of sulphurous acid are well known; and it
is, owing to its tendency to unite with oxygen to form sulphuric acid,
one of the most powerful deoxidizing or reducing agents. It is also,
by some, regarded as an antiseptic (preservative), and as a disinfec-
tant; but whatever action it may have in this way is probably due
to its removal of the oxygen of the air, and the destruction of the pro-
ducts of decomposition by its reducing power.

It will readily dissolve in water, one volume of water at 27° C.
(81° F.) dissolving about 30 volumes of the gas, or at 21° (70° F.)
38 volumes, and at 16°'C. (61° F.) 45 volumes; so that it may, by
being disselved in water, be easily prepared and kept for use, the only
precaution necessary being to keep it in closely corked bottles, or
- casks, so as to exclude the air, the oxygen of which will unite with it,
and, in time, convert it entirely into sulphuric acid, a substance which
exercises the most injurious action upon sugar by converting it into
glucose.

Sulphurous acid may be readily prepared by the reduction of sul-
phuric acid (oil of vitriol) by means of charcoal, according to the
following re-action:

Sulphurie acid + Charcoal = Water + Carbonic acid + Sulphurous acid.
2(HG0,): +°, a .—3H.0+ ‘00,’ +" > 3803
Or, by weight, as follows;

Sulphuric acid +Charcoal = Water + Carbonic acid + Sulphurous acid.
196 parts + 12parts = 36 parts + 44 parts + 128 parts.

20

306 SORGHUM.

The apparatus used by the author for making this solution of the
gas, consisted of a small-sized hot water tank for kitchen range, about
forty inches long and ten inches diameter. Into this, powdered
chareoal and oil of vitriol were put, and the sulphurous gas passed
through iron gas pipes into a wash bottle containing oil of ‘vitriol, and
from thence into a barrel nearly filled with water. A safety tube was
connected with the wash bottle, to prevent any possible rushing back
of the water into the generator in case of the withdrawal of the heat.
By this apparatus, a barrel or two of the solution may be made in a
short time, and at an expense of not over seventy-five cents per barrel.
For two barrels of the solution there would be required seventy-five
pounds of oil of vitriol and seven pounds of powdered charcoal.

When the sulphurous acid is for immediate use, and when steam is
used, the use of the sulphur box is the most convenient form. This
may be easily constructed by anybody, and consists of a wooden box
three or four feet high and from two to three feet square, with ten or
twelve partitions, slightly inclined, and reaching nearly across the box
from side to side, so that the juice, entering the box at the upper end,
flows across the upper partition and, falling upon the second, flows back
under the place of entering, and then falls upon the third partition,
and thus, running back and forth over the partitions, and. falling from
each in a thin sheet, is thoroughly exposed to the fumes of sulphurous
acid, which enter by a pipe, placed between the second and third parti-

tions from the bottom, from a small furnace of iron near the box, to .

which the pipe acts as a chimney. Into this furnace small bits of roll
brimstone, or flowers of sulphur, are placed from time to time, the burn-
ing of which produces the sulphurous acid. A sliding door to the fur-
nace determines the amount of air admitted to the burning sulphur,
and therefore regulates the rapidity of the combustion and the amount
of sulphurous acid produced. The draught to the furnace is produced
by a steam-pipe, which enters the sulphur box two or three partitions
above that where the pipe from the sulphur furnace enters.

Generally, it is found that from two to six ounces of sulphur are
sufficient for five hundred gallons of juice; so that, after having ascer-
tained the amount of sulphur necessary, the draft to the furnace may
be so adjusted as to give the requisite quantity.

Six ounces of sulphur will give gas enough to saturate four gallons
of water at 27°C. (81°F.) ; so that, if the solution is used instead of the
gas direct, the relative amount to be used may be easily ascertained.

The treatment of the juice with sulphurous acid, and then leaving it
from six to ten hours in the settling tanks, has already been mentioned
as being successful in the removal of a large amount of impurities;

—

SULPHUROUS ACID AND SULPHITES IN DEFECATION. 307

and it is claimed that the sulphurous acid renders certain of these im-
purities of the juice insoluble, and thus effects their removal in the set-
tling tanks. This is a matter requiring and deserving very careful
investigation.

The general use of sulphurous acid is, however, in the sulphur box,
where the freshly expressed juice, on its way to the storage tank and
immediately previous to its defecation with lime, is charged with this
gas; or the juice, after defecation and the separation of scum and sedi-
ment, is treated with the sulphurous acid, until the juice, which had
been rendered slightly alkaline by the lime, is rendered acid again.

The addition, at this stage, changes the color of the defecated juice,

bleaching the color which still remains, and greatly improving the
appearance of the juice. Any excess of the acid which may be added
is removed readily during the evaporation, since the gas is very
volatile.
’ Any small quantity of sulphuric acid which may be present in the
sulphurous acid used, will be rendered harmless by the slight excess of
lime present, and will form the insoluble sulphate of lime, which may
be removed as sediment or skimmings in the process of manufacture.
So far as the results of the author’s experiments go, there appears to
be no choice in the two methods, above described, of using the sul-
phurous acid ; and, indeed, it seems that the advantages claimed for it
are greatly over-estimated. It is certain that, by prompt working of
the cane, the results, without its use, have proved as satisfactory as
with it. In case of delay in working up the juice, it would appear that
the use of the gas as a temporary antiseptic is beneficial. It is prob-
ably true that, by its oxidation, it forms sulphuric acid, which, with
the soluble potash salts present in the juices and retained by the syrup,
forms the comparatively insoluble sulphate of potash, a salt which has
been found not to retard the crystallization of the sugar in the syrup.

At the large sugar factory at Aba-el-Wakf, in Egypt, the juice was
first treated with sulphurous acid previous to the liming, and the re-
sults showed excellent returns in sugar; but it does not appear that the
good results were due any more to the use of sulphurous acid, than to
the many improved appliances of this famous mill. It must be
remembered, that the bleaching by sulphurous acid is only temporary,
the color being only masked, but not destroyed; so that the ap-
parent action of this reagent is very deceptive, and not comparable
with that of bone-black, which completely removes the color from the
juice or syrup.

308 SORGHUM.

Bisulphite of Lime.

This compound, so called, exists neither in theory nor in practice; but
the name has long been applied to the salt produced by the union of.
lime and sulphurous acid, the only chemical compound of which is the
sulphite of lime known commercially as the bisulphite. It may be
had in quantity at a few cents (five to seven) per pound, and contains
about 30 per cent of sulphurous acid (if chemically pure, it should con-
tain 534 per cent), and, owing to its comparatively low price and great
convenience in handling, is the most available form in which sul-
phurous acid may be used by the sugar manufacturer. This salt is
practically insoluble in water; but is soluble in a solution of sulphurous
acid, and is said to exist in such solution as the bisulphite, which in
effect it is, and in such solution it is largely prepared and used by
sugar makers. In using this re-agent in defecation, the acid of the juice
will liberate the sulphurous acid, and give practically the same results
as by the use of the gas.

Many experiments were made with a mixture of slaked lime and
commercial sulphite, using the same in precisely the manner of using the
lime in defecation. The mixture contained 153 per cent of sulphurous
acid, 50 per cent of dry slaked lime, and the remainder moisture, sul-
phate of lime, and other impurities.

For comparison, certain experiments were made with the calcium
sulphite alone, and the results are given at the end of this chapter.

EXPERIMENTS IN DEFECATION.

During the season of 1882, there were made, in all, seventy-eight
experiments in defecation, using the following re-agents: Hydrate of
lime, calcium sulphite, and a mixture of these two. The results of
these experiments are given in detail in the following tables:

In table A, is given the variety of sorghum used in each experiment;
and it will be seen that the new African varieties were used in eight
of the experiments, the new varieties from India in five experiments,
and different varieties grown in this country for the remaining sixty-
five experiments. In each case, for purpose of comparison, the analy-
sis of the juices is given. In most cases, each sample of juice analyzed
was used for several experiments in defecation, and the syrups, in each
vase, were also analyzed.

In Table B, the details of each experiment is given, and the charac-
ter of the different syrups produced. |

In Table C, are given details of fourteen experiments in defecation

EXPERIMENTS IN DEFECATION. 309

of the juice and manufacture of syrup and sugar, which were carried
through quantitatively.

By reference to Table A, it will be seen that the average compo-
sition of the juices in the seventy-eight experiments, and of the syrups
made from them, is as follows:

Juices. | Syrups.

RECO RSG LONe tH, LObaL BOLUS. S25, 4.52 5 Seas cognate eee ss 76 06 81.88
Per een micaner tt babal SOUS at wise) ek Se sciee nani Cena ok eee eee 8.3: 7.56
Per cent solids, not sugar, in total solids............... Pee Pe Sonne ee 15 56 10 58
Per cent available sugar in total solids.....................-..5.. | 52.13 63.81

From the above it appears, that, in the preparation of these syrups,
there was an increase of 7.65 per cent in the relative amounts of su-
crose, and of 22.45 per cent in the relative amounts of available sugar,
over the relative amounts present in the juices from which the syrups
were made, while there was a relative decrease of 9.79 per cent in
the glucose and of 39.20 per cent in the solids not sugar.

As it is, for the purpose of sugar production, most desirable to de-
crease, as much as possible, the relative amounts of glucose and other
solids, not sugar, in the syrups (or, what is equivalent, to increase the
relative amount of sugar in a syrup), the above results are obviously very
satisfactory. But these results do not show what proportion of the
sugar present in the juice was actually recovered in the several syrups.

In table C, it will be seen that, as an average of the fourteen experi-
ments, there was found, of each constituent in the several juices, and
in the syrups made from them, the following parts, by weight:

In juices. | In syrups.

|
RM GTORG seni t ean bes cae te ee es oe ee io. ti PLB Pe 2 1,151 1,036

CIMCON Create en Sie eats Blanca MASSE reels bel fea Bee OS a aieu sen acess 149 108
Solids, not sugar......... Paste sete yea oY les 6 sen fe aaa ae eee 294 128
VET DICT areca t tek ho ure naioe er oes 28.55 by apie gall ee dat ae vii 800

In other words, there was a loss of 10 per cent of the sucrose, of
27.52 per cent of the glucose, and of 42.86 per cent of the solids not
sugar, and a gain of 2.83 per cent in the amount of available sugar
present in these syrups, as compared with the actual amounts present
in the juices from which they were made.

The recovery, then, of 90 per cent of the amount of sugar present
in the juices of sorghums, and an actual increase in the amount of
available sugar, is conclusive evidence that these juices may be manip-

310 SORGHUM.

ulated with as great economy as are the juices of sugar-cane, if only
due care is exercised.
- Of course, this loss of 10 per cent of the sugar is due to such portions.
as are lost in the scum and sediments of defecation, and in the skimming
‘necessary during the evaporation to syrup. As these experiments were
necessarily upon a very small scale, using rarely, for each experiment,
more than a quart of juice (since, as has been mentioned, our entire
plat of sorghum, of sixty-four varieties, only equaled two-ninths of an
acre), it is fair to presume that the losses sustained by working such
small amounts were much greater in proportion than would be neces-
sary when working with larger quantities.

By reference to page 61 of the Annual Report for 1879, it was said,
as the result of certain experiments that year:

We may hope, then, to secure in syrup 90 per cent of the crystallizable sugar
present in the juices operated upon.

And in the Annual Report for 188182, page 500, it is said of the
experiments made in 1881:

The results show, that, in the forty experiments made, the amount cf
sucrose recovered in the syrups, was 87.5 per cent of the actual amount in
the juice.

There remains only to speak of the character of the syrups produced
in the seventy-eight experiments following. In Table B, a column
is given, which describes the physical character of the several syrups
made, and, as will be seen, in nearly every case, crystals of sugar were
present, while, in a very large number, the syrup was a semi-solid
mass of sugar and molasses.

In the fourteen experiments which were made quantitatively, eleven
of the syrups were a solid mass of crystals ; in two of them, two-thirds
of the syrups was semi-solid with sugar; and in the remaining sample,
the syrup contained a few crystals of sugar, but the analysis showed that
this one had not been evaporated quite to the point of good erystalli-
zation. All of the seventy-eight experiments were made by open pan
evaporation.

As evidence of the character of the juices used in these fourteen
experiments, it will be seen that their average analysis was:

Specific gravity, 1.0786.

Per cent.
SUCROS Greiner eateries c= she's ois proumec viernes own lovee ne pao Lo eee 13 646
GINICOSE Tae Pee saan cals a ierainveree byeras Bee ee ee Bioicioe ois oR OSE Mee DAL Ta eee 1 696
SOMES mn Ot- Suga Mere scsies sec 02s stumsietselne cles er cee eee nee oe Oa,
POATIZ AOA oe ie ns, oon Soe ta deter ie re eiclaiey Ghats a) onetod SERN Sede 138 .048
AVaAADLE (SUP Area ci tice sc sae sseatee tart asinew.e dae taco emrem ae een 9.298

And the per cent of syrup made from the juices averaged 20.85.

EXPERIMENTS IN DEFECATION. lal

The average composition of the juices used in the seventy-eight
experiments, was as follows:
Specific gravity, 1.077.

Per cent.
BUCROSGro se eve tesleto tls tee Sac AEC OSEE walalee a dale atastelnie ais aietaie = alee aetel ele cil >>
GIWGGSET ascee ce nteeteess nce. x0 NERO C OLD DCE SEES EAPO C OSB OHO COC Ere oa lel iy
BOMAS UME SUPA sec ests,< ors.n. ct <lo'e Sbardobdonoeresece stcomnarcecoccenme: oie
POMMIZAMNOMEES owas Gas oats cioe.s was Seoadncca osses siees ciiiclasiwnceinrelsisinacis ge

Available SUSEL. cccrcccecvverevcveeerere reese rotors eee ercererereee

312

2 Variety.
ts

os]

j=)

=

Sal

co)

)

a

605) Wihitesiiberian! 7.2 -tat0--cs-.--

O06 | ME strbyoAmn pene enaeaya se eee tee:
707} Mixed juices from rows 25, 33,34
ZOOMWEST UGTA res. cl lee cist rerccs cee
HHS | REC CUSOLENO:. « warcleore nce cle foresee
wos Want @udia.)20ecn ys ee ack
809 Pores Mes ecaaacist owe le inelemetes

821 ss POD OCDOOCOCCIME DONATE fe
834 as codogdntdccasocoodsacnse
851 ee aalsie tayeciiaisials See erelaieree

866 sf aslesistelopne seveeis aretsiereeterctes
882 st Malelale eietelolels cisiaave ciate, eer
895 SSM) # Mate chetocPicareaGeies © ves nace
910) New variety, E. Link..........
970 ss Soe TE rariciteete a3
983 ee LO RASS oe
995 af SO wea eise ese:
1008 ee Lo Tans nore
1021) Standard, T. O. Harrell........
1045 ae Pe, WLR ARCS

SORGHUM.

Seed hard, sucker in hard dough|58 28/1.079/1.

“ce

“ce

Seed hard, sucker in dough....

ity

Development.

%é

“

6é

TasLeE A.—EXPERIMENTS

Per cent of solids not
sugar. :

Per cent. of juice.
Per cent of glucose.

Specifie gravity.
| Per cent of sucrose.

No rb b
OT
oon

~
oO

.27 112.34] ¢

59 .85}1.074/1.73 |12.51

59.15}1.078|1.72

85

58 .64}1.079)2.

59.24|1.074|2

57 .46\1.078}2 .06

58 .62|1.074|2.09 2.68

14.78) 2.88

58 .72|1.079

15.17} 3.28

14.20) 3.18

53 .68/1.083] . 14.64) 3.81

57 .98|1.072|1.50 |12.62) 2.50

51.63}1.080 16.17) 3.15

52.36/1.080 15.14] 3.02

an

EXPERIMENTS IN. DEFECATION. 313

IN DEFECATION,

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6 | 52| S88] 38] SS) 52] o | # | 8] 3] 5) 52] S| 52] 38] 58] sz] 52
ep] [eo |e fee dee le | et toa fe | epee | ee le lee tee le ey

11.81] 8.20175 .59| 7.12|17.29|51.18| 623] A B |1.072| 9 40/48.45/12.95/48 60/26 .10/68.43/13 28/18 .29|36.86

12 64| 9.58/78 54| 5-96/15.49/57.09| 624| A B |1.070| 5.65/52 30] 6.45/52 41/40 20181 21 8.77|10 o2\62 42

12.44/10 .29182.83| 9.76| 7.40|65.67| 708... 1.070|11 30/46.74| 5.20/44 31/30 24|73.91|17 .87| 8 20/47 2

761| A |1.066| 7.34/50.62| 5 84\52.50/37.44|79 34/11 50| 9 1515869

12.93] 9.18]75 42/11 .29|13.29/50.84 762| B_ |1.070| 6 10/47.03/10.15|50 87/30 78\74 32| 9 62/16 04|48 66

763| C |1.069| 5.20/48.07| 9 17|50.38133 7076 98| 8 33/14 69153 96

( 778} A |1 076] 4.00/54 34] 8.70/54 43/41 64/81 06] 5.96/12 98l62 0D

| 779| B [1 071] 3.80|51.11| 8.69151 .68|38 62/80 36] 5 97/15.46\58 73

12.71| 7.90|73.54| 7.57|18.89|47.08|2 780/ © |1.071] 3-65/48.69| 9 94/49 81/35 10/78 18] 5.86/15 96156 36

| #1) D- ]L 072} 4.35)51.16) 8.69/91. 84l38 12/79 69] 6 77118 54la0 38

782| E. |1.074| 4.30153 39| 8.07/53.62/41 02181 19| 6 54/12 07|62.38

794, A |1.071| 6 25/49.64| 9.19152 16/34 20/76 28| 9 60\14 19152 56

12.57| 8.75/74.96/11.64)13.41/49 91 795| B [1.073] 6.50|51 49] 7.87152 81137 .12\78.18] 9 87\11 95/56 36

796| C |1.071| 5.75/48.69|11 68150 38131 26/73.64| 8 69/17 66/4729

( Slo} A |1.072| 6 85]52°87/ 6 75/95. 57)89 25/79 58)10.0/10.17)50 06

ys 811 B_ |1.068| 6.75150 59] 6 70/53 22137 .14/79 00/10 54110 46158.00

12.52) 8.00 |78.60 | 10.16 26.83 47.014 o55! G |1-068| 6 20/49.50| 8 10/52 33135 20/77 _59| 9 72/12 egla5 18

\ 813} D_ |1064| 6.05/46 98) 6.93/48 84/34 00/78 35/10 09/11 56156 70

; s22| A |1.065| 5.15/51 92| 7.13/54 43/39 64/80 87] 8 02I11 1116174

12.96 8.93)74.57| 9.47/15.9649 14 823| B |1.070| 5 40\51 49| 7.35/55 57/38.74/80.15| 8 41/11 44160 30

824] C |1.069| 5.05/51 06] 7.25|53.78/38 76/80 59| 7 _97\11 44|61.18

f 837] A |1.067| 5.75]49.26| 5.83/91 10\27 6S|80 07) 9 4] 9 Sel61 94

‘ see 838| B_ |1.066| 5 45/47.64| 723/51.19|34 96/78 98] 9 .03/11.99157.96

12.91) 8.74/74.01/10.16)15-82)48.03)) ¢36] G |1 070] 5 30/48 74| 9.84/49 90/33 60l76 291 8 30/15 40152 99

840| D |1.067| 5.80/50.26| 4.60/53 30/39 86/82 _86| 9 56) 7 58l65.72

$52} A |1 O68) 6 25/48.97) 7.10/98. 14/35 62/78 o8}10 3/11 30)57 16

Blt ocl -lie gol} 853 B |1.070| 6.30/51.02] 6 28153.95|38 44/80 22] 9.90] 9 ssl60 44

12.85) 8.47/73 41/11.72)14.87/46 82 J 854| © |1.067| 6.15|/47.83| 7.30|53.70)34 .38|78 05/10 04|11 91|56.10

| 855; D |1.069| 6 .55/58.76| 7.33/52.81/44_88)80 .89| 9 02/10 09/61 78

867| A |1.072| 7.90150.16] 6 50|55_24|85 .76|77 70/12. 24/10 .07/53..39

11.88| 7.05|70.58|13.37/16 .06|41.05) 868] B |1.073| 7 65(50.68| 6 31/55.24136.72|78 40|11 $3] 9 77156 80

869] CG |1.067| 6 95/47.55| 6.13/52.49|/34 _42\78 .36(11 45/10 1815673

F 883] A |1.068| 6.50/48_93| 7.13/51 .84|35 .30|78 21/10 39|11 40156 42

12.66| 7-54|70.71|11.32/17.97|41.42 884] B |1 070| 6 40/49 97] 7.71/52 97/35 86/77 .98| 9.99112 03155 96

885|. C |1.071| 6.45151.16| 8 03(53.70(36.68\77 .94| 9 83|12.98155 88

( $96] A [L071] 7 15)51.44) 5 25]59.73139 04/80 ss}11 20) 821/61 47

SRS Re ee os -|! so7| B |1.075| 7.10153 20] 7.3415 76178 .65|10 .49|10 85|57 31

12.07) 7.57)72.12)12.21/15 .66/44.25)< 208! G |1069| 6 90/48.83| 8.27152 41/33 66/76 30/10. 78112 99/59 60

| 99] Dp |1 069] 7.05/49 83| 7.00/52.08|35 .78|78 01/11 03/10 96|56 02

( 211) A |1.067| 2.90)95.01) 4 25)54 92147 -86ls8 90) 4.65] 6 85/77 00

¢ = salzq ox|! 912} B /1.074| 3.10158 43] 6.83/60.75/48 .50\85.47| 4.54] 9 99/70.94

14.69/11 .01)79.68} 4.80/15 .53/59.35) 4 O12! G {1 065] 2.10151-97| 6.85/52 25/43 02185 31| 3 .44/11.24/70 68

914 D |1.064| 2.65/56.95| _92/52.33/53 88l94 10] 4.381 1 52/88 20

971| A |1.068| 2 05155 15| 7.00156 86/46 .10|85.91| 3.1910 90/71.82

15 .06|11.27|79.55| 3.25/17.20|59 10 972| B_ |1.069| 2.05/57.43| 524/56 70150 .14|88 741 3.17| 8 09/76 48

973 G |1.070| 1.90|56 91] 6 11/57 92148 90|87.66| 2.93] 9 41/75 30

984] A |1.067| 2 30/53.68| 6.82155 24/44 56185 48] 3 66/10 86170 90

15.19| 9.29/74.31| 9.05/16 64|48 62 ; 985| B |1.072| 2.45157_81| 6 66158 64/48 70186 39| 3 66] 9 95172.78

986] GC |1.065| 2.30153 39! 6.55/54 11/44 _54185.78| 3 70/10 52/71.56

- 996] A |1.070| 2.15/56.91| 5 28156 70/48 38188 13] 3.39] 8 48|76 26

14.95| 9.98]75.85| 4.41|19.74|51.70 997| B_ |1.070| 2.15|56.72| 6.09/36 70/47 48187 14| 3 36] 9 5217426

998| GC |1.072| 2.15/57 62| 6 51/57 83/48 96/86 92| 3.26] 9 .83/73.83

2 1009] A |1.069| 4 .65|52.87| 5 64153.46/42 58183 71| 7 36] 8 94167 41

12.29) 8.62/75.94| 9.03/15.04|51.37 Soro B_ |1.066| 4.605083] 6 53/51 03/39 70/82 04| 7 42/10 54\64 08

1011] G |1.069| 4.95/52 11| 4.54151 68142 62184 59| 8 03| 7 37/69 19

1022} A |1.081| 1.40\64.03| 7.37|66 42155 .26|87 95| 1 92/10.13175 90

15.44|11.63|81.08| 2.09|16.83|62.16 fioxs B_ |1.076| 1.45|62 94] 5.53|63 67/55 16/90 02| 2 07| 7 91/80 04

1024 G |1.076| 1 45\63 22) 6 65/64 .80/55.12|88 64| 2 03| 9.32177 99

1046] A |1.075| 1.95/63 41| 7.16/63 83/54 30/87 43| 2 69| 9 .87/74.87

15.00|11.61/81.09| 2.79/16 .12\62 18 Sos B_ |1.075| 1.65|63.70| 6.57/64 80\55.48|88 57| 2 29] 9.13/77.15

1048] CG |1.075| 1.85|64.36| 7.67/64 .64/54 .84|87.11| 2.50/10.38174.28

314 SORGHUM.

TasLeE A.—EXPERIMENTS

JUI

Be hs?

o Oo

{| \8) aie

a Variety. Development. {2 3) ee

is oo > an n a

tn) Sal Ss aH bal onl

3 ° aa ° ° °
a ~ 3 ~ ele,
S i=) S Ax
pe o & ® a
° Ones cS) o | Som
S 8 | 8 |S poole

7, Ay mM Ay Aa | A
1058} Standard, T. O. Harrell........ Seed hard, sucker hard.......... 48.70|1.078} .58 {14.85} 2.82
1071| New variety, R. Haswell. .... ss aes eae 50.72|1.074|1.99 ]12.79] 2.62
1084| Chinese Imphee, W. A.Sanders s¢ es wa etre 48 .45|1.078/1.95 |12.98] 2.96
1093} Undendebule, Natal........... Ks . Baeneontss 48 .56/1.085}1.12 |15.47] 2.21
1102 <5 Se Venadnéasous aS ae wrelaelsiere nies 50.67|1.079]1.33 |13.90) 2.72
1109} Hlogonde, A—Natal............ Uo as Socrates 49 .47|1.077/2.09 |12.99} 2.65

PASV TELS Geeta erate metal ieteteretareteietat ae alate oielatalatel fe etefalelelelefalelalofeisiersretorersa eis] (eet 1.077}1.148}13.55} 2.79

=

315

EXPERIMENTS IN DEFECATION.

IN DEFECATION.— Continued.

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“Spifos [wo7) Up aus SERZGH SEL eISERSEe be
JOU SPI[Os JO Jud dog | DOW S SIDS NIN 00 1 S ap 1G) S
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Up OsOON LS Jo YUO9 dod MHDSSSAAMHHHOCHAH | ts
‘SPLLOS [WyOF RACES ASASEARREGRA | B
Uy OFOLONS JO JUoo dog RESREASEEY ‘ B= 1 G1 kD ot x
OTGU[PUAN Je ene yuan Jo 1009 toa | ie cugeaes jeayespenes |
me NS Sd | RAST ARsR Re gees St
yu90 cod MOTuZavpod ws ARBRE GACASSERSES a &
ai Bisse RisBsedsee Siprrrrtiee 1B
ft Udy SHSABSSERSRBIAESE a
wt | JOU SPTLO# JO 4udd Log HD IS Is OD I 00 Or HID aH HIN D OY
‘OHOAONS JO WULOO dog a RAR SRABLSLS Basas | :
SBSERSRA TH ar a
‘OSOON[T JO JL09 Og | RAGBARERSESRSSLRR 8 | Z
cFh OAT fib tS eo seg iu gma Gol
“AVAL OYoodg | BECZE 35s SEEEZECZE Bie
frp frre ‘
‘quoutptodxy | 4aRortmodmoamoamgamgo i
BeSeerrs ae
‘HISA[TUUU JO ‘ON | SEECCE 222288255 EE |:
ee Oe ae pimlve
*SPI[O8 [WIO) UL aang x =] Z ee ae) pice
O[GU[PBAU JO JU dod a i et a | ol
“SPL[OS [QO Up aaa or & ig ee ee) is
JOU KPTLOS JO JUOe dog 19 rr err 9 xt | 19
“HPILOS [WIO} a 3 & & GR %
uy OSOOULA JO JUO0 Lo tn 4 S tat cite 4 wo
‘SPI[OS [WI oS 8 & 8 & & &
UP OSOLONS JO FUOO 107 5 69 “ ar # “©
“udus Unie Ail eee Ree Ge] a
OLGU[IVAR JO FUdD dog 4 ton “te yom w | a
| “WMoo dod ‘uopyuzyupod | S 3 si Be i 8 | a
a) =" FF A 8 A AO eB

ee

316 SORGHUM.
TasLe B.—EXPERIMENTS
wi a
° 2%) How defe-.| Neutral or alka- Scum Character of Precipitate | Juice after
Se cated. line. ‘ precipitate. | settled or not.| defecation.
5
(OSI aS Os. een aler nsec sect ents Tittle se. se. 5 Light; flocculent/Not settled|/Light green.
without water
161 GaSOsrnssaes| Bee ee ankeee eee Heavens) see Very light; floe |Settled well.... Yellowish
culent. green.
ne CaS Oe ere reiee. tears otetslelelsiesialfer <r Ove | Lact t OCCULEIb|.4-- states aera Gotaess
“'763|Mixture..... Strongly alkaline.|...... d0;e7.5" Heavy neers ee Settled well...|Da rk wine -
color.
W18\CaSO2--iCa Neutrals 22. eesc casos dokess.|ce-ere GOrasegecul woke s do.......:|Dark brown
(OH)2. eolor.
779|CaSO08+Ca0.|. .2..d0.......02 +0. peers CLO septa He flocculent} ..... Osean COs
780}CaSO8. ...... Bee Oue Lee met Hittle ye ECO MEE. Sais: Settlediay:) 6 Yellowish
green.
TOL CAS Oss Rome aac ace me cicee aoe Heavysetsie: |e esecc Goes Not settled... .). 2... GOt. Goa
VOZKCASOSmectaaetl| ete oe ee eee eal elect Go;S2os|\) ase. doh a... | Notsumtilinert-|e eee do:cas
tralized.
794/CaSO8. ...... Neutralized) vatten|@s2.. dO... + -|ine-- tC On. ete 4 Jade VAOss easier Turbid; gray
defecation.
GOO UO cat lsre meme tt (lO R erecta yaaa (eae (lle eae esearch CORSE oleic Olen Grayish
brown. |
196 CAS OPae ei reEril eactes Oe fice ees leroees ce do......|Heavy; whitish|...... Co Ko nape Turbid:;gray-
green. ish brown.
810) Mixture..... Slightly alkaline..}...... do......,Heavy; light|Settled atonce| Dark brown.
green.
cohllill ees eia (GOabac GU tw ass yet aerd||ae See GOw seal soce. GOR. eae ose | eer Colohsamegan Clear; light
brown.
Celle codes do....../Slightly alkaline..|...... Ose Light green.... |....-. do......-.|Clear; dark
brown. -
813)CaSO8+ mix-| ..... (5 fo Ban ical Ieee do....../Very light pre-|Settled well...|/Dark brown.
ture. cipitate.
S22 MASEL ctanl| Gees (shoe eames lanOnee do..... |Light; flocculent]...... GOls geen Clear; dark
brown.
SPR be Sood GOs ert seceie GOs des Goel iacee done (Orem mon Matto concOBe uae c donee
B24 ives GOznert- | NETEE Asem <u es|leameen dose. Very light; floc-|Settled well... Turbid; light
culent. brown.
BY Alesana GO| eee LOS eater laotoe (O1y.o sabe Light; floceulent;......do...-.-.. Turbid; red-
dish brown
S38 |e eee dosee: Slightly alkaline..|...... dos.) Lichtweundyaees|.--see do.... .../Clear; light.
brown.
CBE) ohabe Ole cube Strongly alkaline.|...... GOie ee 3) Leavy ee CUnG yr alese nd Os.etr .-|Clear; dark
green. brown.
S40 eee Or eac.|heere GOwroet sce: do F SEs (Oba hei. ae cee GOv ease ee o
Sho |paeree dome Strongly alkaline..|......do......|Light; curdy....]...... doses Cleates dark.
brown.
Gb Nagase GOseece Slightly alkaline..}...... GORarae |e GO Perera eer do........-|Clear; brown
CEG onGlOkeabeelfeboe sOlOMs acco: aeeas||bdaaes COR peer eer (Clo bsedeerdoa|(imbame ¢ do...:.,-+|Clear 7 siiehitas
brown,
BAO ar eee DOsacaa| suerte Goa. </saeeee Brae Oana eiell Meetioe Gos Fe 42 AO OSs mule OKO BAR onc
Silanes dora ss |INGmiraleee cc Baceliesies ac do..... |Light; floceulent|.-. ..do........ Turbid; red-
dish brown
S68 | meee do.. ...|Strongly alkaline.|...... do... >. .|'Heavy;curdys. al) 22.20 Onnaeee Clear; light
brown.
S69 linen: GOs ciccallpectee Ogee cies: siaietes 3 SLO’ cactey: ROOM icspsescctaellleeee Ose acne ei ALO
SGaline aes Choi PNITEIU RHO ABiog ces etel lee eme doz. Light; fiocculent|) 3: = (dos. 7..-- Turbid: light
brown.
884)...... do......|Slightly alkaline..|......do......}]Heavy; eurdy...| ..... Oho Gc ane Clear; dark
brown.
S85" serve do......|Strongly alkaline.} ..... Oss) sees (OKO Ree ae call [econ us GOvesdastee + vedas Ohaus
SOG ree Ore eas Shighthy salle aime. ies 1 Osecicls yon oe Overiere ieee je. Oem (Clear: light:
brown.
SOF ecco COLORS och eerie GOR Foy ienss tall mae GOss5. 33 |e ae lors ahoameint| |) ecto (OKOP ROM nee GOx.ce

EXPERIMENTS IN DEFECATION. 317

IN DEFECATION.

Juice before | Character | Character of sugar in De- Seum while

Remarks

syrup. of syrup. cember. 5 evuporating.
“Fees Dee en eee Pee eat DEM Pree ns hele taoatots.4 os av salene [las tadlaese sw eran a/a eles s/dalos | OECCB.
color.
SS eRe Tae NE PLOW sere o-oo nose cs sqseee esse, “a leg Ges cases ss eee e PLUeLes
color.
LSA Re On A ao TAS HiAIDEL| oe ee mess cena aces a-eeoee | WaRLte!, DEeCipitate, (at| None,
color. 80°C ; second defecated
eae Hee ee with
Ca.(O
Se es sees PERRSEOLOT a || ea ee bie la< Sees aise es en a cielae eiplee tents Sears ae et ee oe
Be ene eae IBLOWMEOLOT:|\:cca- oss os =< bes oes ores (NOUS Ca(OH)2: used
to neutralize.
SER eae: See DareColar: “When. aoe desc eases nee voles dae eae Br
ee ree Burbidis syel-|k2 oc <seaiss ccc sle se elveseeeeae: Defecated juice treated| None.
low. with Ca(OH)? gave
heavy white precipi-
tate.
Seite es seins es Clears NSh tse ws csclcc cet seoscease=- as) Leavy, Willie’ <precipi- Do.
brown. tate settled at once
after neutralizing with
Ca(OH)?2.
2 pcsee denne ote) laoeeee GOsrer wal)z ese awscdtioyn- oes -scoscaess + |/HEaVY precipitate alter Do.
adding Ca(OH)?.
ESS RE DE ISESrE ieee do.. ee yt oy OS Cok cos oe Stew ahaa ee a hee LO eee eae east. We EREbee
Bowser. cae ciasc se TSH DLOW Helse se sa eels ese seta ce essai ee RO Omen metas cee an OC UIs
ESO ee IRGEpTa ey Gl leans, oe ss oo et ate ba cee | pees OOsseeaaiem cece nner
lowish.
SASGIGY ae 4s;5 2g 2 Clea eas HEDGE FF caclaste ce tose aoa e sear rapes saletelnctcrestents Scum.
brown.
ERY ACIG..).0.3|\<- 7-52) GO Wrcracat wale sre cteiecisine ses 2-4 ec rele oe | epnata ayaiaictaleenaletarele ate ete ee
INCI sa acess ss « SD Urea a Ae | Poe ee ee ee el Wid ne ee Ae Bed ed Ne
bid; dark
brown.
ae aes Gio oR Se ce WETEREUIA] 2100.0) [Re oe Bs ee ai Re re BR) IE Ror as A CE Ce ca ote
color.
Slightly acid..|Clear; light)Clear syrup; veryfewsmall| .. ......... .-..-.......
amber. crystals; long xx.
rie a2 BOlcoea lee) «Ors -4)5 = .do ECS ae peaks gage
/\ GG ate gaat Clear; light Slightly’ “turbid; very few|/After skimming, neu-
brown. | small erystals: long xx. tralized with mixture.
Strongly acid..;Turbid; light Slightly turbid.......... ... Fasireets oe by Miah Dera
amber.
ao aaee Gere =. TOlear Mash Shieh y; tar biG.) thin. 2 > ens| 2-2-2) rls oe ste Memeo
amber.
Neutral........ Cleniew darkiSlichtly. turbids> about, 32). 2. -. 2. een eee. Oerceee a
amber. heavy sediment.
Seared GO ee eos Ot eo POTee-NitOs) SEGIMENE: .TE=|\Mo. noc cence ce set ce cwimees
mainder clear.
Brcicicte WO. eo Olear wdark Heavy SeGlMenhs ti BAG). 2322s ea 6s's<0 oles:
yellow. clear.
Slightly acid..|Clear; light)Heavy sediment: turbid....| .................4-
amber.
Spee ign acte ss roe oO 2 ONe-EhiTa NCCIMeNGs Clea | >. 12c5 se ce, ces oamclee eae ok
thin; light color
Nie a ats do.. Pee Os, Sediment turbid... DiS Ae eed Plea See
Strongly acid.. Bright, clear Cloudy; few large ‘Pucliated|:c2). sos to a ale eee Greenish yel-
amber. Xx. low.
INGUtTAL 0-----\Cleary light! 2225, GQ re ee ea pt, Faker lessee eis TaN Owes eee White, foamy.
amber.
= SSE do.. See CULO oereea CG Vans as - tt og ht ee el ot Sols cise erin mae ee Do.
Strongly acid. Tarpid? beh iibenvy seqinient; turbid) |. -a.2 ecco sy oan cleeee « Yellowish
amber green.
Slightly acid..|Clear; dark|Heavy sediment; slightly] .......... ...... ... ... Do.
; amber. turbid
Neutral. ...... Clear; light}. ..... OO A cat cet MEARS aE e eee ||(Ris tem pemmreenrt< cra Sa: Do.
amber ,
Slightly acid.. ieee: light Clear shishtiSediment...-c0 paces hoes ocir cs Green’h white
rown.
ee do........|Clear:; dark|Clear; bright; few large ra-|Syrup scorched......... Do.

cojor. diated xx

318 j SORGHUM.

Taste B.—EXPERIMENTS
ae

° | How defe- | Neutral or alka- Sau Character of Precipitate | Juice after

Se cated. line. ® precipitate. settled or not.| defecation.

898/Mixture. .../Slightly alkaline. .|Heavy....... Heavy; curdy...|Settled well... Cleary light

rown.

899 nee Obeptoel |e ne Ogee aur ciens er eters: doimeay |e erer GOs eres Oss hace ace Goss

OTL beware (0 sagee IN@utral ss .sacte are Heavy; Light; flocculent|Not settled.. .|Turbid; light

ecurdy. brown.

ADAP eae Gon a-e Slightly alkaline..}......do...... Heavy; curdy...|Settled well.../Clear: light
brown.

O13 |Ee- ae GOis ce Strongly alkaline.|Very heavy..|Very light; | ..... do .|Clear; dark

ecurdy. reddish
brown.

Oe ieee (OVO RsaceA PAC SIIMIG Rete ne fetes GOs eee OM cnn eal| ecore (SLO ETO fae orcs « Gore

7 illleeee do Slightly alkaline. .|Heavy....... Slichtseurdy eles do Clear; light
reddish
brown.

PA Nee [5 (0 Peet sen (Secs Gl Oy ue ere Hemera (6 Korte oi [haces GOs. 45, Pace ee ee do ~ GOneee

Bit ees do......|Strongly alkaline.|Very heavy;|Very slight; |...... OU An sad Clear; dark

eurdy. curdy. reddish
: brown.

O84 Tee ec do......|Slightly alkaline..|Thick;heavy|Slight; curdy...]...... do......../Clear; light
reddish
brown

al ees GO alee ts GO ese krallnee ners GOvesekilee) ee GOW sie ed beeete Cs Ko Meeicrete' Lee. d0iewe

SRG. ae do... .. |\Strongly alkaline.||..... do......|Heavy; curdy...||.-...% GOs See Dark red-

| ae dish brown.

SEG) So. dose-er Slightly alkaline..|...... GO| SLM EUrdy, 6) nase rr Goze Clear: light
reddish
brown.

O97] |e do......|Strongly alkaline.|...... GOneea|eee Goma eos Goss Clear; dark
reddish
brown

ERE Soe ge do GOMeaowse see GOs. c8llesteee ORs sea Neen GORUSR A eee Goseeee

1009 POe jer |eer ee GO toate al sees dose Light; flocculent|Not settled..../Clear: light
reddish
brown.

LOLO ee dove. Re OL Orctaatnniercionar: 1 KY hig fees Pao [eb csi (ONO ia ue mraeN| Ia eee: oko Peas eine ln aialde. Gosswee

1011}......do......|Slightly alkaline. .|Thick; heavy|Light; curdy....|Settled well... » MUGS nents

1022 sis Overs |=0)| lst 2'= 6 COR sn ct
AQIS Ieee os ONO RasS on lacalsae GOs eran as
1024)....... Govern. do
HO4G eee re Gong ea|ereece GOI No ed tei
1047)...... do....../Strongly (?) alka-
line.
1048)......do......|/Slightly alkaline.
L059 exes dor. =| Neutrals.
HOGO|eee ee GOses-- Strongly alkaline
HOG een. do......|Slightly alkaline.
WO72| 22 S53. GOscs ser cts GOssene en

Very heavy..|Slight; curdy...| ..... (se sagraserce Clear; light
brown.
Heavy.... ..|Heavy; curdy...| ..... GOs): 03. aces do..
Very heavy..}...... (cKO oe ie pee Pare ee dois 2,0 Once
Heavy. ..... Slight; ¢urdy....|.......do.... ...|Cleam salient
reddish
brown.
Thick; heavy|Heavy; curdy...|...... (clapasaaedc «ath OG papers
MC aviyas ease Slight; curdy...|...... GO sserzt tell eee Oviatt
ae do BAS (one eee LONEE Boner |KGlcrhas. Wisin
brown.
oe dos. 20. |(Weryer ie avy; | s.22-1GO. 562 ta | noes
curdy.
12Q0:. 2. | SUShETCurdy..er|) p.eee Golde | eee doeiers.
chet do......j Heavy; curdy...|...-..d0........|Lurbidylene
’ brown.
Fe ae GO esse | dace ee dO ee ia ccre ce 4's says CL Onen s ental |p eEs

EXPERIMENTS IN DEFECATION.

IN DEFECATION.— Continued.

Remarks.

.|Nearly half sediment; re-/Defecated juice stood

Juice before | Character | Character of sugar in De-
syrup. of sytup. cember.

Slightly acid..|Clear: light/Clear; sediment; very few

brown. ery stals: long xx.

Bs ae dois! sete ee
mainder bright, clear.

: Strongly acid..|Clear; light|One-half sediment; light;
: amber. thin; clear.

Slightly acid. |...... if eee Half solid; very small yel-
show xx; thin, clear
syru

Strongly alka-/Clear: aark Slightly turbid; thin; dark.

line. brown

Neutral. Clear;

brown. dark.

Slightly acid..|Clear; light/Turbid; few medium xx.

amber.

Beis a GPS Che) Beer: (1) .|Slightly turbid; few medi-

z um Xx. .

(NP eo SR ede (Ae do -|Turbid; light; many medi-
um large xx.

Slightly acid..|...... GO..i2:3 Tarbid; Heht; thin. .....=--

Rese, 3 Orcs eae. 18a LO Thin; slightly turbid; light

| clear; many large xx.

LO LE eee! (eee gs 0.22: Thin; turbid; light color...

Slightly acid..|...... do: 2 Turbid; few medium xx...

1 aore ecm a oo OO. .cn- 2 | RUEDIC > GHIRC ES fe 5 Sy oe

eee Cl einen (epee Loe Sediment; turbid; very

large xx.

Alkaline .... .|Clear; dark|One-third sediment; slight-

brown. ly cloudy.

ee OT eso) (aeemeree Lae Ore Ms es ee

Slightly acid. |Clear: ent Slightly turbid; small sedi-|N

amber. ment.

JAC DRE EA ee Clear: light|Solid; yellowish; very small)

amber. xx

agar do........|......do......|Very light: clear; semi-solid
medium xx.

Soe do. .<<- 2: .-do..... |Light clear; almost solid
medium xx.

Slightly acid../Very clear;|Solid; small xx. ...........

| lightamber

Rett do........|Clear; light|Clear; bright; almost solid)

amber. | medium xx

5 tee des belt. dO: Clear; bright; 34 full large}
poe

73-01 Ieee epee Clear; light|Solid; clear; yellowish:)

; amber. small xx.

Slightly alka-|...... Mel es 3 Bright; clear; many large!

line. ‘ Po. /

Slightly acid..|...... dace" Very light; clear; semi-solid
medium xx

\( GG Se a Turbid; light|Slightly cloudy; 3g full me-

brown. dium small xx.
belyy. do. Gores

Slightly cloudy; 2g full small
xx.

1144 hours before evap-

oration ; became dark
brown.

fore evaporating ; be-
came very dark clear
brown.

Juice became bright....

Defecated juice became
dark brown on stand-
ing 1 hour.

dor
v.B. Juice for 1009, 1010,
and 1011 gave sour
smell.

juice lost in precipi-

319

Scum while
evaporating,

Green’h white

Do.

White, foamy.

Clean, white,

foamy.

Thick, white.

light} Two-thirds sediment; thin;|Juice stood 1 hour be-| White, foamy.

Do.

Clean, white,

foamy.

White, foamy.

Do.

Do.
Do.

Do.
Do.

Clean, whit

foamy.
Do.

Do.
Do.

Do.

Do.

labout half defecated| Yellowish

green.

3820 SORGHUM.

TaBLeE B.--EXPERIMENTS |

oP How defe- | Neutral or alka- Styran Character of Precipitate | Juice after
Se cated. line. precipitate. settled ornot. | defecation.
1074; Mixture. ...|Strongly(?) alka-|Heavy....... Heavy; curdy...|Settled well...|/Slightly tur-
line. bid; Jight
brown.
UES paaee do.. .../Slightly alkaline..|...... (ol hyocee Wery Reavy a. <<.) sos. << dos, seer Clear; light
browp
LOSGI S552 do......|Strongly alkaline.|...... d0.520: Var es VGA ViVi S| a = Oi. a2 leeeeee Go.
curdy.
LOST eee dOr.ce-)- Strongly, (2) alka-|...... GO: 4:05 || Faaeee OW reer ona: dO..... 2624) d0:eee
ine.
AQOM enna do.. ...|Strongly alkaline.|...... G0..2-2 Very heavy; |----.. roe Pamert ies Clear; dark
eurdy. brown.
1095) \0 5.5.3 Gola. YU ab hit tmoete oma ace lnarac GON 25 | eee GOW ee scen lone ste rs Co Reese ear dose:
1096) 202.2 Goxs.c: Nedra... e:..0-: Gittless- se. Heavy -scurdyse|b os: COssai-e en. Clear; light
brown
1103| S25 .2% Gown: Slightly alkaline. .|Heavy....... Vera DOB vy rece cte| eae « G0s0%)5.0:5 | Soe d0....--2
IOS) Felco Gos fen acers CO mero ra ace tenes GOs 2 te | teats Cobra lao eee Co KOPP SROnoR liar = - donee
ATTO) Roe (oko Wee Strongly alkaline.|...... dOwsee. elt peer Oss eactcemetl acer ke Ghepeecbec Dark red....
EEE (aaa Fit me Slightly alkaline..]......do......| ..... Fe ay oll ee do? Sete ? do...

18 EY eee cae GOMenen teases Choo eonaseces|| Ae: st blOise BoE ST INGEN Ee oacal asane (so Re leis oc dOiaee

EXPERIMENTS IN DEFECATION. 321

IN DEFECATION.— Continued.

Scum while
evaporating.

Juice before | Character | Character of sugar in De-

syrup. of syrup. cember. Remarks.

Slightly acid. .|Turbid; light|Clear; light color; large xx.|About half defecated| Yellowish

brown. juice lost in precipi-| green.
tate.
ets si do..... ../Clear: dark/Clear; solid; medium xx..|......do..................|Green’h white
brown;
seorched.
Slightly alka-|Turbid;light/Clear; bright; semi-solid|...... ra (3 Meas hee Se a Do.
line. hrown. small xx.
Slightly acid.. Ce eas light|Semi-solid; very small xx..|...... GOiss scan e cet 2 Do.
TOW
Slightly alka-|Clear, “ight Solid: yellowish;:, very fine|.-..--d0.-.-.0.-.)..2<. s+ White, foamy.
line. amber. small xx.
Sana do........]......do..... |Clear; light; 44 full medium)Part of defecated juice Do.
Tx, lost in precipitate.
a2 17g | leg ee (eee das. semi-sohd: yellowish: very. 25 4. seek oka Clean, white,
fine small xx. foamy.
chee do........|Clear; light|Solid; small xx.......... ..|Part of juice lost in pre- Do.
brown. cipitate.
Beene Meee: (Ala On. 22-1Clears bright: almost solidy.... --G0.i-/22.2-c-<--- <a Do.
small xx.
Bently alka-|Dark brown.|Clear; dark; nearly solid;}...... C3 (2 ae ee eee Do.
lin smal] xx
Slightiy acid.. persue Solid; small KS Gark COLE}. 22, «200s a2 haste ae / Do.
rown.
INCTIEPAL) «=. ; Clear; dark}..... LE eA ene terre 3 re NO oS ok (i a nes ed Eve Do.
brown

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EXPERIMENTS IN DEFECATION. Be

Besides the experiments in defecation just recorded, and preliminary
to them, the following experiments were made in the laboratory,
with comparatively small quantities of juice, for the purpose of learn-
ing the effects of various defecating agents, especially lime, sulphurous
acid, and sulphite of lime.

The results of these experiments are given in the following table, as
being chiefly valuable to those who may desire to continue investiga-
tions in the same direction.

In each case a sample of juice was analyzed as usual, and then sepa-
rate portions of this juice were submitted to different modes of treat-
ment, and the resulting products were in each case fully examined, and
the gain or loss of sucrose, glucose, and solids resulting from the sey-
eral methods of defecation, were thus shown.

SORGHUM.

324

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CONCENTRATION OR EVAPORATION OF JUICE. 325

CHAPTER X.

(a.) Concentration or evaporation of juice.
(6.) Methods of evaporation.

(c.) Vacuum pans.

(d.) Multiple effects.

(e.) Separation of sugar from molasses.
(f.) Sucrates of lime and strontia.

CONCENTRATION OR EVAPORATION OF JUICE.

Having, by filtering and defecation, separated as far as possible the
impurities of the juice, the next step in the production of sugar is the
removal of the excess of water, which is always present in saccharine
Juices.

By reference to the table on page 336, it will be seen that a solution
of sugar, boiling at a temperature of 239° F. (115° C.), for example,
will contain 85.2 per cent of sugar and 14.8 per cent of water, and
if this solution is allowed to cool down to 60° F. (15.5° C.), the water
present will hold in solution about twice its weight in sugar; 7. e., the
14.8 parts of wate: will dissolve 29.6 parts of sugar, and the re-
maining portion of sugar, 55.6 parts, will crystallize out from the so-
lution. As the temperature is increased, the amount of water neces-
sary to dissolve a given weight of sugar becomes less, as will be seen
by consulting the table on page 336.

In siowly passing from a state of solution to that of a solid, those
bodies, as sugar, salt, and others, which are able to assume a crystal-
lizable form do so.

From the composition of the juice, it will be seen that about 84 per
cent is water; 1. e., the sugar in the juice is in a solution of about five
times its weight of water, and a large proportion must be removed in
order to secure this sugar.

In order that this matter, which is fundamental, may be thoroughly
understood, a few illustrations of the principles involved are given.

Common salt is soluble in about three times its weight of water.
Suppose, now, that a pound of salt is dissolved in three pounds of
water, and we evaporate rapidly one and a half pounds of water from
the solution, it will be found that about half a pound of the salt will
be thrown down as a solid, but in a fine powder. If, however, the
water is slowly evaporated, we will have the salt crystallizing out in
large cubical crystals.

326 : SORGHUM.

Unlike the result with salt, which is but very little more soluble in
hot than in cold water, when we evaporate a sugar solution in the open
air, we find that the whole will remain in solution; and it is ouly
when we allow the solution to cool, that we have the excess of sugar,
which the water remaining is unable to hold in solution, crystallizing
out. —

The crystallization of sugar from its solution is a matter of the great-
est simplicity. Many interested or ignorant persons have said, or
thought, that there was some secret device by which the sugar could
be secured ; and many have represented that, by one thing or another,
crystallization could be effected. The sugar may be obtained from a
saccharine juice by any body, provided only the conditions for secur-
ing it are maintained; and these conditions are very few and very
simple, and will be made plain in what follows.

It is also to be remembered, that no one is able to obtain sugar from
a juice if it is not there; and yet there are many whose claims are such
as to lead some to believe the contrary.

Crystallization is also a means of purification. To illustrate this
point, suppose an ounce of common salt and an ounce of saltpeter (ni-
trate of potash) are together dissolved in a half pint of water, and the
solution is allowed to evaporate slowly. It will be found that the
crystals of salt and crystals of saltpeter will be separately formed as
the water evaporates, and if the two are carefully picked out, each will
be found to be entirely free from the other—that is, the salt crystal-
lizes out by itself and the saltpeter by itself. Further, if to a solution
of sugar there is added a solution of another substance, which does
not crystallize, and evaporation takes place, the sugar will crystallize
out, leaving the other substance in solution.

But it is found that the presence of certain substances will prevent
the crystallization of sugar to a certain extent; also, the presence of
certain others seems to favor or assist in the crystallization of sugar ;
while still other substances are apparently without any effect upon the
sugar present. The saccharine juice of plants, even after the most
careful defecation, is found to contain, besides the sugar, substances of
each of the three classes. The most important one is glucose and in-
verted sugar, more or less of which is always present, and which is es-
timated by sugar boilers as being able to hold in solution its own weight
of sugar. If, then, a pound each of glucose and sucrose should be
dissolved in a quart of water and the solution evaporated, it would be
found practically impossible to recover any of the sugar—but there
would be obtained a little over two pounds of molasses. So, too, the
salts or mineral matters present in the juice have each their specific

METHODS OF EVAPORATION. 327

effect, either to retain more or less of the sugar present as molasses, or,
as is the case with some, to cause the crystallization of more of the
sugar than would have been obtained without them. Owing to this
tendency of a substance when crystallizing to build up a crystal of
pure material, it is found, generally, that the crystals of sugar, even
when formed in a solution highly colored, are perfectly pure, and color-
less as glass, and that the color of the ordinary yellow sugar is due al-
most entirely to the molasses which adheres to the surfaces of each mi-
nute crystal.

In the defecated juice there always remains a certain amount of
impurities, which may be removed in the early stages of evaporation ;
and it will always be found that, as the evaporation progresses, a scum
will form upon the surface, which may be easily removed by skimming.
This scum will continue to rise, until the juice has been reduced to
nearly one-half its bulk, or to a density of about 22° Beaumé, specific
gravity 1.092.

A solution of sugar will, upon protracted boiling, suffer more or less
inversion of the sugar : but it will be seen, from the experiments given
upon page 297, that so long as there is an excess of lime in the solu-
tion, this inversion will not take place; also, that the effect of the
heat, when lime is present, is the destruction of the glucose, with the
formation of highly colored compounds, which will darken the syrup
produced. In the production, then, of syrup, it is most desirable, in or-
der to avoid a high color, that the removal of the water be effected
as speedily as possible.

METHODS OF EVAPORATION.

The means by which the removal of the excess of water is accom-
plished are, in principle, the same, viz., the evaporation by heat; but
the methods employed are numerous. They may be classed as,
Evaporation in open pans over the fire.

Evaporation in open pans by steam.
Evaporation from heated surfaces.
Evaporation from surfaces by hot air.
Evaporation in vacuum.

ot be Ree

Evaporation in open Pans over the Fire.

This method is the most primitive and the most inexpensive. It is
in use to a greater or less extent in every sugar producing country.

The following applications of this method will illustrate its exten-
sive use.

The so-called Jamaica train consists, generally, of four large hemi-
spherical copper boilers, mounted in brick work in a row, the fire being

328 SORGHUM.

built under one end and passing beneath each copper in succession
to the chimney. This row of boilers is known as a ‘‘ battery,” and as
the ‘‘ copper wall.” The several boilers are known as ‘“ the grande,”
it being the largest; ‘‘the flambeau,” since it is just touched hy the
flames of the furnace ; ‘‘ the syrup,” since in it the juice is concentrated
to a syrup; and “‘ the battery,” or ‘‘strike,” since from this the con-
centrated syrup is ‘‘struck” or dipped off into the coolers for ecrystal-
lization.

The defecated juice is added to the largest pan nearest the chimney,
and, as the juice becomes more and more concentrated, it is generally,
by means of ladles, dipped from the one to the other until it reaches
the last of the series, where it is evaporated to that degree of concen-
tration which is found necessary. It is then ladled into coolers, and
allowed to stand for crystallization, when the molasses is drained from
the sugar, which is known in the trade as ‘‘ muscovado.”

In this process, a very large amount of sugar is lost through the
high heat of the pans, which chars a portion of the sugar and darkens
the product; but its simplicity and low cost is such, that, even at the
present day, large quantities of sugar are thus produced. The same
principle, although greatly perfected in details, is involved in a large
number of evaporaters in general use throughout the country for the
production of syrup and sugar from sorghum. These need not be
separately described, but the several points which constitute their im-
provements over the Jamaica Train of the creoles may be briefly men-
tioned :

1. The smaller quantity of juice under evaporation at any given
time, thus proportionately diminishing the amount of inversion of su-
gar, and thus increasing the yield, owing to the rapidity with which
the water is removed.

2. The protection of all portions of the evaporators not covered with
juice or syrup from the direct contact with fire, and thus lessening the
production of caramel and other products, which, besides destroying
sugar, darken the syrup.

3. The introduction of devices for removing the scum during the
concentration of the syrup, this greatly diminishing the labor of man-
ufacture and the loss in sugar through this operation.

4. The arrangement of dampers beneath the several compartments
of the pan, which in function correspond to the four boilers of the Ja-
maica Train, so that the heat may be moderated under each, or, as is
necessary when the syrup after sufficient concentration is to be re-
moved from the last pan, may be entirely shut off.

5. The very great reduction in cost in the apparatus necessary to the

METHODS OF EVAPORATION. 329

manufacture of a commercial product, thus enabling one of even very
limited means to provide himself with the apparatus necessary to work
his crop.

Another simple and effective class of evaporators, are those which
practically embody the advantages of the Jamaica Train, although
consisting of but a single pan. The so-called ‘‘Cook Pan” well illus-
trates this class of evaporators. It is essentially an oblong pan of cop-
per or iron, of a size varying from 5} feet < 6 to 5 feet < 30, which,
by a series of partitions extending nearly across the pan, and separated
from each other by spaces from 6 to 8 inches, cause the defecated juice,
which is admitted at one end, to pass back and forth across the pan to
the other end, so that, by adjusting the supply of juice, the evapo-
ration is completed in the circuit, and the syrup is obtained in a con-
tinuous stream. By the interposition of gates, the pan is divided into
several compartments, thus imitating in principle the Jamaica Train.
The scum which rises during the earlier stages of the evaporation, is
removed by skimming.

In theory, nothing would seem superior to this arrangement, and .
the results are exceedingly satisfactory. It will be seen at a glance
that the juice is exposed to heat but a minimum of time, and there
would appear to be little room for improvement, so long as direct heat
is used. It is worthy of note, also, that, in pans of this character, the
progress of the juice is the reverse of what it is in the Jamaica Train,
the juice in the Cook Pan entering the end directly over the fire, and
leaving at the end furthest away, thus diminishing the danger of burn-
ing the syrup.

SORGHUM.

330

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METHODS OF EVAPORATION, 331

Plate X XXTI.

PORTABLE EVAPORATOR—FURNACE AND PAN.

For the smaller pans, Nos. 2, 3, and 4, portable furnaces are provided. These are
made of cast iron and sheet iron, heavily bound and riveted, strongly made, and the
whole mounted upon rockers of angle iron—thus furnishing a complete portable
furnace of iron and brick, combined in one, with ali the advantages of both, and yet
so light that it can be easily handled by two men. This is the most convenient
arrangement for small home operations; and, for custom work, it is well nigh indispen-
sable. With it the operator can move from field to field. or from farm te farm, and thus
avoid the labor and expense of hauling the cane.

oon - SORGHUM.

eee

Nii

Sar eee
are le ee
:

UBL BET. Os) UYU
Le Velde MM IEE.

Plate XX XIII.

AUTOMATIC COOK PAN.

The Automatic Cook Pan has three divisions, each performing separate offices, and
all connected by high ledges and gates, under the full control of the operator. The
processes of defecation, clarification, and finishing, are systematically carried on with-
out interruption to the end.

The first division frees the juice from its crude impurities, whilst passing through
the channels, by the automatic action of the skimming device, which throws the scum
in an opposite direction from the moving juice.

In the second division, the juice is freed from its remaining impurities and reduced
tosemi-syrup. This division is provided with high ledges, to prevent the mixing of
the juice; and is so constructed, that the scum is thrown to the opposite side, or into
the trough, to be returned to the first division for re-separation. This saves a consider-
able percentage of syrup.

The semi-syrup is taken by the third division, and finished as rapidly as possible to
the sugar point, and drawn into coolers.

The Automatic Cook Pan secures thorough defecation, saves a large percentage of juice
that would otherwise be wasted, and saves labor in skimming and fuel.

Full direction for building arch and working pan sent with each pan.

METHODS OF EVAPORATION. 333

i
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tut

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I HAAS0 ITALADETD UD SYD y
UAE CENGAPUACSTYV AC) VACTEAO TEDSTER COARSE
NOQUITAEREOAT GETCLASS SEAT TU
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HTT THe /UAGDTGARFEDNY TUCEECSEACLL OD COVEOOTTATTENE GPUUOPRNERYED RERETT TONIC TT

Plate XXXIV.

THE STUBBS EVAPORATOR.

Plate XXXIV represents the Stubbs Evaporator. The upper cut shows the pan with
two compartments. The first occupies three-fourths of the pan; the second compart-
ment the remaining fourth. The juice enters the first compartment near the smoke-
stack in a regular stream, passing around the circle over the fire-box to cross-parti-
tions, where it thickens to a semi-syrup. Being over the hottest part of the furnace,
it raises to a light foam, which breaks to the lowest point where the cool juice eniers,
not only keeping back the green scum, but carrying all the scum off of thirty feet sur-
face, where it is scraped off without loss of sweet. The semi-syrup is turned into the
second compartment at intervals, to be finished under full control of heat governed by
dampers. When done, to be run off with scraper, letting semi-syrup follow. Boil rap-
idly with two inches juice in order to cleanse well.

The lower engraving represents the furnace. Should be built of brick, with eight-
inch wall fourteen inches above fire-grate; the balance seven inches. A sectional arch
with one damper in center, hinged at the back end to swing to back wall: also dam-
per across the mouth of left flue. The smoke-stack stands back, as the cut indicates.
The smoke-stack should be sixteen feet high, fourteen inches diameter.

334 SORGHUM.

The following table has been prepared tu enable the reader readily
to convert the degrees of the Centigrade thermometer into degrees
upon the Fahrenheit scale, although it has been the aim to give both,
whenever temperature has been mentioned in the text.

TARLE FOR CONVERSION OF CENTIGRADE DEGREES INTO FAHRENHEIT DEGREES.

£

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cS} S) es} o is] 2 ES} e ES} 2 seh | iS} e 3 | oO
3 a S q 3 q 3 ES] 3 aS a aq 3 B= 3 i
Be a * | Be | B a re a = A > a a A
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=r H S u ES H S u 55 H S H Ss H =) u
(ee este pe lt Saal el) gle Mig
yeh Es oO | & oO] & > | & Oo | & Sy EI By a (5 Oo +
fe} ie) 1°) fo} ie) ie) c ° o fo} ie} fo)
—37|—34.6||—13] 8.6|| 11] 51.8)} 35] 95.0/] 59} 138.2|| 83] 181.4|| 107| 224.6)! 130] 266.0
—36|—32.8||—12} 10.4]] 12] 53.6} 36] 96.8|| 60] 140.0]} 84] 183.2]! 108] 226.4|| 131] 267.8
—35|—31.0}|—11| 12.2!) 13! 55.4|| 37] 98.6|| 61) 141.8!] 85] 185.0|] 109] 228.2|| 139] 269 6
—34|—29.2||—10] 14.0]| 14] 57.2!| 38] 100.4|| 62] 143.6]} 86] 186.8/| 110] 230.0|| 133] 271.4
—33|—27.4\|— 9] 15.8!] 15] 59.0)| 39) 102.2/| 63} 145.4]! 87l 188.6!| 111] 231.8!] 134] 273.9
—32/—95.6/|— 8] 17.6]] 16] 60.8|| 40] 104.0)| 64] 147.2|] $s] 190.4|| 112) 233.6|] 135! 275.0
—31/—93 sl|— 7]. 19.41] 171 62.6!} 41] 105.8!| 65! 149.01] 89] 192.21] 113] 235-4|| 136] 276.8
—30|—22 0||— 6} 21.2/] 18] 64.4|| 42] 107.6]| 66] 150.8|] 90] 194.0] 114] 237.2|| 137] 278.6
—29|—20.2||— 5! 23.0]} 19] 66.2\! 43] 109.4)! 67] 152.6]} 91] 195.8]! 115! 239.0]! 138] 280.4
—28|—18.4||— 4] 24.8!! 20] 68.0|| 44) 111.2|| 68] 154.4|} 92] 197.6]| 116] 240.8]| 139] 989 9
—27|—16.6||— 3} 26.6]| 21| 69.8]| 45] 113.0|| 69] 156.2|] 93] 199.4]} 117] 242.61] 140] 284.0
—96/—14.8||— 2| 28.41] 22] 71.6]} 46] 114.8|| 70] 158.0]] 94] 201.2/] 118] 244.4|| 141) 985.8
—25|—13.0||— 1]. 30.2]| 23] 73.4|] 47| 116.6|| 71] 159.8]| 95] 203.0]] 119] 246.9|| 142] 987:6
—24|—11.2|] 0] 32 0/} 24) 75.2|| 48] 118.4]] 72] 161.6]| 96] 204.8]] 120] 248 O|] 143] 289.4
—93/— 9 4]/|4+ 1] 33.8]] 25] 77.0|| 49] 120.2)! 73] 163.41] 97] 206.6]] 121] 249.8]| 144] 201.9
—29|— 7.611 2! 35.6/] 26] 78.8]! 50] 122.0]| 74] 165.21) 98] 208.4]) 122] 251.6]| 145] 293.0
—21/— 5.8|| 3] 37.4/| 27] .80.6]|° 51] 123.8]| 75] 167.0]| 99] 210.2]| 123] 253.4]| 146] 294.8
—20|— 4.0] 4] 39.2]| 28] 982.4]! 52] 125.6]| 76] 168.8]] 100] 212.0]] 124] 255.2]] 147] 296.6
—19|— 2.2|| 5] 41.0]] 29] 84.2]! 53] 127.4|| 77] 170.6]| 101] 213.8]| 125] 257.0/| 148] 298.4
—18|— 0.4|| 6] 42.8!] 30] 86.0]} 54] 129.2|| 78] 172.4|| 102] 215.6]| 126] 258.8]! 149] 300.2
—17|/+ 1.4|| 7] 44.6!) 31] 87.8|| 55] 131.0]| 79] 174.2|| 103] 217.4]| 127] 260.6|| 150] 302.0
—16| 3.2|| 8] 46.4]]/ 32] 89.6]] 56] 132.8]| 80] 176.0|| 104] 219.2]! 128] 262.4]! 151] 303.8
—15}- 5.0|| 9] 48.2]] 33] 91.4/] 57| 134.6|| 81] 177.8]| 105] 221.0]| 129] 264.2]| 152] 305.6
—14) 6.8]| 10) 50.0] 34] 93.2/] 58] 136.4]| 82| 179.6]| 106] 222.8

METHODS OF EVAPORATION. 335

By means of the following table, the manufacturer may be able to
determine the percentage of total solids in his juice or syrup, by sim.
ply taking the specific gravity at any temperature not over 100° C. or
212° F. For example, a sample of syrup, at a temperature of 80° C.,
had a specific gravity of 1.2862—that syrup contains 65 per cent of
total solids; and at 15° C. this sample would have a density of 1.3211.
For temperatures and percentages between those tabulated, it will be
easy to make the necessary calculations.

SSn5Sn° Temp. C°

(
LAS

a
»

Temp. F°

Ha
(en

0 per cent.

)
6°

6"

TSLPO° T/OLGO’ 1) L000 T

_
S
=
pe
Q
Q
=I
E>)
>
. : <4
5 205 = =
DEE oO per cent. 4
Sowxt =
a
utente So
©2o00 =
SES 10 per cent. 2
Sees a
Cc+ae co
Ee S
ae : iS
cess = es <
EEE Sac 15 per cent. =
BAIS = co
ton bo SIG Go oh ea =I
aera ar Sge ye yey BR
2am 2 o
Sr ee
ee2sesse SS=== = 20 per cent. =
- Sr Stl Cette — = =
SRS Ee es ACUITeSsoae | =
Sea Se eee SSeS eee 5
Soooocoes¢ = = 95
SSIu 3350525 Seeseses 25 per cent. ~~ &
WAaowaonna BOOaSS3IcS = @
BEEHBHRSATE RAaANSCASSH =
eee ee eee Seay Sy ay = 2
Coe HH — aT: & =
SSSES=SS= SERRE EZEE 30 per cent. =
ASWAOCNAE Aa~Inoo co =]
COIH OTIS MRPaocnrcnt Qo &
ee eek ek ee ek et et ft et es ps as as pp Pp por
7 Rete ae ¢ =e : So
fae fe ek ek fk fk ak ak ed feed fk fk as et fk ek pp 9: = =
CHHNPNHHwweteae Sian naan 30 per cent. Ss &
CWHADSDWAOKNOAWNSCN ASH we wa + I
COONS Nw SCC ee WSO Dre => Ts ae
Sys yaya yaya yeyey a fata) Tat ar ra ae] Gs
Be : m= A
fk at feed fk ft ped —_ pt pt et SS) | ae
60 60 A RCAC NOOO TI Toa oo oo 40 per cent. =
ne ell i or ok Sk Bd So ord es |
orunwovo est] See OOS oo es
SS ag ye ey a tee == 2
aT RG cbt ee mera ae x: |
— a! ees ss Se et 3b nw) ~ 1]
SSSSIORSSeSSestt te 45 percent. || 2
SBADNOCNHNAA1ISKNABO S- =
NISSASS UNE SIBONAGS On co a
eek ek peek ak ek pk ak ak ak dk pk ps ps ks ps — >
ads Tasted cere : ae =
= oho Rea Rae AS ae = 3
Sree se SSSESERERE 83 | 90 per cent. q
BDOWA=DAGHHWISH AIS aS x
Pe ad dd RS et ae No =
ee et ek et ft ee | | tat
DONNNNNNHNHHKYNYHNHYWONNS sto =F
NERSERSSSSLESRSSS SS | 90 per cent. >
BIS SIOBASSHMDOSAINISS Bat
AasxnaswIaIaIISssbesteAacscsS BS i) Zz
Pee ee ek ek ek ek et et ek es es es ps ps =y=" =]
hits NIE RENN NN EEE | 60 percent. 2
NAaCNMWSCKN TDK ke oCweeSec= ont fo)
NIB SSR SSS SNH STESENICSS a / =
Ree ee pe ea ea a eee =e | s
eae Pa a EAE agh >
SSSSRSSSBSSSSESSERERES | 60 percent. 2
WOCHNASGHADS|BAAaSS$=hSKmSeanwsi A
SHBSOWWDNSWBNOCMOSHAINGCOCHAAS =!
Re SS SS RR os
Betis Salne oe on colon nn Gaieis cots fo Go Ga Go os coeae -
SSSSSSSSRSSSRESEESSS 70 per cent. 3
BASBDSBSCSSASGWOASSHORASHELS
BAIDADSHDAAANS SASRISNNS =)
a ee ee oa ae 7
Sek RSRGSSSSSISSIRSEES 7d percent. |
CON ADOSORee SSwNeaISHSaS |
ASASSSONSSCCOAUINWDWOENKUS i

336 SORGHUM.

The following table gives the temperatures at which solutions of su-
gar of different degrees of concentration boil, the percentage of sugar
present in each case, the degrees Beaumé and density of each at the
temperature of boiling, and also at the ordinary temperature of 15° C.
or 59° F.

For example, a solution containing 79.5 per cent of sugar will boil at
110°C. or 230° F., and at this temperature will have a density of
38°.5 Beaumé, or specific gravity of 1.864; and when cooled to 15° C.
or 59° F. will have a density of 42°.8 Beaumé, and a specific gravity
of 1.4215.

TABLE OF BOILING POINT, DEGREES BEAUME, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, AND PER CENT
OF SUGAR OF SACCHARINE SOLUTIONS.

(Flourens)
Boiling Point.: Beaumé. Specifie gravity.
C geore A hia | P i SS ah eli = a
er cent at temp. =O at temp. =o
Temp. Temp. of of pd of at Is
ie Ke sugar. observation. ; observation.
104.5 220.1 67.2 32.20 36.25 1.2872 1.3350
105. 221.0 69.1 33.20 37.25 1.2990 1.3480
105.5 221.9 71.2 34.20 38.3 1.3106 1 3613
106. 222.8 72.4 35.00 39.10 1.3200 1.3720
106.5 223). 73.4 89.50 39.65 1.3260 1.3780
107. 224.6 74.4 36.00 40.15 1.3325 1.3855
107.5 225.5 1.2 36.50 40.70 1.3385 1.3925
108. 226 .4 76.4 37.00 41.10 1.3450 1.3985
108.5 227.3 77.4 37.50 41.75 1.3510 1.4080
109. 228 .2 77.8 37.90 42.10 1.3562 1.4120
169.5 229.1 78.7 t 42.50 1.3606 1.4180
110. 230.0 79.5 42 80 1.3640 1.4215
110.5 230.9 80.0 43 .00 1.3670 1.4245
inte 231.8 80.6 43.3 1.3700 1.4290
111.5 232.7 81.4 3.65 1.3740 1.4335
112. 233 .6 32.2 44.00 LeSyAl 1.43880
112.5 234.5 82.9 44.20 1°3810 1.4415
113. 235 4 83.6 44.40 1.3835 1.4500
114. 237.2 BAe 2h Py en a SO Ome eral eieiertter ts 1 38875 vid « ote
115. 239.0 Spo) Me ty 40 O0 Gee eer 1.8915. || said eee
116. 240.8 Bbi8:.+ |) Tee rA OGD eeertoerasiacstcys 1.3955" |). See
alii 242.6 folie SUE hen bcd 1.4000” |||... iijscreeaeeeterae
118. 244.4 OTe |) TRS Eo ete eat oharoterateper= 1.4080: |. 2.) Acces
119. 246.2 STO te AG eater creretere 41.4060 |) 1.2 eee
120. 248.0 oii pe \e PaeedlCly | Nl so eiocude 1.4085 j\... Sonera
125. 257.0 OUD) |. 7/9 SADR COMA a Werte e 1.4215 | |).
130. 266.0 ODD a0 ie ay ew Ozer ail crete cover 1.4315." 2) ieee

The following table, calculated by Mategezeh, Scheibler, and Stam-
mer, shows the comparison of degrees Beaumé with specific gravity,
as also with the scale of Brix, which represents the percentage of total
solids present in the solution. It also gives the number of pounds
avoirdupois which an American gallon of the solution of each density
would weigh. For example, a juice of 10° Beaumé would have a
specific gravity of 1.0744, would contain 18 per cent of solids, and
would weigh 8.96 pounds to the gallon; or asyrup of 48° Beaumé

METHODS OF EVAPORATION. oon

would have a specific gravity of 1.4267, would contain 81.5 per cent
of solid matters, and would weigh 11.9 pounds to the gallon:

< - =H EF fas : ae %
S| a cS = | > oS | 3
= = ZO oo = = ‘EE | mn
= > 45 = | 3 ee wae =
2 = > J = = pa e >
faa} = Se rs pe & Se es
S g Sear | sg. 4ecs = *Z | 2
2 = oR =| Unig = = oy Bares =a
s 2 Sea ae he to o 2 =s
2 . > Arm o4 7 2 a om
A R a | Hes Li A es
——— ee ee | i |
5 1.0035 g Sar aS 1.756 | 48.7 10 22
iy 1.0070 Ar.) eee ae 1.2306 49.6 10.26
15 1.0105 57 8.43 27 5 12361 | 506 10 31
Ae 1.0141 3.6 8.46 || 28 1.2411 51.5 10.35
2.5 1.0177 45 8.49 || 28.5 1.2467 52.5 10 39
3. ee | BS 8.52 || 2. 523 53.5 10.44
3.5 1.0249 63 355 || 295 1.2574 544 10 48
4. 1 0286 7.2 8.58 || 30. 1.2631 55.4 10.53
4.5 1.0323 81 8 61 30.5 1.2689 564 10 57
5. 1.0360 9.0 ay | a) 1.2741 57.3 10 62
5.5 1.0397 99 8 67 315 1.279 58 3 10 67
6- 1.0135 |- 108 8.70 || 32 1.2859 59.3 10 72
6.5 1.0472 11.7 8.73 32.5 1 9911 60.3 | 10.77
MW: 1.0510 126 $76 || 33 1.2970 61.2 10.82
7.5 1.0549 13.5 ll” Yin 1.3030 62.2 10.87
8. 1.0587 14.4 8.83 |} 34. 1.3084 63.1 10.92
85 1.0630 15.4 8.86 |} 31.5 |. 1.3154 64.1 10.96
9. 1.0670 16.8 8 89 35. 1.3211 65.2 11.02
95 1.0704 171 8.92 || 35.5 1.3272 66 2 11.07
10. 1.0744 18.0 8.96 || 36. 1.333% 67.2 1112
105 1.0784 18.9 8.99 36 5 1.3395 68.2 11.17
11. 1.0829 19.9 902 || 37. 1 3458 69.2 11.22
n5 1.0869 20.8 9.06 | 37.5 1.3521 70.2 11.27
PR 1.0909 17 | 9.10-]) 38. 1 3585 71.2 11.33
12.5 1.0950 26 | 918 | 38.5 1.3649 72.2 | 11.38
13. 1.0991 B35 | 9.16 39. 1 3714 73.2 11.44
13.5 1.1033 244 920 || 39.5 1.3780 74.2 11.49
14. 1.1074 53 9.23 || 40. 1.3846 2.3 11.55
145 1.1116 26 2 9.27 40.5 1.3913 | 76.3 11.66
15. 1.1163 27.2 ae | eae 1 3981 77.3 11 66
155 1.1206 m1 | gos || 415 1.4049 78.3 | 11.72
16 1.1249 29.0 9.38 || 42. 1 4118 79.4 11.77
16.5 1.1292 29.9 | 941 || 42.5 1.4187 80 4 11.83
i 1.1335 308 | 945 || 43. 1.4267 815 11.90
17.5 1.1334 318 | 9.49 || 43.5 1.4328 82.5 11.95
18. 1.1427 32.7 | 9.53 || 44. 1.4400 83.6 12.01
18.5 1.1472 33.6 | 9.56 ||) 44.5 1.4472 84.6 12.07
19 1.1521 46 | 961 || 45. 1.4545 85.7 12.13
19.5 1.1566 355 | 9.64 455 1.4619 86 7 12.19
20 1.1611 36.4 9 68 46. 1 4694 7.8 12 26
20.5 1.1662 37.4 972 46.5 1.4769 88.8 12.32
Pa 1.1707 38.3 976 | 47. 1.4845 90.0 32.38
215 1.1753 39.2 9.80 || 47.5 1.4922 91.0 12.45
22. 1.1739 40.1 9.84 48. | 1.5000 92.1 12.51
22.5 1.1851 411 988 48.5 1.5079 93 2 12.57
3B. 1.1903 42.1 992 |; 49. 1.5158 043 | 12 64
25 5 1.1950 43.0 9.96 495 1.52338 95 4 12.71
24. 1.2003 44.0 10.01 } 50. - 1.5319 9.5 | 12.78
45 1 2051 44.9 10.05 || 50.5 1 3401 97.6 12 84
3. 1 2104 45.9 10.09 |j 51. 1 484 98.7 12.91
5.5 1.2353 46.8 1038) |) S15 1.5568 100.0 12.98
26. 1.202 47.7 TET pel | pe een eee ee ee es ery ae

22

3388 SORGHUM.

Evaporation in Open Puns and by Steam,

Owing to the far greater ease with which the heat may be applied
and regulated, it is extensively employed, both in the operations of
defecation and evaporation. In open pans it is applied by means of
a coil of iron (or, preferably, copper) pipe, as in the defecator; and
since the heat may thus be applied over a greatly increased surface,
and at any temperature and pressure, the evaporation is proportionately
more rapid than from a pan which is heated directly over the fire. The
relative evaporating capacity of pans heated by direct heat and by
steam, may be learned by the following comparisons. The average
evaporation from an open pan over a fire, the grate surface of which is
abcut one-fourth to one-third the size of the pan, is about one gallon
of water to each square foot of surface in the pan per hour. Pans of
large size evaporate a larger amount proportionately than small ones,
and with greater economy of fuel, and less relative waste. To illustrate:
pans of the followiag dimensions are claimed to evaporate as follows:

Gallons per hour.

Size. Feet of surface. per foot surface.
AOS SIO CHES frst nes aot ete tO Gays coeteeiets trereuaryatotaetatt tata wahece 4
ADE SCT OD TM CMOS aED rere ly Lie OO Lean ea eles stele cletoetss riss sil
40), 288 inChes' =... 32 -.5-4- S02 Fae ieee warn siageleleve miei 1.3
Aa SC MOSTINCMeS es: 8 <a: 6 Kehh Ne Peete ett se aa crage errata Pasion 8
ATMS e het syolelaves=\on. .o4enoo Jones 7 IB Cociic CcAein SCOR I OO SE ioe
AA S80 INCHes 4. -t2.<\,- OO" ae artis es BR oitaed seests Sone iP ak

Experiments were made at the Department of Agriculture, by the
author, with two evaporators heated by copper coils with steam at the
pressure of 55 pounds.

As an average of seven experiments, with two evaporators, it was
found that there were evaporated four gallons of water per hour from
each square foot of surface of the juice in the evaporator. One evap-
orator was seven feet in diameter; the other, four feet ten inches.
Both were circular. !

Practically, the same results are reported by others in their work
with similar evaporators.

The importance of keeping upa brisk boiling, must not be forgotten;
for it has been found that the transmission of heat from steam pipes is two
and a half times as rapid when the water is boiling vigorously, as when
it is at rest as in the heating up of the juice in the act of defecation.
This great difference is obviously due to the rapid circulation and dis-
tribution of the heat when the boiling is going on, as compared with
the very slow movements in the mass of water when not boiling.

It is found, also, that the heat given out by steam coils to boiling
juice, is about fifteen per cent less than that given out to boiling water,

METHODS OF EVAPORATION. 339:

and this result is obviously due to the comparatively sluggish juice, as
compared with the water.

Surface or Film Evaporation.

A very large number of evaporators have been devised (some of
which appear to haye given excellent results in practice), based upon
the evaporation of the water from thin films of juice distributed over
heated surfaces, or exposed to hot and dry air. Among the many
forms of apraratus constructed upon this principle, may be mentioned
the following:

1. A continuous sheet of cloth, passing over two ‘sets of rollers, at
the top and bottom of a chamber through which, by means of a fan,
fresh hot and dry air is made to pass. The lower rolls are placed be-
neath the surface of the juice to be evaporated, so that, by the revolu-
tion of the cloth, a fresh portion of the juice is constantly exposed to
the hot. air.

2. A long, hollow cylinder, heated by the waste steam of the sugar
house, which passes through it, and which, revolving in the juice, in
which it is partly immersed, presents a fresh film constantly to the air.

3. The substitution of hollow discs upon a common axle, the hollow
axle permitting the steam to enterand heat the discs, which are caused
to revolve partially: immersed in the juice to be evaporated.

4. A spiral hollow coil, through which steam passes, which also re-
volves partially in the juice.

5. An upright hollow cylinder (15 or 20 inches in diameter, 10 to 12
feet long), heated within by steam, over which, from the upper end, the
juice is allowed to stream, the distribution of the juice over the surface
of the cylinder being effected by circular troughs about the cylinder,
at intervals, which, by their overflow, secure the distribution of the
juice in a film, which otherwise would form streams from the top to
the bottom of the cylinder.

6. Still another form is a skeleton cylinder, consisting of two steam
tight circular drums, which are connected together by a series of tubes
which enter the periphery of each drum, and through which the steam
passes from one drum to the other. This cylinder revolves horizontally,
with its lower portion dippipg in the juice, and thus presents a large
surface for evaporation.

None of these surface evaporators permit the removal of any impuri-
ties by skimming; and they can not, therefore, be used except for the
concentration of semi-syrup of 22° to 25° Beaumé, since the juice
requires more or less skimming during its evaporation, until it has
reached that density.

340 SORGHUM.

It would appear, however, that this principle possesses some valu-
able features, especially if so contrived as to complete the evaporation
of a given quantity of juice at once; for it is found that the evapora-
tion from a thin film is rapid, even at temperatures far below the boil-
ing point, as is known to everybody in the familiar process of drying
clothes by hanging them upon a line. ‘The principal objection urged
against all evaporators of this class, does not appear, as yet, to have
been overcome in practice, viz.: the drying and adhering to the heated
surfaces of a gradually increasing crust of sugar, which not only pre-
vents, to a great extent, evaporation, by being a poor conductor of
heat, but results in the inversion of a large portion of the sugar which
is thus adhering.

Pan Scale.

In the process of evaporation, especially with the open pan, con-
siderable trouble arises from the formation of a white scale upon the
pan, which not only retards evaporation, but becomes, when loosened,
incorporated with the syrup. An analysis of this scale, shows it to be
composed, when deposited from sorghum juice, of a lime salt of aconitie
acid. This acid has been detected in the molasses of sugar-cane, and
it is probable that a similar deposit found upon the evaporators of
sugar-cane juice, and generally called lime, is of like composition.
The average of three analyses of scale, from a concretor used for the
juice of sugar-cane, gave the following composition :

ANALYSIS OF PAN SCALE.

Per cent.

ITUPEVA Oh <fofer love Nas ates otale a wie feeds iets once. 5 be arotele MG TEI Oke SE Eins sie /Sa Biclng ee eIOR OR ee eee 5.36
ORGANIC 0 oc iheacce oven. Cn Sets asataicls, Siar tae NENG avo aRAaG Weleig olen ati tettlorais hie@ ate, Cold oie oe 18 05
TNSOMUDLE wes coc le ne sea cielo sic coe eee allow Mepain ne Rano eee pa serra ie teiie nee ee ene 14.24
Sally WMG! CTA re rea siav op atc atayocs 6/0)0te niece: aselareraesyo aie clereeetslatere Wes vies) a ayaielo\ caterers aur oia\oia ae ee 96
PHOS PROLICACIG ste oe met ast ci tees ae aon Hed oa cclejbawwieSas $s ss uiels go even eh eneem 8.43
EGU TAN crs ak oy poise ws tore ta le ayeserae eo ess ektose Heke aim elope oinha eis et elle No ereplonicle le eters Eas a 37.98
NOG) Cs Bea ine Seno! 4 Ra RSE ie ICn ABBE eater omit to 2 aS AG AA revs wislefels a eosin. 6m etehaia aie ote 2.61
ANI BI HOEC ast eae eis acse co leancisisiste Geen ears idl Ee eels © else, nssie ee sc ceheely anaes ROR eae 12.37
100.00

The character of the organic matter in the above is not given, but
it is by no means improbable that this scale is in part composed of the
same salt. The practical question concerning it, is its removal from
the pans, since, by its poor conducting power, it will cause the pans
to be heated even red hot, thus burning them out; and besides, if,
cracking loose, it admits the syrup to this red hot pan, burning is in-
evitable.

The use of diluted acids, sulphuric, hydrochloric, or even. vinegar,
has been recommended for its removal; but, if used, the pan must not
long be in contact with these stronger acids, and, after their use, the

VACUUM PANS. 341

pan must be repeatedly washed and rinsed with water, to remove every
portion of the acid.

A method which has been found effective with the open pan, has
been to wipe the pan quite dry, and before using it to burn a small
armful of straw or shavings under the pan, the sudden expansion of
the iron by the momentary blaze cracking the scale loose, so that it
may be swept out of the pan with a broom. Of course, care must be
taken to avoid unsoldering of the pan in this operation, of which there
is no danger if the blaze is only of short duration. It is very interest-
ing to observe, that a similar scale is often found in the pans when
maple sap is evaporated ; but this scale has been found to be the lime
salt of malic, another organic acid.

VACUUM PANS.

The principle upon which the vacuum pan is based, is the fact that
the boiling point of water, syrup, or any liquid, is in part, dependent
upon the pressure of the atmosphere, and that the temperature at
which a liquid boils, is higher or lower, according as the atmospheric
pressure is increased or diminished. For example, the boiling point
of water at the sea level, is 212° F. (100° C.), and the pressure of the
atmosphere is equal to the pressure of a column of mercury 30 inches
(776 mm.) high; but it is found that, at the summit of Mount Blanc,
which is 15,560 feet above the level of the sea, water boils at 185°.8 F.
(85°.6 C), and that the pressure of the atmosphere at the summit, is
only equal to a column of mercury 17,363 inches high (449 mm.)

It appears, then, an elevation of about 600 feet diminishes the boil-
ing point i°F., and this is demonstrated as due to the fact, that the
pressure of the atmosphere is diminished by leaving a portion of the
atmosphere below us in the ascent. Conversely, if we descend a mine,
we find the boiling point increases, owing to increase of pressure, as
indicated by the barometer.

If, now, by artificial means, the pressure of the atmosphere is in
part or wholly removed from a liquid, we find the boiling point is pro-
portionably diminished ; and in fact, the boiling point of water has been
reduced in a vacuum approximately perfect to 70°F. (21°.1C).

The vacuum pan, which was invented by Howard in 1813, and
which has come into such general use in the evaporation of liquids,
works by the principle above illustrated. Its importance in sugar
making is due to the fact, that, by the avoidance of high temperatures,
there is no danger of burning the sugar, as is frequent with open pans;
and the inversion of the sugar is reduced to a minimum.

342 SORGHUM.

Also, the rapidity of the operation is greatly increased, since the
evaporation in a vacuum proceeds very rapidly.

The amount of vacuum in the pan is stated in inches, in the sugar
house, and is determined by a barometer connected with the interior
of the pan. Thus, 28 inches of vacuum means, that the pressure
within the pan is equal to only 2 inches of mercury at the sea level;
20 inches vacuum means, that two-thirds of the pressure has been re-
moved from within the pan.

It is obvious, that the pressure on the pan by the surrounding at- |
mosphere, when any thing approaching a good vacuum is attained,
becomes enormous; 28 inches vacuum is common with good pans, and
a pan 8 feet in diameter would then sustain an outside pressure of at
least 200 tons. The pan, therefore, must be constructed of material
able to sustain this pressure.

The following table gives the boiling points for syrup in the vacuum
pan, for the several degrees of vacuum which are obtained in practice.
It is taken from Ures’ Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures:

BOILING POINTS IN VACUUM PAN.

Inches of vacuum. Temperature, Fahrenheit. Temperature, Centigrade.
26 .00 gine? 79° .4
26 .38 170° 76°.7
26.90 165° 73°.9
27.28 160° 7piceat
27.64 155° 68° .4
97.95 150° 65° .6
28 .20 145° 62°.8
28 .43 140° 60°.0
28 64 135° 572.2)
28.83 130° 54°.4
28 .99 125° 51°.7
29.14 120° 48° 9
29 .26 115° 46°.1

In construction, the vacuum pan consists of a spherical or oval ves-
sel of copper or iron, from four to ten or more feet in diameter, pro-
vided with one or more coils of copper tubes, to either or all of which
steam may be admitted by means of cocks. These coils occupy about
one-fourth or one-third the height of the pan. From the top of the
pan a large pipe proceeds, which enters first a receptacle, called the
overflow, which is to catch and retain any portion of the contents of
the pan which may by accident boil over. From the bottom of this
receptacle a tube, provided with a stop-cock, passes back to the vacuum
pan, in order that such overflow may be returned at intervals.

The large tube proceeding from the vacuum pan is connected with
the condenser, where the vapor escaping from the pan is condensed,

VACUUM PANS. 343

and removed by the vacuum pump. Condensation is effected by a jet
of water, similar to the method of condensing engines, or, when water
is limited, surface condensation is made use of: the vapor passing
through a system of pipes, over which water is allowed to trickle. In
the one case, the water used in condensation, as also the condensed
vapor, is removed by a steam pump; in the latter, only the condensed
vapor, and such uncondensed portion as remains, is removed by the
pump. At the bottom of the vacuum pan a sliding valve permits the
discharge of the contents, when concentration is completed. The
semi-syrup is forced into the pan through a pipe connected with the
syrup tank, by atmospheric pressure, owing to the vacuum in the pan.
A barometer and thermometer are connected with the interior of the
pan, by which the extent of the vacuum and the temperature of the
contents are indicated at a glance; also a proof stick, which enables a
portion of the contents of the pan to be removed for examination
without breaking the vacuum. LEye-glasses in the sides of the pan
enable the sugar-boiler to watch and thus control the operations.

The volume which a gas occupies being inversely as the pressure,
it follows that, with a vacuum of 28 inches, a cubic foot of water (74
gallons), which would produce, at the ordinary pressure of the at-
mosphere, 1700 cubic feet of steam, would yield, at 28 inches of
vacuum, 25,500 cubic feet. It is found that a cubic foot of water
will produce 21,500 cubic feet of steam under a pressure of 2 inches
of mercury.

The pipe which is to discharge from the pan the enormous bulk of
rarified steam generated, must be adequate, as also the apparatus for
condensation.

344 SORGHUM. ©

Plate XXXV.

The above plates, No. XX XV, show two forms of defecators made by the Colwell
Tron Works, New York, made either with cast-iron, wrought iron, or copper, with double
bottoms, as shown in one plate, or with copper coils, as shown in the other plate.

These vessels can be used as clarifiers, if needed; but it is objectionable to have a ves-
sel of too great a depth. Therefore, the vessels represented in Plate XXXVI are recom-
mended, either being as large as occasion requires, and so arranged with a scum trough
round the top, that, in the rapid ebullition, the overflowing liquor and scum can be
caught, and, by an automatic arrangement of valve, the liquor can be returned to the

‘TAXXX 99°Td

VACUUM PANS. 3845

main body, while the scum is held in the trough, untila sufficient quantity has gathered
to make it an object to ease the steam and wash out the trough.

These vessels are also used as open steam evaporators, having an abundance of heat-
ing surface, plenty of high pressure steam, and proper openings for the escape of the
condensation; forthe water must not be allowed to accumulate in the coils, if rapid and
effective work is desired.

The cuts show the necessary pipes and valves for the complete and successful working
of the train.

These vessels are also used for reducing the juice to a syrup of 25° B., preparatory for
the vacuum pan.

346 SORGHUM.

m\)
il

or aa == j : J Ih
i a iL.

MS ry

2M
ny a

Plate XXXVII.

DIRECT STEAM EVAPORATOR.

Plate XX XVII is a “ direct steam evaporator,” which receives the clarified juice from
the steam clarifier shown in Plate XXXY. The juice is boiled by means of a coiled
steam-pipe. The resulting scum boils overinto a trough round the upper edge of the
evaporator, and is itself subjected to defecation aiterward.

VACUUM PANS. 347

Sz 2S SSL“ ZZ 3 ==
—=_—=—=E>E ;

Plate XX XVIII.

ONE STORY VACUUM.—COLWELL.

348 SORGHUM.

Plate XX XIX,

TWO STORY VACUUM.—COLWELL.

VACUUM PANS. 349

<=

The foregoing plates, Nos. XXX VIII and XXXIX, represent two
styles of vacuum pans manufactured by the Colwell Iron-Works, and
the following description of the details of their construction, and the
mode of their operation has been supplied by the manufacturer:

Vacuum pans are of copper or iron. Copper was once used ex-
clusively, but of late years cast-iron has been the choice.

The heating surface is of seamless drawn copper tubes, in serpentine
coils, leaving from three to four inches space between each circle, and
inclining to the center, the lower coil following the dip of the bottom,
and the upper coil having a dip of about four inches, taking steam on
the outside, and leading the condensation out at the center through the
bottom to traps—the diameter of tubes depending upon the size of pan.

These coils are secured to cast braces by a cup and cover, which hold
‘them securely from jumping during the boiling, yet allowing them to
expand and contract without any strain. The braces are so arranged
that they offer but little obstruction to the outflow of the finished
sugar (this is a late improvement). Heretofore it was clumsy and
strong, or light and weak—in the first place, holding great masses of
magma at each strike of the pan; or, in the latter case, when a very
stiff boiling is made, the worms were oftimes in a ruin at the bottom
of the pan. With our arrangements, the minimum of obstruction and
the maximum of strength are obtained. The heating surface is the
life of the pan, and if not properly arranged, properly secured, with
proper inlets and outlets, the amount of work will not be up to expec-
tation.

Mountings.

Double steam valves, through which the steam is admitted into the
coils—principally exhaust steam. That not being enough, live steam
can be used at the same time, and yet not exert any back pressure ©
upon the exhaust of the different engines, if properly managed.

Eye glasses, which are placed in curb and dome to see the depth of
liquor, as well as the action of boiling.

Thermometer, vacuum guage, which, to be the most accurate, should
be columns of mercury. A double-charge cock, with one pipe leading
to the syrup tank, and another leading to molasses tanks.

A butter or oil cup, for the introduction of a little oil or sweet but-
ter to check the foaming.

The charge cock has a small cock in its side, called the lime-water
cock, for the purpose of correcting any acidity that may occur.

The draw off valve at the bottom is made much larger than for-
merly, as refiners and planters find it much more economical to boil
the pan as stiff as it can be done without getting it too dry (in which

350 SORGHUM.

case it will not run from pan without steam pressure from within),
many boiling it so closely that in two minutes more it would be liable
to set. :

For the economical working of a pan, a recipient is furnished. It
has many nozzles, so as to connect the exhaust from the various en-
gines in the sugar house, and is connected to the steam trunk with
suitable openings, and these in turn connected to the valves on pan
by copper pipes. To guard against too much back pressure, the re-
cipient has an escape valve, loaded to a working pressure of about five
pounds; and also so arranged that, when the pan is not working, the
steam can escape perfectly free.

The recipient also has a water guage and outlet cock.

The condensation of the eliminated vapors of the juice during the
boiling, is accomplished in a condenser that is connected to the vacuum
pan for the purpose of producing this effect by the injection of cold
water, which, coming in contact with these vapors, produces the
vacuum desired. |

This condensation and injection water is drawn off by means of a
large air pump, which, at the same time, takes out any air which may
have been admitted through any leaks in the machinery, together with
the air which we know to be in the water.

Without sufficient cold water, it is impossible to procure a perfect
condensation and a proper vacuum ; and, where this occurs, it is impos-
sible to do the work required of the pan.

From 24 to 29 inches of vacuum are considered necessary; and if
this is not shown by the mercury gauges, some imperfection exists
which ought to be remedied at once. j

The operation of boiling is as follows: The juice is elevated into
the tanks above by means of a steam pump, from whence the pan
draws it. After cooking a strike, which operation lasts from four to
six hours, it is thrown out by means of a valve at the bottom of the
pan into a mixer (see illustration), which is sufficiently large to con-
tain the entire strike of the pan. Afterward, the sugar passes from
the mixer to the centrifugals through a valve opening into each of the
machines, where it is purged, ready to be emptied into either boxes or
hogsheads, and sent to market. This system is called purging “‘ hot,”
and is used to-day in all the refineries of the United States and on
many plantations. For raw sugar, the vacuum pan can be made to
operate on the ‘‘ wet” or “dry” system. The latter, which is the most
modern, is preferred by all who thoroughly understand the matter, but
it requires more water. A plantation having complete machinery will
make six thousand barrels of sugar with greater ease and less labor

VACUUM PANS. 3851

than will be necessary on another plantation to make three thousand
barrels where the fire trains are used.

The advantage of the vacuum pan system, in respect to expense of
fuel, is immense; as the vacuum pan is worked by means of exhaust
steam from the various engines and pumps of the sugar house, thus
taking advantage of the latent heat in the boiling of the sugar, after
the steam has done its duty as prime mover.

Thus it will be seen that the employment of the vacuum pan and
triple effect does not materially increase the amount of fuel necessary
for the engines.

The situation of the pan in the house is important, for upon its po-
sition depends the economical working of the sugar house.

Employing this system, the planter can have packed in boxes or
barrels, and many times in the market each day, the sugar made on
the previous day. With the vacuum pan only can be obtained:a grain
of sufficient consistence to resist the extraordinary expulsive force of
the centrifugal.

With a well arranged boiling house, it is not necessary to touch the
juice after it leaves the mill until sugar, dry and well purged, comes
from the centrifugal, which all planters must acknowledge is a great
economy of labor, time, and money.

The pans can be put upon the beams of building, but the better
way is to place them upon iron columns and platform, independent of
building, so they will not be shaken by the high winds that visit sugar
countries. :

In the vacuum pan system, the amount of fuel saved is considerable,
and the difference in the amount of molasses obtained from a given
amount of juice is as 2 to 3—that is, the train produces three hogs-
head of sugar and one of molasses; the vacuum pan produces five, or
even seven, hogsheads of sugar to one of molasses.

352 SORGHUM.

Plate XL.
GRANULATOR.

pir 6m. WZINGRES

—_ E 2 savasa WVALS

ESS

Plate XL represents a sectional view of the Hersey Granulator.

The sugar is fed in on end through the spout by a set of rolls placed
above the machine; and, by lifting shelves on the inside of outer cylin-
der, is carried up and dropped in a continuous shower upon the heating
cylinder, and rolls off by the rotation of the machine, to be again car-
ried up, working forward to the opposite end by the inclination of the
apparatus, and is then delivered into the screen for separating into the
different grades.

The heater cylinder is put centrally within the iron conveying cyl-
inder, which is 23 feet long and 6 feet in diameter, the heater cylinder
being 20 feet long and 36 inches in diameter, and making five revolu-
tions per minute; a striker jarring off any sugar that may adhere to

VACUUM PANS. 353
the cylinder when first entering the machine, which is operated by
cams. The machine is rotated by means of outside gear on the con-
vey cylinder.

The current of air constantly passing through the machine carries
off the moisture from the sugar through a pipe, and the dry sugar is
delivered cool from the end into which the cold air is passing, so that
it does not cake, and can be immediately barreled, and will not cause
the barrels to shrink. 2

The following calculations of the practical workings of the vacuum
pan, are from the Encyclopedia of Chemistry, Vol. L, p. 908, Lip-
pincott.

«Tf 30,000 pounds of sugar containing 10 per cent of water, are
produced in 2 hours from pan-liquor containing 50 per cent of water,
equal to 274° Beaumé of density, then 27,000 pounds less 3,000 pounds
of water would be evaporated, which, at 28° vacuum, would equal
5,333,334 cubic feet of vapor, and the velocity of this vapor through
a pipe of two feet in the cross section, would be 741 feet per second.

If the condensing water was at the temperature of 60°F., and should
escape by the vacuum pump at a temperature of 90°F ., 24,000 pounds
of steam would require 84,480 gallons of water for condensation, or 1
gallons of water evaporated would require 28 gallons of water to
condense it.

The steam needed to evaporate 24,000 pounds of water in the vacu-
um pan, would be, at 30 pounds pressure above the atmosphere, 28,208
pounds, without any allowance for waste.

An open pan would require only 14 per cent more heat to evaporate
the same amount of water.”

It will thus be seen that the advantage of the vacuum pan (and
it is unquestionably great) is not found, as is by many urged, in its
saving of fuel or steam, for that is small, and, besides, the apparatus
is expensive, and requires expert supervision.

The vacuum pan enables the juice to be concentrated at a low tem-
perature, thus preventing burning entirely, and the inversion of the
sugar to a great degree.

The heat of the vacuum pan is generally the direct steam from the
boiler, but, on account of the low temperature necessary to secure ac-
tive boiling, it has been found economical to use the waste steam of
the sugar mill in the coils. Asan improvement upon the vacuum pan,
there have been devised what are known as the double or triple effects,
to be shortly described. :

In order, also, to avoid the effect of high temperatures upon the
sugar, an apparatus similar in construction to the Cook Pan, see page

23

354 SORGHUM.

330, has been employed, with the sides and partitions higher, so that
a depth of juice may be secured sufficient to cover a pipe through
which hot water circulates, by which the evaporation is kept up. In
like manner, hot water has been employed in the coils of the vacuum
pan, thus avoiding all danger of burning, which, by using steam,
may occur when the vacuum is not well kept, as through an insuf-
ficient supply of condensing water. Even in the vacuum pan, the
steam generated by the hot surface of the coils is yet under the pres-
sure of the superincumbent mass of syrup, which would be approxi-
mately 14 pounds pressure, equal to 3 inches of mercury, for two feet.
depth of syrup above the heated coil. It is obvious, therefore, that
the pan should be shallow in order to secure evaporation at the low-
est temperature; but, in practice, it has been found to give better
results in crystallization, by increasing the depth—a result which may
be due co the greater freedom of motion of the contents of the pan,
which the higher temperature and the escape of steam from a greater
depth insures. We have seen that sugar is soluble in all proportions
in water; or, rather, that the amount of water necessary to dissolve
sugar depends upon the temperature, see page 3936. If, therefore,
the water which is present in a solution of sugar be evaporated by
boiling in an open vessel, it will be found that, as the water evapo-
rates, the temperature of the boiling liquid will gradually increase,
and the degree of concentration may, be very accurately determined
by means of the thermometer. See page 536.

No crystallization of sugar, therefore, can be secured in the open
pan so long as the boiling is continued; but it is found, after the con-
centration has been carried to a certain point, that the amount of
sugar is so much in excess of that which the water present is able at
ordinary temperatures to dissolve, that, if a portion of the boiling
syrup be taken from the pan, the crystallization of the sugar is al-
most instantaneous, and it is by means of a few simple tests that the
experienced sugar-boiler in charge of the Jamaica Train is enabled to
tell, when the contents of his battery or strike pan are ready to be
transferred to the crystallizing vessels.

The method which is difficult to describe, but which is very simple
in practice, commonly employed, is to remove a portion of the boil-
ing syrup by the ladle, and observe its character and appearance,
as the last and partially cooled portion runs off; or, by taking
a drop of the syrup between the thumb and fore-finger, gradually
opening them and observing the string of syrup formed, which, if of
the right character, may be extended to about an inch and a half be-
fore parting; the broken end partly curls up, while the string presents

# “

VACUUM PANS. 855

a granular rather than a glassy look, showing the presence of the
minute grains of sugar which are formed during the cooling.

Another method is to observe the character of the escaping steam,
which no longer is continuous, but, as the time of striking for sugar ap-
proaches, is in large bubbles, escaping with a puff much resembling
the boiling of hasty pudding, or the last boiling in making maple
sugar.

In the vacuum pan, however, after a certain degree of concentra-
tion is reached, the temperature is no longer sufficient to hold all the
sugar in solution, and the excess is at once thrown down in the form of
an infinite number of microscopic crystals distributed through the boil-
ing mass. The appearance of this grain is carefully watched for by the
sugar-boiler; and, after its appearance, the contents of the pan and
the progress of the evaporation receives his constant supervision. The
object to be -secured is now, by repeated additions of ‘‘ pan-liquor” (as
the semi-syrup, with which the vaccum pan is at first charged and
afterward fed, is termed), to ‘‘ build up,” as they say, the small crystals
of sugar, or “‘ grain,” until they are of appreciable size, so that their
purging in the centrifugal may be easily accomplished. The dangers
are that, either through increased heat in the pan, by partially losing
the vacuum, or by the two great amount of pan liquor admitted in a
charge, and the consequent considerable dilution of juice, he may lose
the grain by its being dissolved, and he must again recover it, as at the
outset ; or, by a too rapid evaporation, and the consequent excessive
deposition of sugar, 1t may happen that the sugaris thrown down more
rapidly than it can be deposited upon the crystals already formed, and
a fresh crop of crystals is produced, known technically as “ false
grain.”

This “‘ false grain” is very carefully guarded against by the sugar-
boiler, and may be dissolved by a heavy charge of pan-liquor and a high
heat inthe pan. But it may happen when the pan is already so full as
to forbid further addition of fresh liquor; in which case, it can only be
removed by means of heavy washing with water in the centrifugal or
mixer, thus causing a great loss of sugar in the molasses.

In working the vacuum pan, the vacuum is first created by the
pump, when the semi-syrup is drawn into the pan, until the first coil
of pipe is covered, when the steam may be turned into such coil, and,
as the successive coils become covered with the syrup, steam is admitted
to them. It then remains only to add fresh portions of the semi-syrup
as evaporation progresses, until the grain is formed, when the exercise
of more care is needed. After a time the full capacity of the pan is
reached, and it is then necessary to remove the contents of the pan,

396 SORGHUM.

wholly or in part, into cooling or crystallizing tanks, which, being on
wheels, are conveniently brought under the sliding gate at the bottom
of the vacuum pan; and as they are successively filled, they are
wheeled into a warm room, where they are allowed to remain for a few
hours, or even a day or two, during which time more of the sugar will
crystallize.

In ‘‘ striking” the pan, as the removal of its contents is termed, the
steam is first turned off, the vacuum is broken, the pump stopped, and
the contents discharged. It is, however, often the case, that but a
portion is removed, and that then the boiling is resumed, supplies
of pan sugar being drawn in from time to time, as before. Of course |
this results (in case no false grain is produced) in the increase in the
size of the crystals of sugar; and they are often obtained, by the re-
peated partial striking of the pan, at last with a diameter from one-
sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch. But this “doubling,” as the
operation is termed, is only possible with very pure juices, as of the
best sugar-cane, since the impurities of the juice are gradually accumu-
lating in the molasses, and finally become so abundant as to make
purging of the sugar difficult, if not impossible. If such ‘‘gumminess”
of the molasses is not excessive, a little lime-water drawn into the pan
during boiling, is said to remove it; but when it is such as to seriously
interfere with the purging of the sugar, the strike of the vacuum pan
should be complete, and the pan should be charged with fresh liquor,
as at the outset. The danger of false grain being produced, is es-
pecially great when, after a partial strike, a fresh portion of pan-
liquor is drawn into the pan.

During the entire operation, the interior of the pan may be observed
through the glasses in its side, and its contents examined, from time to
time, by means of the proof-stick.

MULTIPLE EFFECTS.

On account of the low degree of heat necessary to secure evaporation
in the vacuum pan, an important modification has been made by the
employment of what are known as double and triple effects. These are,
in fact, a series of two or three vacuum pans, connected with each
other; the first being heated, as usual, and the steam from it being
used in the coils of the second pan, which practically plays the part
of a surface condenser for the first pan. In like manner, the steam
from the second pan passes into the coils of the third, which, in its turn,
acts as a surface condenser to the second pan. Finally, a condenser
and vacuum pump is connected with the last pan of the series, as to
the ordinary single vacuum pan. It is claimed that, by this arrange-

MULTIPLE EFFECTS. 357

ment, great economy is secured in the use of fuel, and that the expense
of attendance during the concentration of the juice is greatly dimin-
ished. :

The saving of labor secured by the employment of triple effect ap-
paratus, as shown in the working of two similar estates, is as given in
‘Sugar Growing and Refining,” page 271, as follows: The syrup and
sugar produced upon each estate were said to have been identical in qual-
ity and value, and both were under equally able management. On the
estate using open evaporators and a single vacuum pan, the labor
amounted to 58 men for 18 hours per day, or 1,044 hours per day; while
the second estate, using a triple effect and vacuum pan, required, per
day, 40 men for 15 hours, or a total of 520 hours of labor per day—a
saving of labor, as will be seen, of one-half. Each factory turned out
daily 13 tons of first and second sugars. The additional expense of the
plant is obvious; but if this saving may be counted upon as possible,
the employment of this triple effect appears by far the most economical.
Only such juice as has been purified to such a degree as to yield no
impurities upon further concentration, is adaped for use in the triple
effect, since it is impossible that these can be removed by skimming.
The several pans of the triple effect are connected with each other in
such way as to enable the contents of the first to be drawn into the
second, and the second into the third, as the proper degree of concen-
tration is attained in each.

308

SORGHUM.

Plate XLI.

TRIPLE EFFECT VACUUM.

MULTIPLE EFFECTS. 359

Plate XLI represents a triple effect evaporating apparatus, as man-
ufactured by the Colwell Iron-Works, many sets of which are in use
upon sugar plantations, as also in the manufacture of beet sugar.
The triple effect is the most economical method of evaporation, as it is all
done in vacuum. <A general description of this apparatus is as follows:

It is composed of three cast-iron vacuum pans, so arranged that the
vapor generated in the first pan passes to the heating surface of the sec-
ond pan, where it boils the liquor; and the vapor thus generated
passes to the third, where it boils the syrup; while the vapor from
this third pan passes to the condenser, and is drawn off by means of the
vacuum pump. The first pan receives its steam from the exhaust
steam recipient, which also supplies the vacuum pan.

By this method, there will be required only thirty-five per cent of
the steam and water for the proper operation of these pans which

‘would be necessary were all the evaporation done in a single vessel;
but this method of evaporation will only hold good on liquor up to 28
or 30° Beaumé. -

The interior heating surface of these pans consists of two-inch copper
tubes, expanded into composition heads, which are properly secured in
the lower curbs of the pans. There is also a suitable large circulating
pipe. The mountings of the pans are about the same as in the vacuum
pan. By asystem of valves and vapor pipes, any of the pans can be
connected directly with the condenser at will, thus making it single,
double, or triple effect.

The course of the liquor is as follows:

The pump upon the left of the cut draws the defecated liquor from
the deposit tanks, the speed being so regulated that the pan is kept at
a certain level, the vacuum being about 5 inches and the heat about
180° F. It is here evaporated to about 15 or 16° Beaumé, and, by
means of a discharge cock and pipe, is fed into the second pan in such
a quantity as to maintain a fixed level. It is here reduced to about
20° Beaumé, and a temperature of say 150° F., and, by means of a
discharge cock to this pan, the third pan is supe in the same man-
ner. Here the concentration goes on till at the finishing point, 25 to
28° Beaumé; then, by means of the condenser and vacuum pump, the
necessary vacuum is maintained, in order to finish at as low a temper-
ature as possible. It is now drawn off by means of a montjus, or
pump, and passes to the clarifiers.

The operation is continuous, provided there is a proper supply of
defecated juice.

The saving of fuel and labor by this method over the steam or fire
trains is one of the great incentives in adopting this large piece of ma-

360 SORGHUM.

chinery. The quality of the sugar from the juice evaporated in
vacuum, and the greater quantity of sugar, or, more properly speak-
ing, the smaller quantity of molasses that can be obtained by this over
the fire system, is another and very important reason for its adoption.

If necessary, the vacuum pan, triple effect, and the different circuits
of juice and water about the house, can all be operated by one engine,
under the immediate control of the sugar master.

Concretors.

In each of the evaporators thus far described, the object has been
the concentration of the juice after defecation to a syrup, from which
the sugar, after crystallizing, may be obtained, by either draining off
the molasses, as with the muscovado, or open pan, fine grained sugars,
or by removing the molasses by means of the centrifugal machine, as
is done with vacuum pan large grained sugars.

But, owing to increased expense and trouble attending the produe-
tion of sugar upon the plantation, and the greater economy which at-
tends the extraction of sugar where larger and improved apparatus
and greater skill in supervision is secured, many attempt only the
production upon the plantation of what is known as “concrete,” i. e.,
the defecated juices evaporated until, upon cooling, it solidifies to a
mass, which may be shipped readily, and from which the refiners may
readily extract the sugar. This concrete contains, of course, all the
impurities which remain in the defecated juice and are not removed
by skimming in the production of the concrete.

In principle the concretor may be likened to a Cook Pan, by means
of which the defecated juice is allowed to flow over a long trough, ex-
posed, during its flow, to a heat which at first is sufficient to boil the
juice and raise the scum, and is afterward diminished so that the
juice, when at a density of about 25 to 30° Beaumé, is not heated even
to 100° C. Generally, the time required for the concentration of
defecated juice to 30° Beaumé is from 8 to 10 minutes. The syrup
thus obtained is, by means of revolving discs, similar to those de-
scribed under Surface Evaporation (page 339), still further evaporated.
This last evaporation is rendered more rapid by means of hot air,
which is forced by a fan over the film of syrup upon the discs, the last
evaporation being accomplished at a temperature below that of boiling
water. Scrapers continually remove the solidified juice from the discs.
The ‘‘concretor” is also used for the purpose of reducing the juice,
after defecation, to pan-liquor, for which it is well adapted: in this way
taking the place of the ordinary evaporators used for this purpose. It
would seem that the use of the concretor and the preparation of con-

MULTIPLE EFFECTS. 361

crete for some central factory or refinery was worthy of careful con-
sideration by those who are unable to enter upon the expense of a
sugar house, since this concrete may be kept a long time, can be
shipped without loss, and worked for sugar when convenient. Its
market value would, of course, be largely dependent upon its content
of sugar; but it could easily be worked over for syrup. By thus sim-
plifying the necessary work upon the farm, in the preparation of a
marketable article, it offers unusual facilities to those entering upon
this new industry with little experience and limited capital. In all the
methods thus far described for the removal of water from the saccha-
rine juices and the separation of the sugar, heat has been always the
agent employed ; but, to the chemist and the physicist, cold presents
itself as an agent well calculated to accomplish the same result, and
possessing certain great advantages in its employment.

Already this agent has long been considered as practically available,
and numerous experiments have been made to render it effective; but
thus far no practical results appear to have been realized.

One pound of water at 70° F. loses 38° in passing to the freezing
point, and in the act of freezing must part with 140° more of heat;
or, in other words, to freeze one pound of water at: 70° F. requires the
removal of heat enough to raise 178 pounds of water one degree.

On the other hand, one pound of water at 70° F. requires 142° of
heat to raise it to the boiling point; and, to convert it into steam, re-
quires an additional 966°.6 of heat; or, in other words, to convert one
pound of water at 70° F. into steam at 212° F. requires as much heat
as would suffice to raise 1,106.6 pounds of water one degree in tem-
perature.

It appears, therefore, that the relative energy required to freeze or
boil water at 70° F. is as 178 is to 1,108.6, or as 1 to 6.23. In evap-
oration, the energy developed in the combustion of wood or coal, for
example, is applied directly, and, although, through radiation, condue-
tion, and the various imperfections of the furnace, much of the energy
is lost—so far as effective work is concerned, such loss may be reduced
almost to its minimum; but, in the several transformations necessary
to apply the energy developed by burning coal, through steam boilers,
engines, pumps, and so forth, to the freezing of water, the inevitable
loss seems to more than counteract the apparent advantage the latter
operation has over the former.

One pound of coal will evaporate about nine pounds of boiling
water, equal to 7.85 pounds of water at 70° F.; and it is claimed that
one pound of water may be frozen by the combustion of three pounds of
coal under the boilers of the refrigerating apparatus. But, despite this

362 SORGHUM.

unfavorable showing, there are so many advantages to result from the
use of cold in concentration, that it is well worth careful investigation,
and it is scarcely improbable that, through improved appliances, such a
process may be made practical... The fact that crystallization is a
means of purification, owing to the crystal during its growth excluding
all foreign substances, has been referred to, page 326.

The fmndeien of ice, which is simply the crystallization of water,
is not an exception to this rule. The concentration of cider and of
vinegar by the freezing of a portion of water are familiar examples.
This method of concentration has been extensively used in the preparation
of salt from sea water in Northern Russia, shallow pits being dug upon
the shore, into which the sea water is admitted and allowed to freeze,
the ice which forms being nearly pure water. The unfrozen portion is
thus concentrated to such a degree as to make further concentration by
heat economical.

SEPARATION OF THE SUGAR FROM MOLASSES.

After the concentration of the juice has been effected, it is neces-
sary, if the open pan process has been used, to let the syrup remain in
coolers or cystallizing tanks until the sugar has had time to separate in
crystals. The time required for the completion of this process depends
upon the character of the syrup. In case the relative amount of glu-
cose and other impurities is small, and the syrup thin and liquid, a day
or two will suffice; but where the amount of sugar is relatively small,
the syrup stiff and viscid, weeks, or even months, are necessary to
complete the crystallization. It is found that the slower the crystal-
lization the fewer and larger the crystals, and, in some instances, erys-
tals over an inch in diameter have been produced. The production
of rock candy is a case illustrating this.

Crystallization is facilitated by keeping it in warm rooms, as the heat
renders the syrup more liquid, and gives freedom to the particles of
sugar.

Crystallization is more rapid from shallow coolers (6 to 10 inches)
than from those of great depth (2 to 3 feet), but, when rapid, results in
a mass of fine crystals difficult to free from the molasses, while the erys-
tals from the deeper vessels are larger. If the concentration has been
properly conducted, there will always be. after crystallization a mass
of sugar crystals distributed in the molasses.

The separation of this molasses is accomplished in a variety of ways s.
The common muscovado sugar, obtained by boiling in the Jamaica
Train or open pan, was drained of its molasses by throwing the mass
of sugar and molasses from the coolers into hogsheads, arranged so

SEPARATION OF THE SUGAR FROM MOLASSES. 363

thut the drippings from them could be received in a large tank. In
the bottom of the hogsheads holes were bored, which were kept open,
and, in time, a large portion of the molasses would slowly drain off,
leaving always a considerable portion still adhering to the crystals of
sugar. It was thus sent to market as a soft-grained, moist, yellow or
brown sugar, the color being due almost entirely to the adhering dark
colored molasses. Another method suitable for the extraction of sugar
upon a small scale, is to put the ‘‘ mush sugar,” as the mixture of sugar
and molasses may be termed, into strong bags of a somewhat loose ma-
terial, and subjecting them to pressure, at times taking out the bags to
work over their contents, and pressing again.

Claying.

The fact that the color of the raw sugar was found to be due to the
film of molasses adhering to each crystal, which neither draining nor
pressure could entirely remove, led to the washing of the sugar with
water. This was accomplished by placing the concentrated syrup or
mush sugar in earthen molds, shaped like an inverted cone. At the
bottom a hole, which was stopped until crystallization of the contents
was completed, allowed the molasses to drain away. When this was
completed, a layer of straw was spread on the sugar, over which a stiff
paste of clay was put, the moisture from which, slowly percolating
through the mass of sugar crystals, washed off the coating of molasses
and left the crystals nearly white. Instead of clay, a piece of felt or
other heavy cloth was often used.

Of course, much of the sugar was dissolved by this process, and the
claying was discontinued before the entire contents of the cone was
made white; so there came to be recognized in the trade different
brands of clayed sugars, according to the portion of the cone from
which they were taken. The dried cones were cut into portions hori-
zontally, the upper and whiter being termed in French trade premier,
next second, then troisieme, petit, commun, and tete, the latter being
the still black sugar from the apex of the cone.

These sugars have been largely made in the French colonies, China,
and Cuba; and the ‘‘ Havana sugar,” so common in our own markets
twenty years ago, was a clayed sugar.

At one time, it is said that there were four hundred plantations, in
St. Domingo alone, which made clayed sugars.

Centrifugals.
The most convenient (and, at present, almost universal) method for
the separation of the molasses from the sugar, is the centrifugal ma-

364 4 SORGHUM.

chine, introduced in 1843. It consists of a cylindrical vessel, about
three feet in diameter, revolving upon an upright shaft. The outer
portion of this cylinder is of wrought iron, pierced with numerous
small holes. Within this, and lying against it, are one or two screens
of wire gauze. This is inclosed within an outer cylinder of iron, of a
diameter six or eight inches greater than the revolving drum within.
The wire basket (which has an opening at the top for the introduction
of the charge, and trap-doors at the bottom for the removal of the sep-
arated sugar) is connected by a belt, ete., with an engine, by which it
is made to revolve from 1,000 to 1,500 times a minute, thus giving at
the circumference a velocity of from two to three miles a minute, for a
centrifugal three feet indiameter. The mixer is a long, half cylindri-
cal vessel, into which the mass of sugar and molasses from the coolers
is emptied, and where (by means of a series of revolving arms, attached
to a shaft running lengthwise in the mixer) the contents are stirred into
a homogeneous mass. From this vessel (which, for convenience, is
placed directly over, and discharges through a sliding valve its con-
tents into the centrifugal) a charge is introduced after the centrifugal
is set in motion, but before it has attained its maximum velocity. The
centrifugal force distributes the mass equally over the gauze periphery,
and the molasses forced through is caught by the outer drum, and col-
. lected in a receiving tank placed below. So soon as the molasses has
been separated, a spray of water is thrown upon the surface of the
sugar, and the residual molasses is thus removed. <A jet of steam is
sometimes introduced upon the outside of the perforated drum,
to aid in the ready removal of the molasses; and, after the washing,
hot air is drawn in upon the sugar to dry it. Ordinarily from five to
fifteen minutes suffices to purge one charge, although the character of
the mush sugar introduced is sometimes such, that a far longer time
is necessary.

Vacuum pan sugars, being made up of larger crystals, are far more
easily purged than the softer, finer grained, open pan sugars, and the
purging of such coarse grained sugars is accompanied with less loss of
sugar. The injurious effect of false grain is here manifest, since it tends
to block up the meshes of the gauze, and thus prevent the expulsion
of the molasses. The treatment of water, therefore, either in the
mixer or in the centrifugal, for the purpose of dissolving these minute
crystals of sugar is rendered necessary.

SEPARATION OF THE SUGAR FROM MOLASSES. 3865

Plate XLII.

No.1. Hand, 18-inch disk. Capacity, 60 pounds per hour,
Same, for belt. Capacity, 100 pounds per hour.
Same, combined for either belt or hand.

Power machine, 24-inch disk. Capacity, 250 pounds per hour,

SORGHUM.

366

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367

SEPARATION OF THE SUGAR FROM MOLASSES.

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Plate XLIV.

HANGING CENTRIFUGAL.

Plate XLIV represents the Hanging Centrifugal Machine, especially adapted to gummy sugars.
It discharges the sugar at the bottom, and it is claimed that it will purge from one to two tons of
sugar per hour,

-

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SORGHUM.

368

SEPARATION OF THE SUGAR FROM MOLASSES. 369

Molasses.

Molasses is the name given to the liquid product which is, by
either of the processes given, separated from the sugar.

In speaking of ‘‘available sugar” in a juice or syrup, it Was ex-
plained that the glucose and inverted sugar present in a syrup would
prevent its own weight of sugar from crystallizing ; also, that some of
the mineral matters present in the syrup, exerted a similar action in
holding the sugar in solution. Molasses, then, is a mixture containing
in solution all those impurities originally present in the juice, which
were not removed in defecation or skimming, and the sugar which
has been held in solution by such impurities. It generally holds in
solution a certain amount of sugar which was‘not removed in the
first crystallization, and this is often so great as to warrant the
molasses being boiled in the vacuum pan a second, or even a third
time for sugar. These successive crops of sugar thus obtained, are
called seconds or thirds, and the molasses from them is also termed
second and third molasses.

Of course, each additional quantity of sugar taken from the mo-
lasses only serves to concentrate the impurities more and more, so
that the last molasses are almost worthless, except for distillation
into rum, or for the production of spirits. In the crude operations of
the sugar plantations, the amount of sugar left in the molasses is so
great, that large quantities are imported and worked over by the re-
fineries; and the residual molasses, purified by the bone-black filtra-
tion to which it is subjected, is rendered still a very acceptable com-
modity for domestic use.

The average percentage composition of a molasses, when all the
sugar which will crystallize has been obtained, is nearly as follows:

; Beet molasses. Cane molasses.
DO EAP TLE TT 6 EE SR eee esa. 55.00 35.00
Organic | MRLer NOE HUEAE. > ..20- 5-222). 2s. -55 52S. 13.00 10.00
Glnenses 252205 sce.: BPO IS cts 8 rege Bae eae trace 30.00
VS gy ae eine! 2B ee oc Uae ieee ae eae Ae 20.00 20.00
INGE 2 Pero tn oe oe ce Cn oe onic’ « oes aes says 12.00 5.00
100.00 100.00

We have then from the above, the ‘‘available sugar” from the cane
as equal to the cane sugar or the sucrose, less the sum of the glucose
and mineral matter, since, in practice, it appears that the sum of
these above represents the amount of sucrose held in solution in the
molasses.

Tf, then, as is most probable, the juices of sorghum and maize are com-
parable with the juice of sugar-cane in this regard, it will be seen that
our estimate of available sugar has been placed too low, since, in every

24

370 SORGHTM.

ease, we have also considered the organic matters not sugars as capa-
ble of holding in the molasses their own weight of sucrose, while in
the cane molasses this is seen not to be the case. On the other hand,
the molasses from sugar beets is found to contain but slight amounts
of glucose, but a very much larger amount of sucrose, and this is held
in solution by the ash present, composed largely of potash salts, which
have been shown by the experiments of Marschall and La Grange (La
Sucrerie Indiginie, X., 259) able to hold from 3 to 6 times their
weight of sugar in the molasses.

SUCRATES OF LIME AND STRONTIA.

In the manufacture of beet sugar, owing to the fact that the mo-
lasses is of such quality as to unfit it for any domestic use, efforts have
been made to secure from it the erystallizable sugar which it contains,
and one of the most successful methods has been to combine the sugar
with lime, to form the basic sucrate of lime, which may be then sepa-
rated from the glucose and other impurities of the molasses, and from
this sucrate the sugar is obtained by converting the lime into carbonate
of lime, and thus setting free the sugar.

Since this process has been by some recommended as one by which
the sugar from sorghum or maize stalks might be procured readily, in
2 condition such as to enable it to be sent to central factories, or be-
come an article of commerce, the process of its preparation will be
given. The compound of sugar and lime is known as the tri-basic
sucrate of lime, and consists, when pure, of one molecule (542 parts
by weight) of sugar, and three molecules (168 parts by weight) of
lime,or 67 per cent sugar and 33 per cent lime.

Its preparation from molasses or syrup is as follows: The molasses
is mixed with about one-quarter its weight of lime, when the mass
solidifies, and, after cooling, it is broken up and washed with water, by
which the greater part of the impurities are removed, the compara-
tively insoluble sucrate of lime being left behind. But, owing to the
partial solubility of the sucrate, much of the sugar is thus lost, and,
instead of water, aleohol of about 35 per cent is used to wash the mass,
the aleohol being again recovered by distillation. It is necessary to
have lime sufficient to fully saturate the sugar present, since several
other compounds of lime and sugar may be formed which are far more
soluble than the tri-basic sucrate; and besides this compound, while
comparatively insoluble in water, is readily soluble in a solution of
sugar. Owing to the ease with which it would seem that this com-
pound might be prepared, its convenience for shipping or storage, since
it is said to keep unchanged for long periods, it is to be hoped that ex-

SUCRATES OF LIME AND STRONTIA. 371

periments may soon be made to determine the exact method of pro-
cedure, by which the small farmer could convert the juice of his sor-
ghum into a permanent, portable, and commercial product, without
the trouble and expense of trying to make sugar.

Sucrate of Strontia.

Professor Scheibler, of Berlin, Germany, has recently patented a
process, for the recovery of sugar from molasses, in which he substitutes
strontia for lime, forming the tri-basie sucrate of strontia, which, like
the corresponding lime compound, is afterward decompvused by car-
bonie acid, and the sugar recovered.

The advantage of this modification is, that the strontia compound is
less soluble than that of lime, and it may be more readily obtained
free from the impurities with which it is associated in its production.

The details, in brief, of this process, are as follows: The molasses
or syrup is diluted to such an extent, that, when heated to a tempera-
ture of from 70° to 75° C. (158° to 167° F.), it will dissolve enough
of the somewhat difficultly soluble strontia hydrate to form a tri-basic
sucrate of strontia, with all the sugar present in the molasses or syrup.
Or a solution of the strontia hydrate in water may be added to the
molasses sufficient to form the tri-basic sucrate, allowing 364.5 parts
by weight of strontia hydrate to 542 parts by weight of sugar present
in the molasses or syrup to be operated upon, or 106.6 per cent of the
weight of the sugar calculated to be present. The objection to this
method of procedure being, that the solution would thus be rendered
too dilute, since the strontia hydrate is much less soluble in water than
in a solution of sugar.

In practice, the diluted molasses is run into a sheet-iron vessel, sur-
rounded by a steam jacket, and provided with a stirring apparatus, by
which the molasses is stirred up with the strontia hydrate, an excess of
which has been previously added in the solid condition to the sheet-
iron receptacle. So soon as the sugar of the molasses has become
saturated with strontia, care being taken that the temperature be not
allowed to arise above 75° C., the solution of strontium sucrate, and the
other impurities of the molasses, is drawn off into another vessel, leav-
ing behind the excess of undissolved strontia hydrate for a subsequent
lot of molasses. This second vessel receiving the solution, is also pro-
vided with stirring apparatus, and, in this vessel, the solution is heated
to the boiling point, at which temperature the strontium. sucrate is de-
posited from the solution in the form of a heavy sandy powder, which,
unlike the corresponding gelatinous and voluminous calcium sucrate,
deposits quickly and may be easily filtered. The filtration of the de-

372 SORGHUM. ;

posited strontium sucrate must be effected at a boiling temperature,
and is accomplished best by means of the filter press, the last portions
of the impurities still in solution being removed by steam, or the
strontium sucrate is obtained by means of the centrifugal.

The production of sugar from this sucrate, and the recovery of the
strontia as hydrate, are comparatively simple matters.

The cost of the strontium hydrate, and the large amount required
to combine with the sugar, forbid this from becoming a process to be
employed by the farmer, but there appears to be no reason why it
might not be used in large works where the production of the maxi-
mum of sugar was desirable. .

Plate XLVI
CHAR HOUSE, FILTERS, KILNS, ETC.

TANK

FERMENTING

—_JEWAR WAGON

The above diagram shows the arrangement of a complete char-
house, filters, kilns, ete.

Se =x. 3

CHAR HOUSE, KILNS, ETC. 373

The description of the same was prepared by the Colwell Iron-
Works, of New York City. The man-holes at the bottom of the fil-
ters are not represented in the plate, since the filters are in two rows
with the man-holes opposite the side shown in the plate. The driers,
also mentioned in the description, are not represented in tht plate,
but the general arrangement of this portion of the sugar-house will
appear sufficiently clear to the reader.

The char house is acknowledged to be the most important branch of
sugar refining, for without it white sugar can not be made to advan-
tage; and to properly revivify the char, much ingenuity has been ex-
pended. As many as 172 distinct patents for drying, revivifying, and
cooling the char preparatory to filling the filters, have been granted.

The char house and filtering department should be adjacent, so that
the spent char from the filters car be delivered in as short a time as
possible to the driers on the top of the kilns, and the revivified char
from the coolers under the kilns may be transferred to the dusting ar-
rangement and deposit tank for the char over the filters.

We will now follow the course of the char, and suppose it has been
received from the filter, and placed in the drier.

The char, in its slow descent through the drier, constantly pre-
sents new surfaces to the action of the in-goirg air, carrying off the
ammoniacal gases, and leaves the drier almost at boiling point, so that
after a few minutes exposure to the open air it is quite dry on the sur-
face. These driers, when applied to the old style of ss have in-
creased the capacity about 25 per cent.

The char is received in a bin, which is directly over the top of the
retorts; and, as the char is drawn from the coolers underneath the
kiln, the retort is charged; thus being continuous in its action, and
requiring no men on the kiln head, trampling, shoveling, turning, and
pitching the char about, so as to dry it as much as possible before it
enters the pipes; for it is admitted that, without the drier, fully two-
thirds of the fuel is consumed to expel the moisture before the char
begins to purify, filling the char house with steam and gases, while
with the drier it is the best ventilated portion of the house.

The char now passes to the retort pipes which, in the ordinary kiln,
are of cast-iron, of an oval pattern, 3 x 12 inches inside set—twelve
or more on each side of the fire-place, which is about eighteen inches
wide by eight feet long. The retorts are entirely surrounded by a fire-
brick wall, outside of which are the flues, into which the gases escape
through small holes back of the retorts, Passing up these side flues,
they join in front or back and are delivered under the drier into a flue,

374 SORGHUM.

where the hot gases are distributed into the pipes of the drier, and
through them into the chimney, at a temperature of 380° F., with a
great saving of fuel.

After remaining in the retort a sufficient length of time to be raised
to a cherry-red heat, the organic substances which have been taken up
from the juice are here expelled.

At intervals, the char-slide at the bottom of cooler is opened, and —

a quantity of char drawn off and tested, which test, proving correct,
soon enables the char-burner to tell how much char should be drawn at
certain intervals: for if too much is drawn, the char will be improp-
erly burned, and will be unsuited for use in the filters. This can be
learned by practice and by test. The cooler is a sheet iron tube, con-
nected with the bottom of the retort, where the char is reduced in
temperature to 120° F., and is then received in barrows, or, in large
houses, upon an endless carrier apron, which delivers it to an elevator,
raising it to a dust box and blower, where the fine dust char is taken
away, and the clean char is received in a carrier with inclined shoots,
so as to fill the filters quickly and uniformly.

The filters are iron cylinders and usually designed so that the height
is six times the diameter, until within a few years, when filters have
been made ten feet in diameter and eighteen feet high. The style of
filter somewhat depends upon the size of char used, and the manner
of working the house, whether very fine grain or course char—each
size having its partisans, claiming superiority for each. The filter is

filled with animal charcoal, and the liquor is let in upon it expelling
the air. Great care is necessary that the whole filter should be full,
and the juice not allowed to ran down on one side only. After the
liquor has completely filled the filter, the cock is turned on at the bot-
tom, and the liquor is conducted to the top of another filter, and also
to a third, if needed, so the juice passes over a set of two or more,
discharging the juice clear and colorless; this goes on until the color
grows dark, or is not satisfactory, and they are stopped, the foul filters
washed out by letting the water flow in at the top, pressing the liquor
out before it, until it does not show a trace of sweetness. The filter is
then allowed to drain. Sometimes steam is used, or an exhaust is ap-
plied to the bottom to draw off the water—air following to fill the
vacuum. The lower man hole is now opened, and the exhausted char
conveyed directly to the drier over the kilns by means of a suspended
rail car or elevator.

The plate represents the sectional view of filter and kiln house; the
ear to convey it to the elevator, the elevator to raise it up into the top

: i apes the drier, through the
1 the coolers | to the wagon underneath,

376 ' SORGHUM.

CHAPTER XI.

(a.) Waste products from sorghum.
oe Seed, composition, and feeding value.
(c.) Bagasse, loss of sugar in.
(d.) Experiments in saving sugar from bagasse.
(e.) Leaves, food value.
(f.) Bagasse as food, fuel, and as aes for paper.
(g.) Scums and sediments, value.
(h.) Sorghum as a forage plant.

WASTE PRODUCTS.

By those who have watched closely the development of the beet
sugar industry, it is seen that its successful establishment has, in every
case, been intimately connected with the most careful attention to
details. Not only has the extraction of the sugar from the beet been
brought to the limits of perfection, but entirely new methods have
been devised, after long years of investigation, for extracting the
largest attainable quantity of sugar from the syrup. The greatest
attention has also been given to the utilization of the so-called waste
produets of the manufacture ; and where these, as an additional source
of revenue, are disregarded, the industry has, at best, barely sustained

tself, even in those sections where the conditions appear most favora-
ble. In fact, to such perfection have all the details of the manufact-
ure of the sugar been brought, that the chief care appears to be given
to these minor points of the industry. The result is, that the beet is
practically the only rival of the sugar-cane as a source of sugar for
the world.

It needs but a glance to see that nothing like such minute and
careful supervision has been given to the sugar-cane or the sorghum
industry.

Millions of tons of sugar have, during past years, been produced
from sugar-cane, by processes so crude and methods so wasteful, that
it is safe to say, hardly another great industry in the world would sur-
vive such burdens of waste for a single decade. At the present, the
sorghum sugar industry is setting out mainly in the course laid down
by the sugar-cane manufacturers. As the reports from every section
of the country unite to show that none of our common farm crops
yield so large a profit as does the production of syrup and sugar from

=

COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM SEED. ott

sorghum, it is most important that advantage be taken of every detail :
attention to which gives promise of increasing the profit of this new
indusiry.

A discussion of what may be regarded as the waste products of sor-
ghum is of extreme importance, and is given in this chapter.

Among waste products may be classed the seed, bagasse, and leaves,
and tbe refuse products in the manufacture of sugar, viz.: scum and
sediment of the defecator, the sediments of the settling tanks, and
skimmings from the evaporator.

The most important of these is the seed. For this alone sorghum
has, for centuries at least, been grown over a large portion of the

_globe, as maize is in the United States. The yield per acre of seed is

practically the same as maize, and its uses in those countries depend-
ing upon it mainly are the same as maize. Analysis shows it to have
the same composition, and practical feeding experiments confirm the
indications of chemical analysis that it is at least the equal of maize
in its feeding value.

COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM SEED.

Analyses of several varieties of sorghum seed have been made, with
a view of determining their probable value as food for animals; and,
for the purpose of comparison, an average of the analyses of the grain
of twenty-one varieties of common field corn is given:

:

bod Lewel =

test ell a toa at >

Se hate Bd Sp Se
2|/2/2)]2/ 8] 88

. bk Bt Pe al Ata aE

= — = - = J

a Ty ee AB = >

Ss) Gea, Baten ae <
| Pr. ct. | Pr. et. | Pr.ct. |. Pret. | Pr. et. | Pr. ct.
Ue ee Cee ee 10.50| 10.57] 9.93} 10.90] 10.48} 9.36
2 STR RRR SL ORS ¢5..23 oh eae eee ee 1.45 181} 1.47 2.00} 1.68 1.54
“SREP Sas coo 0 eee } 438{ 460) 3.95] 4.14] 4.26) 5.56
SHOE AIOMON Soe a. cas cess 5.98 | 734] 6.90 569} 6.48 5.93
Insoluble albumen..---......... .---...- 4.27 2.64 2.64 697} 4.15 4.97
SUTTER ae: RE ae See CU ee oe | 2.70 | 83 1.52] 2.20
GUNN eo oo no vn oe a ene eae aw one oe 90} 1.10} 72) 220 ) 13; 22
3) ONE) age Ey ee ae BE Rae Rn een |} 69.44) 6855} 70.17} 6.71 $.36 | 66.89
Jap SE Ta eee Ae eS en 2 2.92 1.48 Pot) f-Sk £864 ~ 1 42

feed saa ies
; | }

100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100 00 | 100.00 | 190.09

The above analyses show the average composition of the sorghum
seed and corn to be in those nutritive constituents which are of value,

378 Wa. SORGHUM.

viz.: the albumenoids, fats, and carbhydrates, or non-nitrogenous
matters, as follows:

Non- Other
snot. Fats. | nitroge- | constitu-
- | nous, ents.
/ ———
PY. CE: PH CE: Price Pr. ct:
MOTeh NIN SCE inc aie cok teed eat ee eee 10.61 4.26 71.11 14.02
Gon, Pili o Oe Ste ee ee 10.90 5.05 (hee 2.32

Upon page 97, Annual Report Department of Agriculture, 1879,
after a discussion of the market value of the above nutritive constit-
uents, in grains, the following prices are given as being approximately
true for our country, viz.:

Cents per pound.
50

AUDWIWVENOTES oe. See co ea ao ee a eee os Pisa sata awa lae te atelTan she! Tao ee See 4
gE RE ee Ops Ce ERO Ee ie Ree eer eee ee Ont Ee aN ee SRE ee ea 5 3.84
INON-ATHELOPEIIOUSE. t. cel t Ee et ans epee coe | Bes AEE Co Cece on ae ee 95

At these prices, 100 pounds of the sorghum seed would be worth
$1.52, and 100 pounds of corn $1.58, or practically almost the same.

The above results seem to be confirmed by many in their experi-
ments in feeding the sorghum seed; and, as is well known, this grain
has been in very extensive use in China for centuries as food for both
man and beast.

In the above analyses, the percentage of starch, as given, is deter-
mined by difference; but in the analysis, in the attempt to determine
the starch by converting it into glucose, there was a considerable por-
tion which resisted such conversion. In the sorghum seed, this
amounted, in the case of the White Mammoth to 17.56 per cent, and
in the Early Amber to 19.44 per cent of the grain.

This substance appears incapable of fermentation, is not able to re-
duce I*ehling’s solution, and is without action, so far.as could be de-
termined, on polarized light. In a sample of corn analyzed there ap-
peared to be only 4.53 per cent of this substance present.

The presence of 5.42 per cent of tannin has been reported in a
sample of sorghum seed ; but such a composition is quite unique among
the cereals, and as this tannin has been detected in no other speci-
mens, its presence as indicated above shows a faulty method of anal-
ysis.

The importance of having the value of the seed clearly established
is such that the following testimony is presented from those who have
given it trial:

Hollister S$. Phillips, Mindora, La Cross Co., Wis., reports 22 bush-

-#

COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM SEED. 379

els of seed per acre, and says that “108 pounds of seed yielded 66

pounds of flour ;” the flour was used in his family from November to
the following August.

For griddle-cakes it is nearly equal to buckwheat (some of his neighbors
consider it superior), and mixed equally with buckwheat no difference could be
detected.

For ginger-cakes itis excellent. As feed for cattle, horses, and hogs, I know
it has no equal. There is no grain that will make a horse gain in flesh faster.
For milch-cows a farmer can not estimate its value till he has triedit. It is
especially valuable for young stock, and calves, and for hogs. I know that it
is worth more per bushel than corn, and when I say more I mean that there is
a great difference.

In the spring of 1881, we killed a hog that had been fattened wholly on cane
seed. The meat was as hard and sweet as I ever tasted. This hog was fed on
nothing but cane seed and water, yet it took on flesh faster than any hog I
ever fed. Some farmers complain of the expense of harvesting it. Now, does
it pay to pick up an ear of corn after it is husked and thrown on the ground?
One head of cane seed will yield as much feed as an average sized ear.

Mr. A. L. Talcott, Secretary Jefferson Sugar Manufacturing Com-
pany, Jefferson, O., writes:

IT have seen a number of questions regarding the use of cane seed flour for
griddle-eakes, that can be fully answered from the experience of this company.
Cane seed is worth more for flour than fir any thing else. It is a great im-
provement on buckwheat, as it is finer food, and more nutritious. We own a
large flouring mill, and have given the question a thorough test, both in 1881
and 1882. The flour is put up in 12 pound sacks, and retailed by our grocers at
50 cts. per sack (same as buckwheat flour). We have also mixed it with oats
and ground it up into chop feed. It is as good as corn for feed.

Professor Geo. H. Cook, Director New Jersey Experimental Station,
New Brunswick, N. J., reports that

The value of the crop (sorghum) is considered to be mainly in the sugar,
but the seed is found to be about equal to Indian corn in feeding value, and the
crop per acre is not less than that of other common cereals. There are no
good feeding experiments to show what may be the value of stalks from which
the juice has been extracted. The field for enterprise in this direction is a
large and inviting one.

Col. Colman, of St. Louis, President of the Mississippi Valley Cane
Growers’ Association, in his address to the sorghum growers of Wis-
consin, says:

Where is our advantage in the northern cane? It producesseed, and the ex-
perience of the farmers all through our section is, that the amount of seed ob-
tained from an acre of cane is equivalent to the amount of corn raised upon the

same area of ground, and the seed is just as good for fattening hogs and steers,
and feeding your horses, sheep, and fowls. In Kansas they pay ten cents a

380 SORGHUM.

bushel more for it than they do for corn, because it agrees with their sheep bet-
ter. Here isa crop that really costs nothing. You are paid for the use of your
land, for the raising of the crop, in the seed alone, and the cane then can be
put at your mills fora mere song. What other sugar producing plant will do |
the same? Will beets doit? No. Beets do not pay inthis country. Labor
is too expensive. Every beet establishment in the country is playedout. Will
the southern sugar-cane equal it? By no means. There is no compensation
in the seed there, because there is no seed obtained there. Here is a plant
that pays for its own production, and all you have to do is to use your
stalks. Capt. Blakeley will tell you that they have told him, at the Rio Grande
place, that wherever they have fed this seed at dairies there was an increase of °
milk. In Philadelphia they will pay 65 cents a bushel for all they can get to
feed to dairy stock, and farmers all over the country tell of its great value for
feeding purposes. Sothat if you only got the seed it would pay you; but, in
addition to that, you can raise from 10 to 20 tons of product for which you can
get two dollars and a half a ton. I would like to know what other crop will
bring the farmer as good returns as this?

At this same meeting other testimony was given, as follows

Mr. Clements.—In our country there are about 3,000 acres of cane raised, and
they are as careful in saving the seed as the cane. © The results, as to the seed,
are equalto corn. We consider it equal to corn, pound for pound.

Mr. Poland.—I feed my horses and milch-cows with it, and make a mush of
it for the pigs. There is no one has fatter hogs than we have, just fed on the
seed. It is excellent feed; corn has no preference over it for feeding purpuses
in my opinion. I don't foed it dry, but soaked.

Professor W. A. Henry, of Wisconsin Agricultural College, reports
as follows:

For several reasons the value of cane seed fur feed has received little
attention. Its importance has not yet impressed itself upon cane growers. As
will be seen from Mr. Swensen’s report, from one-fifth of an acre of ground, 62
bushels of seed, weighing 53 pounds per bushel, were obtained, or at the rate of
32 bushels per acre.

The average yield of oats in the vicinity of Madison this season was about 35
bushels.

J. M. Edwards, Oak Hill, Jefferson County, reports 230 bushels of seed, weigh-
ing 58 pounds per bushel, from 9 acres.

There is no difficulty in saving the seed, as the heads can lie upon the ground
a long time, unless there is an excessive amount of rain. The heads can be
drawn and spread on the barn floor, or, what would be better, arranged on
racks in a shed like broom corn. Some bind the heads in bundles, and stand
them on end in the field, like bundles of wheat, to dry.

During the past few years the manufacture of glucose has grown
to immense proportions, and vast quantities of corn (maize) has been
used in its prdduction. It will be seen, from the analyses, that sorghum
seed contains the same percentage of starch as corn; and its employ-

ANALYSES OF BAGASSES, ETC. 381

ment, in place of corn, in the manufacture of starch and glucose, will
doubtless tend to maintain its price at approximately that of corn.

. Analyses of Bagasses from Sorghum.

The following table gives the analyses of twenty samples of bagasses
from nine varieties of sorghum; also, for purpose of comparison, analy-
ses of the juices expressed from the canes.

Excluding the analyses of suckers and leaves as not being com-_
parable with the others, the average result of the proximate analyses
is as follows: Me

a AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF EIGHTEEN BAGASSES,
Per cent.

Ether extract (fats, chlorophyl, etc.) -..-.-.----.---.---.-.-.-..--- 18
Alehohol extract (sugars, salts, ete.) -----.----.-.--....--------..-- 20.75
Water extract (soluble albumenoids, gum, eic.)-...... .......--- 148
Insoluble matter (fiber, silica, ete.)----...-...-.---....-.-.-.----- 76 34
100 00

Albumenoids (N. X 6.%)........ wainwnanwnudiea’ aietaw mee wee tenes 3.17
LUE ST} eel ee = ea RE A BP AP me eee Pee err ecm ems Re oe 3.19
BUeTOSE. ~~~ <2 2-285) oo 28 an ns Ss eo eee eee ns Soe ce ee 9.9
IS ats i ne ws oe new eins Se as at 9 3 St
SERN ee een Ro an Nia omit od enue a tenets oa see ee 2.78
ORNS See ee Bee nee ve Oe ee 441
RU NINAEE eHNE ENGI cate Se oS ae wee Na ev olla tS nn 52.68
100.00

The average percentage of juice and bagasse obtained, and the
composition of the juice, was as follows:

Per cent.
Wee mpreseweh -~ 8 Ae So san wee Wn cg eee on Rou ensens eee a7 61
a OS ee ee ee errr ee cee a arg ee 239
Water i Dapeeee! --.. -.=2--.--...<. %s- Se Sete my a Hx
Dw: Maat nn oe a nce Oe ie nei a 45.76
BuUCKOSe Wn Jules -—--.-=--- -- ---- =~ Pe ee Ry oe saa tense ere 12-2
Glucose in juice.. - Soe ote SiS ars a ee = er ae eee re 1.239
OR Soe SI FUNCR = 5 —~ 5s 2 oc enone eee od 2.94
Prlerwebionie eee 8S 22. = 2 ees We wee eer seen ae By

Specific gravity of juice, 1.0726.

382

SORGHUM.

ANALYSES OF CANES, JUICES, AND BAGASSES,

Analyses of Canes and Juices.

| 5 | ¢
. n wn n
S | Soe) ecw (ee ste
Oo
a | oe eae
= 3 Sp ai Dn S
zr ih | 3 $1 ee
Date. Variety. 2 oe 2s Ney
S a = S| St
3) Ss 3) 3) Oo:
S eS) ° ° Os
7) jor o vo 3)
a MN io ey Ay
Sept. a14 1 Wew svamletya(bh. Ss COM) ioc cniaes Sa aarciatetslaets 62.27|1.068 |} 1.15) 11.79) 3.26
141) White Liberian (Nesbit) ios .c4..42o. ce fobs. wee 60 .32)1.072 93) 13.31] 3.28
DTN WIV IeDY CEL. Si \GOl i. Soca nc sectoeeseeees 54.09}1 061 1.06} 12.18] 1 57
Ala NWhdabe st berian ON ESOL). -ci.0s.nce oe os aon ee 62.35)1.074 98] 13.83] 2.65
3 | New variety (He S.°Coll):. . (2c. eiscdes ates 60.15)1.063 | 1.05) 10 79] 3 34
23 | White Liberian (Nesbit) wh”, Masai eave ere ee Se 56 .82/1.068 .88] 12.04] 3.28
Oct. 3] Suckers from row 52,8 SHAT es we te Re eee eae 62.02)1.022 | 2.04 66] 2.53
ONAN S SUT OTN TOW 72,10) tse sac ~ cc e(cta iol da haere 37 .03}1.025 | 1.40 .27| 4.45
TOM NBC AAI a oy ioe dewrctacte wrarteoe, mie Re eane 87 .55|1.075 1.75| 13.00] 3.7
a SEs Sebo DTIC 24-4 le ae ae oe ne ee see ee ee 61 31/1 074 -69|} 14.27] 2.71
12 | White Liberian (Nesbit). . FS oe Me cele eae epee 57 .89)1.068 -94) 11.81] 3.07
133) White Liberian (Leaming)..:.......- ..2.0-- 2: 58 86)1.070 -72| 12.14] 3.68
LS Tee ea MLO ae ick ow cee choles, a biioracce eae Sie at one sical pane 49 .95)1.068 1.94) 12 ae
18 Early WATT OTe okra: Be Ades Seiectae Scie ers yee 63 .61/1.070 | 1.00) 13.18) 2.60
18 | PM See Vy DI. cse cae sala eee Ae 56 47|1.080 | .46) 15.41] 3.26
SUH WWeS be lind iay.2. soe. sath ee as ase nee ets cee 57.92/1.078 | 2.04) 13.62] 2.40
3 REDS OLOMO I tee® Mace Beier are soce moo Epo aes 59 .01}1 072 1.27! 12:34) 3.17
Nov SAN VSS ERLIV OE inc Oe eee ea Ace on Se ae eae Bees 1 DO oT LeU, 2.04| 13.14] 2.35
ide Pape eed eave ae se cae ge hes ie Metric! tela la Be we galore Nem as 5985/1 .074 1 73) T2251 Gy
Dee. 8} New vy variety (R. Haswell). ks Sn ee athe ee erate 39 .25/1.095 | 3.34) 15.17] 2.61
IAVOTA SOL: fh (erat sje ao eeibee ceases rec 57.61|1.0726] 1.29) 12.92) 2.986
ro) : : i 5
oe sae Men ibe
3 = Ss Sa
S| a |e ealge
s a |e Ss ss 2
Ls Pca T, - 4 | o
Date. Variety. = 2 | OL. | eee ees
N =} eo =o Lz a)
fa Y 1 = a neh Ei co on
2 o fot eed oLe Cn
x a od walies ae nS
fe) S) 2) Se) on a oO
mo i S S a &
|
Sept. 14 | New varicty (H.S. Coll).....:...<.... : 12.06) 37.73) 554 | 257 | 538.61) 46 39
14 | White, Liberian. (Nesbit)... .......... Be 13.60) 39.68! 472 214 | 54.66) 45.34
Dil Newsvariety. (HH. SaOollji: sce eo ee seen 11.16) 45.91] 405 | 176 | 56.54] 43 46
21°\ White Liberian (Nesbit): .2:-..c--25.-+.- 3.65] 37.65] 484] 238 | 50.83] 49.17
23 | New variety (H. S. Coll)...... eee sao 10.61) 89.85) 309 | 150 | 51.46) 48 54
3 | White Liberian Sole Mens Crees Shaves) ek 25) 3.18) 314 152 | 51.59] 48.41
Oct. 3 | Suckers from row & 2. Be ee rere occ 1.31) 37.98} ‘649 225 | 65.33) 34.67.
3 | Leaves from row 2, 3,4, 5-..-:.--------2. — 98) 62.97; 546 | 187 | 65.75) 34.25
10 | Neeazana. sid ats saniels ae | Gee 13.27| 42.45) 56d 962 | 53.63] 46 37
11 | Link’s Hybrid . Ch A Bl rete ose. 38 5 14.21] 38.69) 522] 225 | 56.90) 43.10
12\| White Liberian (Nesbit).........:..- --- 11.388] 42.11) 43: 205 | 52.76) 47.24
13 | White Liberian meer ane) BP et rch .| 12.49} 41.14] 448 212 | 52.68] 47.32
18 otek Br he AA aeRO ORI DoF tik 11.81; 50.05} 552 260 | 52 93) 47.07
[SMEs rly A mibernseten se toes ss os comtonean aes 12.64] 36.39] 514 | 233 | 54.67) 45.33
197] Sink! SEL brides eens heec: «Alem ere 15.45! 43.58) 520 255 | 50.96) 49 04
SUA AW esti dine! ae coseetes oe chiens 12.93] 42.08] 478 | 201 | 57.95] 42.05
Sled SOremnOu seer ce set erics test ert ....| 12 71! 40.99} 483 | 219 | 54.66} 45.34
Nov 1 | West tata Oe A RR ae on OE IEA oe 12.57) 40 63) 448 192 | 57.14| 42 86
PA EOS rae eho ck Coon ae ease career ee 12.52) 40.15} 447 191 | 57.27) 42.73
Dec 8 | New waeey (R. Haswell) 2A ene 8 oe 13.72) 60.75) 664 | 292 | 56.02) 48.98
INViGTSE Cos teniy-ectey melanie = ore wrists 72), AD SO eee 54.24) 45.76

* Inclusive. + Lost.

~
a
_

=
—<

Pi

. o-

5 a

> £

LOSS OF SUGAR IN THE BAGASSE. » 383
Analyses of Dried Bagasses.
Pan care
ea he = | ss
= s bad = =
2 = = S Ss
Date. Variety. ae ae = s | 26
ba = 2 = ox
= os jt ee = a)
e loo B ioe bos
fea}/s|8 ]-2 |S
= a ee ed ora
pete ee See See Bee Sees LES
; -
Sept. #4 {New variety (HS. Call)” ~ 42-2 222-2 } 1.$4 19.46) 1.37) 7.33 2.813
14;) White Tuberian (Nesbit)... - 2.222 5-<72_-- --2 | 1.25] 18.33) 1.84] 78.58! 3.15
21 New variety (H. S. Coll)......._- eS de 1.20) 18.25, 1.58) 78.97, 2.813
2b) white taberian (Nesbit). . -_~-. .-<-...2.-.-~--=.- 1 1-72) 097 1.60) 75-71) 3-15
3 New variety (H.S. Coll)........-................ | 1.07 20.59) 1-46) 76.95| 2.813
3 | White Liberian Sore a ee een ee = Pe ee | 1.17) 19.50) 1.21) 75-12, 3.000
Oct. 3) Suckers from row 2, 3, 4, 5........-....- ee | 2.20) 11-78) 1.05) $4.94) 5.625
3 Leaves from row 23 3, 4, 5 We ee ee Bee ee | 5.26) 12.70} 1.17) 80.87/ 15.1%
Do ee 2 ee a ee Se a ae eee ee | 1.73) B17) 1.34) 73-74) 3.000
eo) ARV sy Se 27 aT | nena eer See Sie sac eee | 1.5) 327) 1.5) 73-8) 3.500
a2) White Tanerian (Nesbit).;.. -; ----2--.-2 52:2 |} 1.238) 17.S3) 1-79) 79.10) 3.000
13 | White eater (Leamine)=—/.. 2.2. >>~2-- -----.] 1.57) 17 6S} 99 79.85 3.15
Be a a ee we a et ae ete ae | 1.19, 2»! 1.71) 74-88) 4.000
18 Saciy drehie Eee eee ir eee marr ee aeel! et i> | P<) ee ee Be ee
a2 | Tant’s Hybrid... ..-:.-...-::-.- ASS - Xe ------| 1-43] 19.15} 1-58) 77-51} 3.15
30 | West India.-.-.. bee A ae CE oer Fae ..-.| 1452) 292) 1.37) 74.19) 3.313
SO MLE So a1 eth Dy de Rd Seip Re RESTS 1.29| 19 51} 1.17) 7S 10) 3.125
news oh, Wrecteleibime= = 2S ES ee oe, oe re | 1.85} 22.95] 2.02) 73.18} 3.500
oN ners FF ASSO 9 BRS aly ena en ss oem ern oe } 1.49) 22.17] 1.38) 74.96) 4.000
Dee. S| New Wekteuy (ie Fepmmeedn). 8 <8 Se 8 111} 24.3%) 1.52) 73.233 3.500
DS [gre She ea a Se oa Re, 1.43) 20.75) 148 76.5 3.167
-
4 |
a. | pe
s a 2 “4 =
Date. ; Variety. ai : Z 5
s | © = =
= = = eS)
5 S 7) =
Sept. 14 | New variety (H. S. Coll)...--- eR wor fk loz 475) 3.25) 9.75] 84) 2.70) 4.5
4 | White Liberian (Nesbit) ..... ..........- }21.S75} 4.25) 7.10} 98] 2.60) 3-75
21 | New variety (H S:Coll).-, ..<...-....... (21.600) 3.25] $.SO} .8S} 2.45) 4.00
21.| White Liberian (Nesbit) -..............- }21 050) 3.75) 7.40) 1203) 295) 4.65
231 New variety (H_ S. Coll). ._..2....<. <2... |20.775) 2.75) 10 45) 87) 3.05) 5.20
23 | White Liberian (Nesbit) - Sere sod ee | 21.475; 3-75} 7.60| 1.00) 259 455
Oct. 3} Suckers from row 2, 3, 4,3.. .. -.......- 25.525] 2.00} 95] 1.58) 4.10) 3.95
3 Sapreitonvend is. ee mes 9 | Me es | ee ee Me Ee
AD TOI CRUMEVMR LE eo 3s Pre eB oe . }21 100} 5.50) 10 Oo} 741 3.00: 4.40
STL Weer iene, A= 2 Os aos eee 23 .725| 6.75) 7.10} 1.20) 3.00 490
12 | White Liberian (Nesbit).......... =... 19 975) - 110.00, 89) 250 5.15
3 | White Liberian (Leaming).._-......-. ... 125.550) 3.50) ...__| } 28) 3.80
18 SR ae? DP Re EEE pleat se }22.025} 2.75) 13.50] 1.04) 2.70) 5.6
18 | Early Amber ..... A RE eRe RI ES os 2 625) 2 50) 2.7 93, 2.20) 5.00
COWES Te ee EO, Sle 233.975) 3.00| 9.50 89) 2%) 4.30
Sh Werktlekiinte 2200. . ~ 2 ee, ee ae 24 400! 4.50] S00! 87) 273 4.65
= BOS ee ee er eee eee 25.750} 3.25) 10 50) 1.16} 2.60) 4.20
(RS Ph Be ee eet 23150) 4.25) 11.75) 1.03) 2%) 3.10
2 | ATA Se ee ny en a Se 3 975) 4.75, 10.35) -77] 2.50) 4.45
Dee 8 | New variety (R. Haswell). be era are 26.950) 3.50) 14.50) 1 23) 3.20, 3.35
wctares eee: eee 23.192, 3.84 9.94 6 27i| 441

LOSS OF SUGAR IN THE BAGASSE.

The most important point established by these analyses is the very
considerable loss of sugar, owing to the impossibility fora mill to ex-

)

384 * SORGHUM.

press all the juice. We often hear of bagasse as coming from the mill
‘‘nerfectly dry,” but the juice obtained from these canes was much
greater in amount (57.61 per cent) than is usually obtained in prac-
tice, still the average amount of water remaining in the bagasse was
56.26 per cent; and, if to this we add the alcohol and water extracts
of the bagasse, which would naturally constitute the juice, we should
have (20.75+1.48) x.4576=10.17-++ 56.26—66.483 per cent of juice
still remaining in the bagasses; that is, 64.41 per cent of the weight
of the bagasse as it came from the mill.

Surprising as this may appear to those who have not considered it,
there can be no doubt but that the above is even short of the truth.

The average amount of juice obtained was 57.61 per cent, and the
total sugars in the juices averaged 14.21 per cent, or 8.19 per cent of
the weight of stripped cane. The average of the dry bagasses gave
13.78 per cent of total sugars, or 6.31 per cent ef total sugars in the
fresh bagasses; therefore, the bagasses, as they came from the mill,
contained 77.05 per cent as much sugar as was expressed by the mill
from the fresh canes.

Since there was 6.31 per cent of total sugars in the fresh bagasses, it
follows that the amount of sugars in the bagasse equaled 2.67 per cent
of the weight of the stripped cane ; also, as the total sugars in the ex-
pressed juice was 14.21 per cent, the amount of sugars in the juices
equaled 8.19 per cent of the weight of the stripped cane, and there-
fore the total sugars in the stripped cane was equal to 10.86 per cent
of the weight of the cane, and there was lost in the bagasse 24.62 per
cent of the total sugars present in the cane.

That this estimate falls short of the truth is obvious when we con-
sider that the juices were analyzed the day they were expressed, while
the bagasses in drying had lost much of their sugar through fermenta-
tion, as was seen to be true in the analyses of the fresh juices as com-
pared with the analyses of the same juices when dried.

As the water contained in the plant is far more than sufficient to
hold in solution all the sugars present, there appears no good reason to
doubt that the juice left in the bagasse is identical in its composition
with that expressed ; but, if we examine the average results of the analy-
ses of juices and bagasses in the table, we find that the per cent of su-
crose in the total sugars of the juices was 90.92, while in the bagasses
it was 72.18. In certain of the analyses, we find a discrepancy
still greater; for example, the analysis of the juice and bagasse of
Link’s Hybrid gives us in the juice 95.39 per cent of sucrose and 4.61
per cent of glucose in the total sugars, while the analysis of the bagasse

LOSS OF SUGAR IN THE BAGASSE. 385

from this cane shows the two sugars to be in this ratio: glucose, 48.74
per cent; sucrose, 51.26 per cent.

Such a result is, beyond question, due to the fact that, during the
process of drying the bagasses, there had been an inversion of much
of the sucrose, and, in all probability, a loss of glucose by fermenta-
tion.

Prof. George H. Cook, director of the New Jersey Agricultural Ex-
perimental Station, at New Brunswick, in the report on his work, al-
ludes to the waste in the use of the ordinary mills for extracting the
juice, and estimates the loss as being equal to 40 per cent of the sugar
present in the cane.

When we consider the magnitude of this industry, this estimated
loss assumes immense proportions. Fully $300,000,000 worth of sugar
is now annually produced from cane by practically the same methods
used in the production of sorghum sugar. According to the estimate
of Professor Cook, then, it appears that there is annually lost in the
bagasse two-thirds as much, or $200,000,000 worth of sugar. It would
appear most desirable that some method be devised by which this enor-
mous waste may be prevented.

Mr. S. Bringier, in a report upon the sugar production of Louisiana,
says:

These considerations give some idea of the enormous losses inflicted upon
the sugar interest, and upon the country, by unthrifty methods of production.

It is a startling thought, that probably a hundred million pounds of sugar are
annually burned up in the bagasse of imperfectly treated canes.

In Ure’s Dictionary of Arts, etc., Vol. I, page 758, it says, in ref-
erence to this same matter:

The average quantity of grained sugar obtained from cane juice in our colo-
nial (English) plantations, is probably not more than one-third of the quantity
of crystallizable sugar in the juice which they boil.

And the mills do not probably average over 60 per cent of the weight
of the cane in juice, or two-thirds of the amount actually present,
which would show that but two-ninths of the sugar present in the cane
was placed upon the market as sugar.

Another eminent authority states the loss in sugar making as
follows:

Eighteen per cent of sugar in the cane yields not more than 8 per cent of
erystallized sugar. The loss is thus accounted for: 90 per cent of juice actually
present yields to the mill only 50 to 60; then, in the refining, there is a loss
of one-fifth, and of the remainder only two-thirds is saved in boiling, one-third

25

386 SORGHUM.

being lost in molasses; in the bagasse, 6 per cent; in molasses, 3 per cent; in
skimmings, 23 per cent; raw sugar, 6% per cent.

A De La Cornilliere, in his work on the ‘‘ Culture of the Sugar-cane
and Sugar Manufacture in Louisiana,” says:

It is a well-known fact that the cane, after several pressures, even as many
as eight or ten, still yields juice, and that a complete exhaustion can only be
obtained by dissolving the saccharine substances inclosed in the cellular
tissues.

In commenting upon these statements, Mr. Bouchereau, in his report
on sugar, says: .

The startling facts, so well attested, that 40 per cent of the sugar products of
Louisiana, through all her great past, secured in the culture, have been !ost
through the inadequacy of the machinery employed in manufacture; that
nearly one-half the product has been cast away from countless thousands of
fields of cane, ex!ending back through so many years, indeed generations; is
certainly calculated to arouse the interest, not only of sugar planters, but of so-
ciety at large, in all its classes and conditions, in the question of sugar produc-
tion for the future, not here only, but every-where.

A writer in the Rural New Yorker says:

From some careful chemical analyses of, and practical experiments with, sor-
ghum-cane growing on the University farm it appears, that, from the proximate
analysis of the cane, one acre of sorghum produces 2,559 pounds of cane
sugar. Of this amount we obtained 710 pounds, on the farm, of good brown
sugar, and 562 pounds were left in the 757 pounds of molasses drained from
the sugar. Hence, 62 per cent of the total amount of sugar was lost during
the process of manufacture. This shows that the method of manufacture in
general use is very imperfect. The 710 pounds of sugar, at 8 cents per pound,
would bring $56.80. The molasses is worth, at 25 cents per gallon, $17.75, or
the products of an acre of sorghum would bring $75.55. There is no question
that, with proper care and apparatus, the above yield can be readily doubled.

In the above it will be observed that there is no allowance made for
seed and forage. And he concludes:

Nearly two-thirds of the sugar, as has been said, is left in the bagasse. This
could, in great part, be removed by percolation with water, as is done sometimes
in the manufacture of beet sugar.

Analyses of Bagasses from Sugar-cane.
The following analyses of bagasses from sugar-cane will show the
extent of this loss in sugar:

—

EXPERDIENTS IN RECOVERING SUGAR FROM THE BAGASSE. 387

. ANALYSES OF BAGASSES—SUGAR-CANE (PELIGOT).
| First. | Second.
}
Percent. | Per cent.
yp eS Os sai Se Ss = ey Sa ee ere See ee ea a aE e 7.9 7.8
UE 2 een ey ee Sone ee i i pa ee eet ee 3.0 27
Velekeeisal Soe ee ER re ay eee a eae ee a -| 36 39.5
UW SRR a ee ene en ee oane ee terete ne ee 6 oS 30.5 ) o.0
100. 100.
AVERAGE ANALYSIS OF TWO BAGASSES (DRY)—SUGAR-CANE.
Per cent.
2ST Sess see Bec 5 Se Se er oe ee ee en eee ore sae eee 15 56
LES STU SE Se PS EE ee ee ee eee eae PPS ee soe ncitapes Gaede Sere $1.14
100.

The dry cane contained 27.64 per cent of sugar.
The average composition of the four analyses as dry bagasse, would
give of—

Per cent.

RN a te ee ae te ie ee al er ee ee a ee nee 178

Paani SAARERENO SR St ets A Sid Gan 2 a be sowie cara a sooo Sane Sonate ae wee 3 $2 07
100.

Or, if calculated to fresh bagasse, containing 50 per cent of water,
the average would be of the four bagasses:

us = Per cent.

0ST NT ae SB a en eng eee Stee Pd Be oe ayaa A ace ee ge. 7

MRTAGKI SGIEMEESS 2 nS oe a tere cnt aids uid eee oe oe he oo Se ee ee tee eres 4106

PERRI A een at rere ea dea ie ae wie eee a RS as ee en eee -... 5000
100

From the above analyses it will be seen, that bagasse, as it escapes
from the mill, contains about 9 per cent of sugar.

EXPERIMENTS IN RECOVERING SUGAR FROM THE BAGASSE.

Some experiments have been made at the Department of Agricul-
ture, with a view to recover from the bagasse the sugar it contained.
The apparatus consisted of a series of barrels, so arranged that, hav-
ing been filled with bagasse, water was allowed to fiow in at the top
until the barrel was full, and then, by means of a pipe leading from
the bottom of the barrel, the water flowed over into a second, and
thence to a third barrel, and soon. The overflow from the successive
barrels was taken when it first ran off, and the following tables will
show the results secured in a large number of experiments:

388 SORGHUM.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF DIFFUSION JUICES FROM SUCCESSIVE BARRELS.

< d ee = be

Number of = re ve -: z = =| a 2 a S
experiment. | % S & 2 s = 2 = = = e z
Fa S) x io) 4 sh > oes ora o os =

S mM = Rn 7) 8 A oa oat &

SMesvehe sree apolar Manse 1017) 1025) 1030) 1034} 1036) 1037} 1038] 1040} 1044

a8 Tepe en noe 1004) 1014) 1019} 1030! 1032} 1036] 1039] 1044) 1045] 1047) 1046} 1047

Osos sere ha Mees 1008} 1017) 1025} 1033} 1034) 1037] 1043) 1046) 1046] 1050} ... |......

Ae eters thie es 1008} 1020) 1030) 1036) 1040) 1038} 1044] 1045) 1050] .... | .....

Deets tiene ok 1009) 1021} 1026) 1034} 1040} 1043] 1045} 1049} 1047) .... |......] .....

eas sow anoss 1012} 1023} 1026) 1037] 1036) 1041) 1042) 1041; 1043]).. ...]......]......

ye ae Pe ER q 1005) 1014) 1022) 103 1032} 1036) 1039] 1040) 1044) ...|...] .....

Se ens 1098, 1019} 1024} 1027) 1029} 1032} 1028] 1030} 1037]... .

Qin ost Ance ast 1013; 1016) 1025) 1031) 1030} 1032} 1035) 1036] 1037].. PA |e si5 -
105 6 oecae hace 1 oP a heed akc [teem : ae eee 1037; 1043} 1048) 1048} 1049} 1052:
1h erp ncapeenees| voc 1025}, 1025) 1031);- 1082} 4032) - 1035)... .2. |. 2 2e3| yeaa
1D) 8 Sau pedigucae cy (Aasin 5] Sarees) eed. al eee 1032} 1035|- L034] 1035), 1040)... ..|| 28 Sei eee
Lose eiele oa. Be ples 1025) 1030) 1032| 1039] 1041)......)....2210/2aee
1B CRO Aon Once (bien es aeicral eel! hapa 1030} 1032) 1030) 1041) .... :

Average.... evere he 0179)1 0247)1.0313}1.0322)1.0353)1.0369|1.0400|1 .0425/1.0472)1 mh 0495
}

It will be observed that the increase of specific gravity was very
regular, and approximately the same in the several experiments.

The following table gives the analyses of a large number of the juices,.
which also show close agreement, and give evidence that the operation
was performed without any appreciable inversion of the sugar, the
ratio of sucrose to glucose in the diffusion juices being quite as good
as in the juices expressed by the mill.

These diffusion juices, upon defecation and evaporation, give syrups,
in which the relative proportions of sucrose and glucose remained the:
same as in the juices, and in general they were like the juices ob-
tained by the mill, except in being entirely free from mechanical im-

purities.
ANALYSES OF JUICES OBTAINED BY DIFFUSION.

First experi- Second exper-} Third experi- | Fourth exper- | Fifth experi-

4 ment. iment. ment. iment. ment.

n

ic) !

F

re 2 = g = s 2 2 2 = 2

3 2 Soe fore Gal eeumiene, |e" |) Sen

S E Bi) Gee least) Cae) Gee: |S. Bas do eo Ge

A n o 3) i) nm o Ri Oo n o

1 1.62 erie 63 15 gta 3 80 D2 84 1.36 .25

2 2.51 1.25 2.88 arilt 2.61 67 2.99 63 3.39 53

3 2.88 2.41 3.94 1.138 3.31 97 5.24 94 4.05 iy 7

4 3.54 2.76 4 54 1.3 4.56 1.36 5.97 1.09 5.64 1 OL

5 3.66 2.80 4 83 1.52 4.92 1.44 6.37 1.41 6.27 1.58

6 3.50 2.96 5.02 L 23 5.51 1.27 5.97 1 67 6.11 1.90

ie 4.91 er! 6.18 1.89, 6.30 1.54 6.08 PASS 6.40 ys

8 4.37 3.15 § 32 2.10 6.77 1.75 6.00 2.69 *| 6.28: | 2.39

9 2.33 3.51 6.1") Ae98 5.89 2.03 6.36 2.75 5.62 2.42

10 2.95 3.25 6.90 | 1.80 7.70 ZU alta e 3-0 eeeenees 3 £m
Boose eAceantocds I chores 7.46 SON ie Gahevopetorsl| sa wlees's,= atfe scr a-oje¥e'| axenic eed eee ee
SeFolreis||| eateries elec 7.32 1.78 shaieraie 0)| (syetesencuae lf “2s seosye wishss| (asus tstasscle vl erate aoe tt eee
Godtadl ponctesaons| | aecoee 7.81 LAA Jase yd sherave/eji] csevevacatavan, feralce Serial we atte ioe een

EXPERIMENTS IN RECOVERING SUGAR FROM THE BAGASSE. 389

Analyses of Juices Obtained by Diffusion— Continued.

2 Sixth experiment. Seventh experiment. | Average of all.
x
: ee ea | | |
2 | ° e : ; 2 2 ° 2 : _
eke A mmcaae dee ae tag z eed ken ek / z x
° = ' S : i es | oO sS | = = sS
<. ° Ea = S) : | | = S } 3 =
° a = / fey ss : = >) = ' = =)
afi eto Fh, ) Rn n S| a | n eo) Rn
eee SSS = SSS _—————— a SSS
1| 14 | 8 / .06 ES sb. | 1.3 ve Be
7) Nias 18s 5) gi 2 a Ws 1.41 1.78 1.00 | 2.49 1@r }j 12
3 SO Thai lee es 7 tl game ee 2.5 2 42 13 | 3.38 1-59 1.35
4] 241 ay | wie 4 2 87 3.17 Lo | 4:22. ff. 2S 1.50
5! ay 2.98 1.54 2.4 3.4 158 | 4.45 2.11 1.56
6 1 2.33 3.46 | 1.7 2.46 3.43 1.97 | 4.44 RO te
1 eee ae ard: 1.88 2.96 3.7 2.0 5.03 2.31 1.97
Bl ee, | Sisk 57 A) eee pe web Agere) feta ay ; 9.38 2.57 1.52
Seo, eecOO TT ba OR! hook. Sos ae 2a, eee 4.88 2.73 2.02
i gl a pees ee (RANE Me) RE aig het 5.85 Pi tal eee
se ae (eoceeeee: eeeeren eee Dope War te, Beer RAG Pees ask
= 255 ES eee GAR as (See eee) eae Sree ee ie? (Payee Ea Saar
5 oeeeoes ee ape Se | ae | ee, DAS en Bek 3 Che oe eee

From the above experiments it will be seen that the water, as it
gradually passed through successive barrels of bagasse, increased very
regularly in density and in its content of sugar, and after about four
barrels of water had passed slowly through the bagasse, the water there-
after passed through without taking up any sugar; that is, the bagasse
had been entirely exhausted of its sugar.

It was found, as the average of nine experiments, that it was possi-
ble to recover 5.98 per cent of the weight of the bagasse taken in
sugars, and that, by these successive leachings, there was obtained ulti-
mately a juice as rich in sug2r as was the juice from the mill.

Sugar from Sorghum Bagasse.

RESULTS OF NINE EXPERIMENTS BY COLLIER, IN 1880.

3

Number. | Pounds bagasse. Pounds sugar. Per cent sugar.
Pc Sp ee
1 693 34.17 ' 4.93
2 693 56 SL 8.20
3 77 60.92 7.91
os 462 28.48 6.16
5 385 16.36 4.5
6 693 29.68 4.28
7 616 39.97 6.50
8 924 51-81 5 61
9 693 41.20 5.65
|

be
4
oO
t
~
99
o
ou

The bagasses experimented upon were not from wee cane, but the
leachings were found to compare favorably with the juices expressed
from the cane by the mill.

The importance of this matter is such as to justify further experi-
ment in this direction. From the above average results it would ap-

390 SORGHUM.

pear, that a per cent of sugar may be recovered from the bagasse nearly
equal to that which is expressed in juice even by our best mills.

After this leaching, the bagasse may be used for fuel or for the
manufacture of paper pulp, and for this latter use the exhaustion by
water increases its value.

Estimate for a Diffusion Leach.

The following estimate is based upon the experiments recorded
above,-and would suffice for a mill grinding about 24 tons of cane per
hour.

A mill expressing 60 per cent of juice, would sta 2,000 pounds.
of bagasse from 24 tons of cane.

2,000 pounds of bagasse would occupy 125 cubic feet of tank-room,
and the tanks filled with bagasse would require 113 cubic feet (848:
gallons) of water to fill them.

To take 2,000 pounds of bagasse per hour, would require two tanks,
each of 624 cubic feet capacity, or of the dimensions 8} x 34% 5
feet, and would require every hour 848 gallons of water. If the dif-
fusion of the bagasse is completed in three hours, then 6 tanks would
be filled before the first would be empty, and 8°tanks in all, with 12
steps on which to place them, would suffice.

ANALYSES OF SORGHUM LEAVES.

In the following table is given the analyses of the leaves of four
varieties of sorghum, and of the juices expressed from the stalks from
which the leaves were taken. There is jn the dried leaves an average
of 5.41 per cent of total sugars, while the average amount of total
sugars in the juices from the stalks is 14.44 per cent.

As has been shown in another place, there is an increase of about 6
per cent in the amount of syrup, and a decrease of about 6 per cent in
the amount of the available sugar obtained when the stalks are passed
unstripped through the mill, instead of using stripped stalks.

But it will be seen that these leaves have a composition which shows
them to be of very great nutritive value, and, as fodder, they are well
worth preserving whenever one strips his cane for the mill. Indeed,
their value is such that, if carefully preserved, they would easily repay
the cost of stripping.

For purpose of comparison, the following average analysis repre-
senting the composition of five samples of hay, are given (A), and the ~
average composition of a large number of American grasses (B), given
in the Report of the Department of Agriculture for 1879, pages 112,
123. The average of the four varieties of sorghum leaves is given

in (C).

ANALYSES OF SORGHUM LEAVES. 391

Tt appears, then, that the leaves of the sorghums have a higher
nutritive ratio than our grasses or hay, and, there is present in them,
when dried with care, a large percentage of sugars and albumenoids,
two of the most important constituents of animal food.

ANALYSES OF LEAVES OF SORGHUM.

sugars,
leaves,

Per cent julee,
Per cont glucose,
Per cent sucrose
Por cent solids not

Polarization,

ivienay GeamOR ooo ~ a5s2 Sos ok
Marie mImnWee 2k utes. hon. 6 61
DSTA a ee eee eee | 56 47
White Liberian.......... =. OeAE | 49.95 1068 | 1M | Rn I

'
——— ;
UEC 5 ees Sore sae 36.68 | 10727 87 | 13.57 288 | 13.30 |
’ t :
, , -
: - —
= qj i : | -s =
ule al 5s | ss | s3
5 = #2] 52 | os
°o = / == e= —
i = =x = —
| =. : = e cs o* a=
i cs i == os =2
= | &3 ea | 28 ==
| wm | o&§ &3 | <3 | £8
ae ee | s< |] 3= | 26
' > = mM i —
| PE ee eee ee ee eee ee
E | Soe ae = ~ | See = jas
PSTD ENN) CeO So oe ee een ae = |} 155 | 72.52 | 27.48 6.29 | 18.67 12 |32
LO 2) ee ees | 112 | 74.07 | 25.93 70 | 216 2.51 | 68.78
Panini ee grill. -3..- 25 =c <5 § 704 | 92D 7.48 | 23% 258 | 67.68
White Liberian..-......... weeeeef 92 | 71.43 | 8.57 | 741 | 21.48 | 286 | 68.25
ZS ae ee =
TAC es CREE ee = Se 172.12 | 27.88 7-06 | 21.01 2.44 | 69.48
= i |
i i : |
= | ee
3s : — :
a | | | — |
ws is .
st e | / a |
x o | | o i -
si = ° ee = =
5 = / s Pipe Zz
te ded BS | = las] os =
> cs = = Ls | = 2
= | = | Ss = S5/s | &
a l'38 [6 1a <r oh es Ae
' ' | :
ie od eng ee tos
African Canes.......2..-2...:.--. 14.500/17.475| 50 | 4.3 | 2.31 | 11.25 | 4.70
Starty Amber .<. 0:0. .00-i5->* 13.500 | 16.4 | 150 | 375 | 1-23 | 8.8 | 410
Savikon Ey brl).< 2-22.25 <n cers --} 11.37 | 16.750 | 2 2% 5.00 204 | 8.55 3.5
White Liberian.... ... eee | 15.063 | 15.450 | 2.00 2.40 13S | 2.6 46

392 SORGHUM.

BAGASSE AS FOOD.
By reference to the preceding tables, giving the analyses of the
bagasses, it will be seen that their average composition, when dry, is as
follows :

Per cent.

SW GE Ee Vrs ef. lees ate ein, Shots Occ alo nce: Ste ns bein pe eleleie et Chaos eee ead cloves reels aie sie Goats ice Ee ere 4.41
OTUFCE FID ER SS cecieicis scree seers oe eaten oe ete rome os sx cals Oe ieees ea teers 23.19
B/W 5 Ee Rieke Sh ee ny Sea Gee RENE Te RRA eA oe Me | nA ile ee pep ee RCE GS So pa bd
AID UIMEN OLAS 202 siee serie eck misetcio tide tee oleae ee eee ee ice cae epee Bee et nee 3.17
CarDOy Grates cw ciao ote oe ties «ener. oie oun sie ertio ds te elnce area etteletel et tions slbiee te cee SE eee 66.46
100.00

And that of the non-nitrogenous matter, or carbhydrates, 13.78
per cent is sugar.
Or, calculated to the fresh bagasse as it came from the mill:

Per cent.

CTRUGEMADER soe san. tc aie Seca e saree nae ay Tage Ato RE Re eae Bes ciwet ave bis sale (s euise Bee 10.61
AAS) OPAC e ERIC St nett. a oa sae” Sith eae, CREATORS ETO Rit a1 cota ate Sac CR ORE Do betanabim. « af
UP UIMENOLAS 28525 Bees eee rece. SERS Bric c RETRO eres aOR SEO Oe neti ates spe ateaeee 1.45
Caxbhydrates pina 2s Seccaree cise hoe gee cats pisikeers me Sephetetars oletee erate estore sinters steeper 30.41
AVY SERGI roche Sevc ace crore ae neraie nies arcracels ect e ha Bae frets ee Se Toe ee eer ie een ern ee 56.26
100.00

And of the carbhydrates 6.30 per cent was sugar.

Now, in accordance with the general method of estimating the rela-
tive values of different fodders, we find that these fresh bagasses pos-
sess a low nutritive ratio, about 1 to 21.

In Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1879, page 57, were
given results of two analyses of Honduras and Early Amber bagasses
and leaves, made that year, as follows:

Bagasses. | Leaves.

Per cent. Per cent.

CLUDE ADELA ect Bu sey eneorio rebecca eae a re ee ea monion aide Ae 19 88 18.25
BAIS ce AN Deon sce hy ee een ain cpaycnai rane hPa take tye Senet ea Lec ee 3.78 11.79
AD WIN CTIOMAR Gynec ca nesiocia se sieteie cores SBS ODS 57 OS hn ee ace 3.92 14.79
IN ONRENILOPENOUS: sen nat Soe aa ticicias mien einiere perio oe eee aoe ore leeks 3 72.42 55.17
100 00 100.00

INGriaVe TALiOn seo. oo ewan oe eee ASE POSE CIOS ESTA cee 1:18.47 1:4.68

In 1882, as the average of eleven experiments, where many stalks
were taken, and of several varieties of sorghum, it was found that the
ratio of stripped cane to the leaves was as 5.5 to 1, and as we saw that
the relative proportion of stripped cane to the bagasse was as 100 to
42.39, it follows that there would be an average of 23.31 pounds of
bagasse to 10 pounds of leaves. The average composition of the mix-
ture of these two in that proportion in which they normally occur can
be readily determined as follows:

BAGASSE AS FOOD. 393

AVERAGE ANALYSES OF FRESH BAGASSES AND LEAVES.

Average of | Average of

| 18 bagasses.| 4 leaves.
Per cent. Per cent.
ee g thi) tye te a a Son eee reece 10 61 461
PA RR tts I eto ner NG oie he wee ran ce a Samy Sone EO OS 1.27 2.3%
(ATEN oo Sts Soe So Sd soone Se icm.ad es Seale a eal- sss ae 1.45 3 79
ir iinysi reteset sentra crac ee en toee Coane +244) 30.41 15.49
WV CO ee ot ete enne ee pense us CPE th | Ee eee ee 2 56 .26 43-27
_—E
| 100.00 | 100.00

If we multiply the constituents of the bagasse by 23.51, and add to
ten times those of the leaves, and divide by 33.51, we have, as the
composition of the mixture of fresh leaves and fresh bagasse, which
would be produced from the cane yielding the leaves:

Per cent.
PPEMBRIS SHEMALE fe Sey OOK CK Oe Saat Se ncin tak os Pett ASL A al ae aw eal a ahepeanion 8 80
CEs SEEN 2 ie Bae OS lS Sek ee Spiess eae Ae ae Spry ty ae SAE OE ERS ete are we 1.7
PUMSIINEMBIUN. 2222 a2) Sant sete coeie con otc eeus Sunsets ee She Et See esa oe oe ee 2.15
ROSEN DIEM RRES es or Mon emer te oan es ou oat owes noma sad Semele cual u au ae eee eee ee 25 93
tare eRe Menten Fer pte et eata s Sa ele a Moe tod dae de J cdccwk ae Chee byen LOR USE E aac eee 61.38
100.00
UAEET TROIS THRO are ee et ee 5 cece sem ah onc aws lua wwe 8 Get chee ee 1:12

‘The average analyses of 26 specimens of ensilage, published in the
Annual Report for 1881-82, page 572, and of two specimens of maize
cut at the period when it would generally be used for the purpose of
ensilage, are interesting in this connection, and are as follows:

AVERAGE ANALYSIS OF ENSILAGE AND MAIZE.

Average of 26 | Average of 2
samples en-| samplescorn

' Silage. | stalksin silk.
Percent. | Per cent.

REG Gic tl Pe eR RES Opa ROR e one ea ae SORE Rares eee 5.99 4.2
PASS DB oo Bg eR ae eee oe ene Acree eat 1.33 1.16
FONT DTG Ae ee Ste RSE ae ee ee Sf EEE ee | 1.37 1.19
Gar ph Veraten = Sass oe ose 2 a5 od) Sean 25 ee So goes Se. 10.08 10.48
Ne One nee eceitn sia sea ons Sa eninge steeteane hoes 79 57
Water............-.. Sesh Ree Secinch nats Bawinta ae al eae Vian oe / 80.44 t 82.36

| 100.00 | 100.00

INGLEILING TRRUD cee got Aen case se eacseele eet e sot 19 1:9.3
}

If, now, we assume the following values to the several nutritive con-

stituents of these materials, viz.:
Cents per lb.

MA GTTIENOIES > §5 652 5 F450 ast EMIS - Soil a. ae | SS NEE eee Pee Mere Ie De, gee Soe 3.40
ER eee ay SRE WO EE EPL ee SS oi na Be sie ere aphin ew tue Cede Gua oen mets 2.93
SORT SARPORENS J 2is 9. eee Neer me Te Renae iat eee se coe sec toe feet nce LoeWeaeb wees 72

394 SORGHUM.

we should have for a ton of 2,000 pounds of each of the above the
following values :

MONEY VALUES IN TWO THOUSAND POUNDS.

Average en-

iaees Maize stalks. Baga
A DUSLCHOLOS sens + oon em ene oem ere re $0 93 $0 81 $1 46
OTS is aee oo Se BSS EAE 46 33 62
Garbhydrates. cece enccee omni el) an me =2 1 45 1 51 3 58
MOpalan., mace are = aS aaee eee $2 84 2 65 $5 66

It would appear, then, that this mixture of leaves and bagasse, as
it comes from the mill, has a feeding value just twice as great as the
average of the 26 specimens of ensilage ; and it is, therefore, most de-
sirable that careful and repeated experiments be made for its preserva-
tion as fodder, especially in silos. Owing to the disintegration of the
stalk, and the rupture of the cells of the plant, the bagasse is in such
a condition as to rapidly enter into fermentation, and it would be nec-
essary, therefore, to remove it as speedily as possible from the action
of the air by compressing it in silos; owing, also, to this thorough
crushing of the hard coating of the cane, the bagasse is in better con-
dition for eating, and the nutritive constituents would the more readily
be digested and assimilated.

By general testimony, bagasse is found, when fresh, to be greedily
eaten by most stock, and cattle have been known, during the winter, to
burrow and eat far into a pile of bagasse, the interior of the heap be-
ing obviously in the condition which it would have been if preserved
in a silo.

The disposition to be made of the bagasse is, on many accounts, the
most important question connected with the sorghum sugar industry.

The sugar of the plant is derived ultimately from the atmosphere,
containing, except as an impurity, not a trace of mineral matter. It
would be possible, therefore, to produce upon our lands a sugar supply
for the world indefinitely without exhausting the soil; indeed, the soil
would gradually increase in fertility under cultivation.

But when we consider the remainder of the plant, the seed, the leaves,
and the bagasse, we find that for their production large demands are
made upon the soil, a demand practically the same as for the produc-
tion of an equal weight of maize.

If the cane is stripped for the mill, the leaves are either left upon
the field or are preserved as food for animals, and with the proper pres-

\

BAGASSE AS FOOD. 395

-ervation and use of the manure of the farm, no loss to the fertility of
the soil could result from this source.

In regard to the seed, it is most likely that it will be largely consumed
upon the farm, especially since its value for feeding stock has been ex-
perimentally proved by Professor Cook, of the New Jersey Experimental
Station, to be practically the equivalent of maize. Until, therefore, the

_ seed of sorghum shall reach a wholesale price in the market approxi-
mately equal to maize, it is more than likely that the farmer will use
his sorghum seed as food for his farm animals, and thus secure its con-
sumption upon the farm, returning to his fields most of the mineral
matter which the seed has removed in its growth.

There remains only the bagasse and the sediments and scums of the
sugar house which could prove any source of exhaustion to the
soil. The importance of adding the sediment and scum obtained in
defecation to the land directly, or to the manure or compost heap,
has already been alluded to. Such disposition of these unsightly pro-
ducts is easy, and would naturally suggest itself to the ordinary farmer.

An experiment made at the Department showed that piling up the
bagasse, with the addition of quicklime or solution of potash, caused it
during the winter to become thoroughly disintegrated, so that it could
easily be added to the land as manure, and by the plow and harrow
readily incorporated with the soil.

In those sections where scarcity of fuel exists, the utilization of the
bagasse for such purpose is likely to increase, but it is of great impor-
tance that the ashes should be carefully saved and applied to the soil,
since it is only those constituents of the bagasse, derived from the at-
mosphere, which would burn or could serve the purpose of fuel.

The mineral matter necessary to the production of a crop of sorghum
equal to 11 tons of stripped stalks to the acre would be as follows: 11
tons of stripped cane would give, at 42.59 per cent bagasse, 4.66 tons
of bagasse and 6.34 tons of juice. The relative proportion of leaves to
stripped cane is about 1 to 5.5, and we should have 2 tons of leaves. A
crop of 25 bushels of seed would not be disproportionate to such a yield
of cane, which, at 56 pounds to the bushel, would be 1,440 pounds. The
average per cent of ash in sorghum juices is about 1.0 per cent (Ag-
ricultural Report, 1880, p. 125). We should have, therefore, as the
total mineral matter taken from the soil by a crop of 11 tons of
stripped cane, the following:

ASH IN A CROP OF 11 TONS OF STRIPPED CANE.

Pounds
4. 66 TOUS DAPASKC. Ab 27 DON CCM ac tee yasbde~ « Saag) Pores kent BeN ee sees 93 .2
Dots UACea He 00 PEI CET bo mere a rege op cos ee eee cain cine tay CoN eee one 126 8
2.00 tons leaves, at 2.84 per cent........... A eee es Se ee ie Bee Ae es Wee: a Shey 113.6
1,400 pounds seed, att G8 per cently. t tosescsecsces ons pS aN te Nake ON eM bed Bah air A, 23.5

396 SORGHUM.

The constituents of the ash from the several portions of the plant is
not known, but the analysis of the ash of two samples of the entire
cane is given, Agricultural Report, 1880, p. 126, and the analysis of
the ash of the seed closely resembles that of maize. If, then, we cal-
culate the amount of these several constituents of the ash upon such
basis, we have, in the 357.1 pounds above, as follows:

Pounds.

PO tase eet ta se os cleo aero Gio ahs Oe alee tes wane a SP ese rR I oo eta ins chert ee 180.8
S100 I RRSP a nore gs Rees iets Nae Ae ATS bs i ol ee ee, 9
TANTS Bae ABs See oct ot Mes ne Sone wa Ais steve Brit aioe aniains &,o Secu Sia Gee ae eee 36.9
MPEGS Ae os cine clateterera'ntelecs sieve ayitersy= eee SOPRA AS OR Mtird Oh ae aCe aR CREAR ene Saas As Sik
TON AGES. see We. weaictas eek oe SD,
Phosphorie acid 24 2
Sul phUric ACG... cases. Spee op cee Adele eats Upasy eYaee EY Ce esos eal aoa detest. Rica eee ene 28.9
CT OVINE 2eeicie cs ioe s\s Sete stele Sroaks a ishnse esa ol ate ein acs lala tee sanc hats IRIE eleT ete eetene Bie clacs, 5, boat sts ie) cvevalete ee rae 28 2
SUCRE oarrk s clawed ov ebescs ROC RTAR Sees JH CAS MERSAS patie tales See bas ale ck ERS ee er 19.9
357.1

Loss of Sugar in Drying Sorghum.

The following experiment was made with a bundle of Honduras sor-
ghum, which, when cut, contained from 12 to 14 per cent of sugar in
the juice. The cane was dried thoroughly and rapidly in a room
where the temperature was about 70° F. Of this dry cane, 502 grams.
were taken and cut into thin shavings and beaten in a mortar; 1,500
grams. of water was added, and, after digesting for half an hour, the
juice was expressed, amounting to 1,189 grams., or 65.97 per cent of
the moistened cane. The juice gave the following analysis:

MIP CCILIC SRA VICY + <5 oe clap cnc wlevslacse 9-5 0.5 ale 5 ciate SST RE en apres ic ise elcictsla visio DER ee eee ete 1028
SUGLROSE, 24ers eos. Be pies Bo bie eletals ots pu. c(heo chads Ce Binet beirameenisas Waellat loka ree Per cent.. 1.52
MCU LNRICO SGMEE Gae h h eaxalarantcleae Teleco zccohs'd re en petove pater RATE hate) a MCT ees aietoet cyepetcleh seer eee doen 2.28
Solids not sugar. .é-jesssceee as -- 6 ee siemick sete Lea MEN FORE ora. s Oh lei gd 5% Aaalaeldatebans Shae oe do.) 286s

It is obvious that the sugar had been almost entirely lost during the
drying of the sorghum. Since this cane was dried under circumstances
even more favorable than those attending the drying of larger quanti-
ties, it is clear that a very large proportion of the nutriment is lost, as
in the case of corn fodder or fodder corn dried for food. The preser-
vation of such food in silos would appear commendable, since, in
coarser grasses, the large percentage of sugars they contain is, in the
longer period required for their drying, almost wholly lost through slow
fermentation.

Bagasse as Fuel.

Valuable as we have shown the bagasse to be for the sugar which it
contains, the paper pulp which may be produced from it, as a food to
be preserved in a silo, or as a source of manure, it is yet true that, to
many of our Western farmers, as to the planters of Cuba and other sugar
producing regions, it is the cheapest (if not the only available) fuel,
and will continue to be used for such purpose, as it has been for years.

/

BAGASSE AS FUEL. 397

In drying the bagasse in the sun, it loses about half its weight, and the
dried bagasse is found, from many experiments, to possess about half
the value of coal; so that one pound of coal is about equal, in evapo-
rating power, to four pounds of fresh bagasse. A mill giving sixty
per cent of juice would then give, for each ton of cane worked, 1,200
pounds juice and 800 pounds of fresh bagasse, equal to 200 pounds
of coal. This is ample for the evaporation of the juice, and it is so esti-
mated upon the sugar-cane plantations. The following results, re-
ported by those who have used the bagasse as fuel, with the discussion
thereupon at one of the recent conventions of sorghum growers, held at
St. Louis, Missouri, will be read with interest in this connection:

The President.—I would like to hear from members on the use of the bagasse,
in short, pointed remarks. Who has had success in using bagasse as fuel?

Mr. Clements, of Kansas: We started our works with the expectation of
burning coarse fuel—hay, bagasse, or something of that kind for fuel—as we had
seen it used on a small scale—and with other fuels, to make up fuel for running
the factory. We arranged our boilers and every thing with large furnaces—
furnaces seven feet long, grates three feet in length. Back of the grates is the
furnace; the draft has all to go in the first three feet. The depth of the furnace,
from the boiler grates, is thirty inches. We carry 100 pounds of steam. We
found, by drying the bagasse in the sun, giving it one day to dry, it makes better
fire than by letting it lay a week in the sun. After it is treated, we stack it up.
This season, after we got started, bagasse made all the fuel we could use for
evaporation. We started in, and used 100 tons of hay, and the balance of other
fuel; and all the fuel we had was used in the hot dry spell about the first of Sep-
tember. From that we started in with bagasse—bought a few tons of hay.
When we closed up, we had about 300 tons of bagasse left over. In connection
with that, during the wet spell, we had 200 gallons of semi-syrup in the tanks.
We obtained coal to finish the syrup. We could not get steam over 70 pounds.
I am satisfied that bagasse will make all the fuel that is required to evaporate
where steam is economically used.

The President.—What do you have to pay for hay a ton?

Mr. Clements.—A dollar and a half a ton delivered at the factory. A ton of
bagasse will make as much steam as a ton and a half of hay, and as much as
two tons of straw. I prefer bagasse for fuel to the best wood that could be ob-
tained, delivered at the factory; and it is much better than coal; you can get
upsteam quicker. Witha boiler filled with cold water, you can get steam in thirty
minutes, where coal will require an hour and a half.

A Member.—Is your boiler a flue boiler ?

Mr. Clements.—Tubular; one is 3}. the other is 33; the latter makes steam
easier than the other. I think a4 inch flue is the best size. The less juice you
express from the bagasse, the better fuel it makes. It requires a fireman to each
boiler. We have a feeder, with a trap door to it; it is very necessary to keep it
closed, except when putting fuel in.

Prof. Culbertson, of Nebaska.—I have had a little experience in the bagasse,
and coal, and straw business as a fuel; and the experience comes pretty close,

398 SORGHUM.

on account of our boiler capacity not being what it ought to be. It was little
trouble to get steam enough with good, dry bagasse. When we first commenced
we ran with bagasse for fuel, and then we used coal. With the very best firemen
we could get, we had 100 to 150 gallons less a day with coal. Bagasse, in
that connection, was worth twenty dollars a day to us, over and above what
coal would have come to—taking into consideration the decrease in syrup
made.

Mr. Clements (in answer to an inquiry).—It would be impossible to keep the
necessary fire in a furnace 28 feet long with coal. Where you can have dry ba-
gasse, it is better fuel than you can get from any thing else.

Mr. Stout.—We use bagasse pretty much as Mr. Clements does. We
use two fire trains. I have two pans, 33 feet long, with chimneys about
30 feet high. The grates are 4 feet long and 3 feet wide, and probably
2 feet from the pans. We made, on an average, this season, 325 gal-
lons of syrup a day. I am satisfied it would take three cords of wood to
have done that much evaporation—probably a little more. We didn’t use
wood—except about half a cord the day we started up, and at one time when
every thing got wet. We came early to the conclusion, after burning bagasse,
that, if we could not get that or straw, we would actually shut down. The fur-
nace we arranged for bagasse is so we could not run with coal or wood; it might
do with wood split up very fine. I have noticed frequently, in burning bagasse,
the blaze came out at the top of the chimneys 30 feet high, and trains, one 28
feet and the other 33 feet long. You have to have the ash pit three or four
times as deep (three or four feet), and you have to take it out once a day, when
running. If we let it fill up, it will melt the grate in a few hours—if we let the
cinders pile up too close to the grate. In this season, the only thing we used
was bagasse (except wood, a few hours), and when there came a heavy rain for
a day or two, we burned a rick of probably twenty tons of dry straw. We paid
a dollar a ton for the straw. A ton of straw, that cost us only a dollar, was
worth more than a cord of wood.

A Member.—How did you prevent burning every thing up with the draft;
Wouldn't it rain fire all over your premises ?

Mr. Stout.—That height of a chimney wouldn’t. Several gentlemen have
asked whether they could run a small furnace—a small train—with bagasse.
We did that, last season, under a Cook pan, 12 feet long, and a chimney 12 or
1& feet high. Out of that chimney it set the bagasse, in the bagasse yard, on
fire half a dozen times. That was really dangerous; but with 30-foot flues, this
season, the cinders came out—but it is so high before they light, I think they
go out. They are very dangerous in small works, with chimneys only 10 or 15°
feet high.

A Member.—My chimney was 30 feet high, and my building was set on fire.

A Member.—Can you burn bagasse that you grind this morning, the same
day?

Mr. Stout.—If it is a dry day, we can burn bagasse after two o'clock. You
can burnit all that evening and all that night; bagasse that we scatter in the
morning.

A Member.—Can you keep it a year, and then burn it?

Mr. Stout.—Yes.

A Member.—Suppose you had all wood, would you use bagasse then?

BAGASSE AS FUEL. 399

Mr. Stout.—I think I should; I don’t think it would cost a®¥ much to use the
bagasse as to cut the wood.

A Member.—I would like to ask Mr. Stout if he does not think a spark-
arrester could be used on the smoke-stack, to avoid fire?

Mr. Stout—I have no doubt they can. I tried a bonnet; it stopped the
draft so we had to take it off. Railroads do that, and I have no doubt it can
be fixed, and don’t think there is much danger with 30-inch flues.

A Member.—Is there any advantage in a crooked grate ?

Mr. Stout.—Yes; I think that it is an advantage. I think the grate should
crook down.

A Member.—What size of opening in the grate?

Mr. Stout.—Not very particular; I think about two inches.

Mr. Clemenis.—I finda set of grates will last longer with begasse than with coal
or wood, if the fireman attends to his business. I think the distance between
the grate part depends a great deal on the: fineness with which you crush the
cane.

Mr. Frazer.—How far from the front end do you put the feed-tube ?

Mr. Clemenis.—On a furnace five feet long, put it a foot from the end.

Dr. Mayberry, ot Kansas.—I live ina part of the country where we are almost
destitute of fuel, except coal, and coal is high—36.50 a ton. The first twoyears
TI ran, I ran on coal oil; it cost five cents net a gallon; that wascash. Ihave
tried three different kinds of coal, and there is nothing makes steam for me
like bagasse does. In feeding bagasse in the furnace, I want it as loose as I
can get it. I crowd the furnace, and then take a long iron bar and make it
loose. I have one trouble with my factory. I have not enongh boiler. I can
run better on bagasse than on any hind of coal. If coal was lying in piles
free of charge, I wouldn't use it. I dont think that bagasse can be made into
any thing that will pay as well as fuel. I have hada good many adres from a
smoke stack forty-six feet to the top. I think a good draft is essential.

Mr. Hoyt said he had a cut of Squier’s bagasse furnace, which he passed
around the audience, there being no patent onit. It has an arch in front of
the pan to build the fire in, and the flame is thrown up by it against the pan.
I can make a hotter fire with bagasse than with any thing else, except chemi-
eals. A fork full will burn in 5 or 6 minutes.

The following plate, No. XLVII, represents the bagasse furnace,
invented by Isaac A. Hedges, and now manufactured by J. A. Field
& Co., of St. Louis, Missouri.

400 SORGHUM.

aM ) Aj\ WI
BW 27 Ii

i ‘a |
nN 77\ \\\

7
Y \
I

Plate XLVII
BAGASSE FURNACE,
Compleie for Furnace, 2 fet wide, grates 3 feet long.

Complete, 3 feet wide, 4 feet long.

9
ome

No. 1,
No

Paper Pulp from Bagasse.

From the analyses of 18 bagasses, it will be seen that the average
juice expressed from the canes was:

Per cent.

PGE CT ohare eyeliner eet Sere et Shc, SAAC ie OE MeN inad che Me hic ihe oy ofunclaao es tee subd epdora 57.61
BES ASSO Paice 5 est ese Rae level iop ic Gh lath hs eta e oe MANORS ark oie nnyah 2 Sela iota Sa ee 42.39
100.00

The average of crude fiber was 10.61 per cent of the fresh bagasses,
or 4.50 per cent of the stripped stalks, so that each ton of stripped
stalks contained 90 pounds of crude fiber.

A sample of pulp made from the bagasse of sorghum was submitted
for examination to one of the largest paper-makers of the United
States, and was by him said to be worth 45 cents per pound.

This bagasse was treated by the ordinary processes for making paper
pulp. An ayerage yield of ten tons of stripped cane to the acre would
give 900 pounds of pulp, which, at the above price, would amount to

BAGASSE AS FUEL. 401

$40.50. It appears that this material could be thus economically
used, and so be another source of profit in the cultivation of sorghum.

SCUM AND SEDIMENT FROM DEFECATION.

The following analyses show the average composition of several sam-
ples of scum and sediments from the defecation of sorghum juices:

ANALYSES OF SEDIMENT AND SCUM OF SORGHUM IN SUGAR MAKING.

Sedi-

Tene Seum.

Per cent. | Per cent.

Ether extract, Wax, fat, chlorophyl. etc.........--..-----------+-++-+---- 16.28 | 953
Alcohol extracts, sugars, FesSins, ClC...........---- eee eee cee eee ee eee 8.06 27.00
PST EI ER LPHOL PUIINCCLG) 1. oo wena s oe cee ned ond emer eeweene eae ers oe Som 33.81 38.83
Insoluble in ether, aleohol, arid: Wake? <. 31 oc ae ee es 40.86 | 23.98

99.01 | 99 34
[AST Shao o he Bee eee Cae ee CCE Ere ee FS Snaih hee a ee eae 19.49 13 07
PGES EECA) oo ote eo colon cna a a cee aminsin ce cis oe qutae acts saw min aide em ce ies == 12.36 19 81
eee OAD Se Sa, Sane cin Ae coma see a ae we Re heme wide nets een ante aie rite 3.87 6.03
TESTE TCC) PRE San Be Sra ao ae Pe re eyecare Sea 32.13 26 .43
WNEMOENIT (MEO) Ce oe. sinew accer esse save Be ae pee ee EN 2.42 1.92
Srlphurie weld (SO4).- seeess sce esc co = oc wwe oe esse oe arate ss 1.04 2.62
MUPTCTSY (Sy JERS SE 3 5 A Ae ree erro Be een ae 2.34 6.02
Phosphoric acid ‘(P205) ts SES SAS Sea ee pn ee te ee erin ere 6.18 2.39
SHUVOS 96 eRe ae A Ae ee CS ee Sen oe Ane oe A re ae ae 27.81 23.40
“SUE SS PO oe ROSCOE nena or erm ee 10.01 10.93

98.16 | 99.55

}

Patroren, per cent. --2.-.-. 42.2.2... oe) IN ain 5 ate. Eee to aT 1.46

The following analyses of two different specimens of sediments and
one of skimmings, show the great variation in these, due, doubtless,
to the mechanical conditions prevailing in each defecation :

3 z j
Liberian | Honduras
lime pre- lime pre- | eae
cipitate. cipitate.
|
URS Try pk eee ee les ee a ee j 9.77 7.69 5.72
a SA, ee ere ee oe eee Lee i ed ae 21.69 7.00 14.3
GChiorophyl and wax. -.cotesosccs 5 ese loons ce 17-60 8.95 14.44
SIUM DGS: Soe see Ree pea eee ae sere Dae we wre sieicheicta 10.80 43 96 15.06
Resins and trace albumen.......... ...... 2 3.61 3.26 5.08
SD eis ee ee Ae et) Sane SR eee ee tre ee 6.02 11 40 11.10
VMS eee 2 OER BS of Set ek ee a eee 22.58 4.55 8.05
Humus-like substances, difference.............. BB} / 12.71 5.58
ETT ee Sek ie ch hii i as neces Soak oe. 2.20 AS 5 49
SY EAS ODES Oe os ee ee ee are a Se Trace. Trace. 15.18
100.00 100.00 100.00

26

402 SORGHUM.

The large amount of ash in Liberian lime precipitate and Honduras
skimmings is due to the presence of considerable clay, which had been
used to hasten the clarification of the juice. There was little or no
clay present in Honduras lime precipitate. The claying seems me-
chanically to have carried down a large proportion of the albumen in
the Liberian lime precipitate.

The large percentage of nitrogenous matter, sugars, and ash, es-
pecially potash, in each of the above analyses, is evidence of the great
value of these waste products, and great care should be taken that
they be utilized, if not as food for swine, at least as a fertilizer to be
added to the compost heap, the manure pile, or to the land directly.

Many farmers have used them as feeding material with excellent
results, as the following testimony shows:

\

All my scum I feed to cows and hogs. I find that by the use of the seum my
cows will give adouble yield of milk; and, for my part, I would rather have milk
than vinegar. As an article of commerce, vinegar has rather a dull sale with us.
I find the scum makes excellent hog feed. .

Mr Powel/, of Wisconsin.—I would like te ask if Mr. Stebbins kept any ac-
count of his hogs and cows, by which he could give the results in dollars and
cents.

Mr. Stebbins.—I could not definitely; I take my hired man’s word for the
amount of milk given by the cows. He told me they gave about double the
amount of milk they did before be commenced feeding scums; and, as regards
the hogs, I know they did right well when they had nothing but scum. I didn’t
raise hogs before I commenced my mill, and I could not give any figures. Jam
well satisfied with the working of the field.

Mr. Powell.—Shoats and hogs will do splendidly from the skimmings; they
will do remarkably well if you will only mix the skimmings with shorts.

Mr. Folger.—I tried an experiment of that kind with twelve hogs, averaging
125 lbs.; I fed them three weeks with skimmings, and the result was 50 lbs.
to the hog in that three weeks—600 Ibs. difference in the weight; they aver-
aged 175 Ibs. at the close of the three weeks. On Sundays they were fed corn;
the rest of the time merely skimmings, and nothing else.

Prof. Culbertson, of Nebraska.— Last year from the skimmings of eighteen
hundred gallons, and the seed from six acres of cane, the hogs weighed 2,000
Ibs. more at the end of the season; there were about thirty-five, and confined
to that exclusively.

Dr. Mayberry.—My pigs got nothing else than skimmings; I have thrown
them a little cane seed occasionally; and I have as fine hogs as are grown in
that section of country. I have heard men say they could see themselves on
them. I wou!d rather have cane sced than corn for feeding them.

Prof. Henry.—I want to speak of the value of the skimmings. I have found

that, when fed to pigs, all they will eat, it gives them a very fair growth. I
hope a majority of our farmers will be able to report at our next convention
how skimmings work for feed. The value of the skimmings is probably from

SCUM AND SEDIMENT FROM DEFECATION. 403

half to two-thirds that of skimmed milk, and you are throwing away, at your
works, from three to ten barrels a day of it. By using skimmings you would
be able to carry your hogs from a month to six weeks without giving them
any corn at all. I made this fall a pound of pork from eight pounds of meal,
and that was the result in Philadelphia, with nothing but skimmings mixed
with warm water.

The President.—A friend in Pennsylvania said he had his fed to his milch-
cow. I nevertried it, but I have it from a brother of Seth H. Kenney, who
has always worked with him, although I had the opinion that if skimmings
were fed to a milch-cow it would dry her up very quickly, but I was assured by
him that his cows almost doubled their milk as soon as the mill commenced
running and they were fed on skimmings. I would feed it to hogs, and all they
wanted of it. I did one year, and my shoats did splendidly, and my large fat-
ting hogs did nicely too. It made them fatten very fast. Do not give skim-
mings to the hogs after it has fermented, give it fresh from the mill, or it will be
a damage, and not a benefit.

Henry Liniey.—I can fully indorse what the president said about feeding it
to hogs. I have fed my green skimmings a number of years, and I should say
we should not give it to them afterit has fermented. I have had pigs as
drunk as could be. I generally give it to them as soon as I can, and the
trouble is, I can not get half enough. The hogs prefer skimmings to milk,

Vinegar from Skimmings.

The manufacture of vinegar from the skimmings and sediments of
defecator, evaporator, and settling tanks, has ‘been by many rendered
a source of profit.

It is necessary that the clear liquor be drawn off from the tank con-
taining these waste products before the acetic fermentation begins;
since otherwise the acetic acid formed will unite with the lime of the
sediment, and destroy the vinegar. After drawing off the clear liquor
into barrels, or a fermenting tank, the remaining sediment may be
used as a fertilizer. The addition of wash waters to the contents of
the scum and sediment tank will sufficiently dilute them to render
their content of sugar easily removed.

It will be found cleaner to use the scum and sediments as food for
swine, and reserve in aseparate tank the skimmings of the evapo-
rator, sweet water from washings, etc.

The following testimony from those who have made vinegar will be
of interest:

Mr. Powell, of Wisconsin, Mississippi Valley Cane Growers’ Association.—
I must say a little for my vinegar. I take the settlings and skimmings and
run them right outside my mill. I have a large building, 42 x 85, two stories
high. Irun them outside in a large tank. I have six large tanks, holding

three thousand gallons each, that I use for the storage of syrup and vinegar. A
great many have wanted to know what process was used to make vinegar. Sim-

404 SORGHUM.

ply to settle off the thick substance from these skimmings, running the clear
juice into the tanks from the outside inside, and keeping it a time—one year.
I want to make good vinegar.

The President.—-How do you reduce that, with water?

Mr. Powell.—Don’t reduce it at all; just about as it comes from the mill,
settlings and skimmings, just let it stand till it works itself down to vinegar.
I pump mine up and filter it through straw filters to take out any little parti-
cles. I have noticed some receipts in the papers; men want to go through a
great ceremony; I think that is all wrong.

The President.—How many gallons of vinegar do you make off sixty acres?

Mr. Powell.—In making 7,268 gallons of syrup I made 6,000 of vinegar.
Those 6,000 gallons of vinegar needed no expense nor labor, except to provide
yourself with tanks; the tanks will probably be forty-five to fifty dollars apiece.
With the exception of a little attention, while doing your other work, you need
not take time specially for this, only to see that in transferring from one tank
to the other you take out the impurities. I have had some covering put over
the tanks, matched flooring, and those tanks have not frozen only so that I can
take a pencil and work it right round the little slush of ice on the top. The
mercury indicated 30° below zero before I left home.

A Member.—Do you sell the vinegar for manufactured cane vinegar?

Mr. Powell.—I sell it for pure manufactured cane vinegar.

The President.—How does it compare with other vinegar in price?

Mr. Powell.—As far as price is concerned, I asked, until quite recently,
twenty cents a gallon by the barrel. I found it accumulated on my hands, and
I put it at sixteen. But I have something that is better for me in the locality
where I live. I have 10,000 gallons of better vinegar than you can buy in the
city of Chicago. Three years ago I ordered from a large factory in Faribault
six large storage tanks, capable of holding about 2,600 gallons each. I am
using four of these to run my skimmings into. There is a class of skimmings
T do not allow to go there, but that that I think is fit I run there, and there I let
it stand till I get through with my other work; and, if it is too late to filter it,
then I let it stand till next spring. Then I filter it, open the windows and doors
for free circulation of air, and you will have better vinegar than you can buy,
I believe. I do not add any water to it. I filter it througha couple of barrels of
straw. I believein simplicity. These highfangled notions, that cost a great
deal of money, I am going to repudiate till I know something about them. The
barrels are placed one on top of the other, and the juice pumped up and al-
lowed torun through them. There is not a particle of any thing in the 10,000
gallons but the skimmings; but, in an experimental way, I have taken a gallon
or so and dusted in alittle sulphur, and I find that it clears it a little. The
sample exhibited here was nothing of the kind, however. It was drawn out of
a tank containing 2,500 gallons. It commences to ferment in the tank very
soon. It freezes in the winter, but that does not hurt it a particle. I do not
put the green skimmings into it. I run the green skimmings outside, and they
are settled till they will run comparatively clear into the tank, and the other
is drawn off.

SONGUUM AS FODDER. 405

SORGHUM AS FODDER.

It will interest many to learn the value of sorghum for fodder, and
the analyses below will show how it compares with maize for such pur-
pose. Experiments have been made in substituting it for maize in the
silo, with excellent results, as by its analysis we should expect.

Below are given the results of the examination of the stalks of
Egyptian sugar corn, Honduras, and Early Amber sorghums, and the
leaves from the same. This examination was made for the purpose
of determining the loss of sugar in the method employed in its ex-
traction; also to determine the relative nutritive value of the leaves
and stalks, pressed and unpressed. The stalks selected were split
lengthwise, so that a fair average might be taken, and one-half was
dried thoroughly without pressing, and the other half was passed
through the mill, and the bagasse, or pressed stalks, carefully saved
and dried.

LEAVES, STALKS, AND BAGASSE, FROM CORN AND SORGHUMS.

a
| = [a Pe. | etal te ie
PRS peg OS ci vay AG ia
S S Sed) et 2 =
| = saa) ela) bed = es
Egyptian sugar corn, leaves........... ....--. -.- ees: ) eee at s22 5116.6) Gis
Egyptian sugar corn, one half of 4 stripped stalks, :
unpressed. S50l sleet |e. -. | 126.0) 841.9
Egyptian sugar corn, one half of 4 stripped stalks, | } / } } '
71 Ee eae ees eee | 875} 460} 415) 47.43} 99.0] 88.7
Honduras sorghum, leaves -.. _.-... _..--..-.-.- (Pe 52 lee se ee AeA ES 100.8} 76.7
Honduras sorghum, one-half of 2 stripped stalks, ;
unpressed. i 2: RS |e ae ~.---| 285-3) 80.0
Honduras sorgum, one-half of 2 2 stripped ‘stalks, |
SG BEST nA Ea ees cee a Lana ea | 1,390] 724] 666] 47 91) 222 7/ 84.0
Early Amber sorghum, leaves....... . ....... nS), Leen |e eis PRR) RO gad
Early Amber sorghum, one- -half of 3 stripped i ' ' ;
stalks. unpressed. Ms : Galle jess --. | 357.9] 15:7
Early Amber sorghum, ‘one-half of 3 ‘stripped : i al
SARE igre es a ae ae Re ene a 458} 447) 49.39) | 147.8 $3.7

A determination of the proximate constituents of the dried leaves,
stalks, and bagasse, is given below, from which it will appear that
there still remains a large amount of sugar in the bagasse, which the
process employed failed to remove from the stalks; also that the per
cent of starch compounds is greater in the pressed than in the un-
pressed stalks, and that the percentage of nitrogenous matter remains
nearly the same. The nutritive value of the pressed stalks is nearly,
if not quite, equal to that of the unpressed stalks, weight for weight.

406 SORGHUM.

PROXIMATE ANALYSES OF STALKS, BAGASSE, AND LEAVES OF SWEET CORN AND
SORGHUM, CALCULATED TO THE DRY SUBSTANCE.

: [aot gale ama
be Me he Bt Bb. ta aes
= S) a 2 a =] a a ep
3 ae eS = a a q fs}
[62 ) 0 tn a = = n n
a +i ia) 34 2 <4 = oe
me “ae - bs, a = 3 =
pera Ge th ee = |S 5 ea cet 3
= @a|s a 2 b, i= i=] a
rm co ° me} we oa eS & <2}
YY. ws + é (sis! wera
en oo? SR patos aeta | ee os 1 [5.e4
Pe Aes 2) | oes Moe) le a Bales
26) 25|2a| ah) es | 26 | oh) os) ce
Bq | So | Ba | &2 | &eo| &S | ea | seo] eS
SiS 18 ja. ta |4 \8 (ae
Organic acid, chlorophyl, color..| 7 36) 5 39) 2.85) 147) 201) 1.11) 1 46) 3 29) 1.48
ae loins kate Pb ae oO Oates toed 94 ats] 44 35 8t 40} 5.05) 1.67 4
IBY OW TEOSIM fc s)s cis i oe oo lene hole G.9x| 6:00) 8 DLL 5.1L) 3.53). 5.75) 7. 91) 16 G7 eae
PST p ee Date Poked meee ARSE BIO Ee Oho 3 84.73] 38 14] 26 O01] 19 36] 21 77] 10.08} 8.58) 9.37] 8 22
(Ovni a Abe pitinc te Seog oe ror ‘ 214! 1.57) 1 38] 2.04) 2 20) +1 SR) 3°82) 2075) ares
Stare dsOMmMets..e2.) hres ise 20 34) 17 67] 22 44) 31.46] 26 27] 23 16) 14 49] 21.22) 24 77
Albumenoid's!e. 22-4 secs ie a 4.95} 4 81| 6 90} 3 96) 8 87} 6.04] 13.14] 10 43] 11 34
Alkali extract, by difference... 5.15| 6 09} 13 35} 15.10) 22 26) 12 08] 11.95) 12 65
Conn Co Vote tl of) dave wos a oipcin sae 16 01} J6 48) 19 82] 19 10} 20 66] 25 00) 17 98! 18.51] 20 83
INC, ewe kaon alo Beepodyonoaee, oo 6 55: 4.46] 5 96] 3 80] 3 75} 4 87] 15 49} 14 O38) 10 44
100 00 100 00}109 00/100 00,100 00 100 00}100 00)100.00)100 00

The amount of sugar in the Early Amber cane, dry, is to the amount present in Early
Amber bagasse, dry, as 100 is to 55.74
In Honduras cane, dry : Honduras bagasse, dry : : 100 : 57.08.
In Egyptian sugar corn, dry : Egyptian sugar corn bagasse, dry :: 100 : 38.75.

As will be seen from these analyses :
Per cent sugar..

The Honduras cane, fresh, contained... ...........--.- Jas salowinced ede eee 7.62
The Early Amber cane. fresh, contained. .......-..--..--..-+2--e- eee seen ee 8.42
The Egyptian sugar corn, fresh, contained..............-.--- 23S at oe Ree epeae 3.94

While the sugar remaining in the bagasse, calculated to the fresh cane which produced

these bagasses, gave as follows:
Per cent sugar.

Honduras sonehums.s--- . --)-< 510 Paar ahs Ging c aritule Dae ee eee eee 1.82
Early Amber sorghum ..... ...--- 0 ---+2-5 seee2 seen se sete cette erent eens 1.60
Egyptian sugar COM .....-.. 0.22. ..2 05 eee eee eee cence ner e renee 60

In other words, it will appear that there was occasioned a Joss of—

23.8 per cent of the sugar present in Honduras sorghum.
18 9 per cent of the sugar present in Early Amber sorghum.
15.2 per cent of the sugar present in Egyptian sugar corn.

The following testimony as to the value of sorghum for fodder has
heen gathered. For this alone, the plant appears to be one of the most
valuable agricultural products :

At the Kansas Wool Growers’ meeting, Mr. Wadsworth said he had
4,500 sheep feeding in one plain, and 2,309 in another, during the
winter. He had about 350 acres of sorghum. He thought 59 acres
of sorghum, drilling in about one peck to the acre, being careful not

SORGHUM AS FODDER. 407

toe get it too thick, and cutting up half to feed in stormy weather,
would feed about 1,0)0 sheep through the winter. He used Early Am-
ber and Orange. Former the sweetest, but shelled out more.
John D. White, Tulip, Dallas county, Arkansas, Report of De-
partment of Agriculture, 1857, page 197, says of stalks of sorghum:
After even heavy frosts, stock still eat it with evident relish. Cattle, sheep,

and horses, are fond of the cane, which possesses excellent fattening properties.
Hogs, also, will eat it voraciously, even after it has been crushed.

Ample time for two crops for forage.

Mr. N. C. Merrill, Clorinda, Ness county, Kansas, says he, for four
years, used sorghum as a substitute for corn for feeding stock, with ex-
tremely satisfactory results.

Begin to feed as soon as sorghum is two feet high, and by the time
it heads out, hogs and cattle will begin to take on flesh very fast.
When lower part of head is ripe, cut with mowing machine with rake
attachments, and put in shocks. Cost, $1.25 to $2 per acre to put it
into shocks. From 500 to 800 pounds of beef (live weight) can be
realized from an acre, in September, October, and November, using
no other feed whatever. I realized at the rate of 1,100 pounds pork
from an acre in September and 700 pounds in November. Hogs
fatten very fast from July to September; and from December to spring,
with little range, will keep in good growing condition. The larger the
stalks, the better for hogs. Sorghum is really our best corn in this part
of the State.

w

408 SORGHUM.

CPAP RAR aa he

(a.) Statistics of production of sorghum in the United States.

(b.) Production of sugar from sorghum.

(c.) Sorghum compared with other leading crops of United States.

(d.) Marketing of syrups.
(e.) Central factories.

PRODUCTION AND PROFITS OF SORGHUM CULTIVATION.

The Department of Agriculture received the following returns, as to

the crop of 1882, from the several states :

Number of coun-|} Number of gal-

State. ties. lons syrup.

APIEANSAS Fc aeeiaenie seinest reine 24 729,500
2 SLE] OYE) 10 tee Re ORO E MORESO a 12 520,125
Doe ste eat eee veteran 5 139,648
GEO eter caresses ce teei Decne ioe 42 5 568,023
dato bs ot: ees Wee ners wa See aecrea 35 618,410
AULT TNO TS Seiya = Srorshe Oe erere ete oe 82 660,633
NOW: ie Ora Ga ca cseacte emake Soe 3s 491,949
MGAMSHS see Meee as see eee cierasers 32 950,947
LGB C Qyosas Senda scodoacdaemos 35 853.700
FOWL SUM eee sera otters Bets Se.syouis vc 10 81,800
IMIESS OGIO eee racteinectte fees 37 1,408,350
IMINMESOUGHs vec oee tae Pemeiteort 22 267,483
NTO MORN WLS Soqdano sooo oo c Ene ooe 16 46,503
MISSTSSI Dl ase sielote tseteeleeicre-<- 15 530,100
Wey AvlpnaNGl, Soe seacodndorocanccs if 1,200
INGW: JERSEY oo. ce os csicete eit 3 42,000
INGWMOrkKun) Gedctirace cecmiene 8 101,261
Nebraska) core tess. Rare poeeees 19 177,420
INO gal (CLydoMNNG, saeco ca soponteusr 20 371,300
OGIO arte cre tee eos cle 19 201,555
Penn SylviaMias se event sree inicio: 1 1,200
SOUtMIGATOMN a.m e-em eee een 6 292,500
MenNGSSEEs sve deems ila ds Deel 3L 2,122,700
20. G wha Ba Ve sees RODS RODD 47 958,940
Wtalhl seer asec a (atawefercierekcieietste sets iejer 7 67,480
Walroimilateees © coccce em seein. 20 132,871
MW ah ebb A PAs ae oogaoucds 3 379.200
WASGONSIMs a ieee es one wees ee 14 281,300
QSStates? eee eer 563 12,998,098

Pounds of sugar.

5,150
13,200

731

100

2,400
100

2,200

319,000
90,150
60,000

1,500
275

50
800
10,000

125
5,000

510,781

This is but a small number of the counties in the states enumerated,
and undoubtedly some of the best sugar-producing counties have been

omitted.

The census of 1880 thus far contains accurate statistics from only

four states, viz:

PRODUCTION AND PROFITS OF SORGHUM CULTIVATION. 409

States. : Acres. Sugar. | Molasses.

Pounds. Gallons.

IEATISRS rd Sista eslests cutee See eins eeked s Dene ee cts 20,643 18,060 1,414,404
Lowisiana......... Sete clela cracks in cle te Se AS eine maies ce 1,015 4,000 38,736
ALINMESOER, Wei.c he toe Ascent mice Bete 8 Se Sep hioeee 5,221 3,457 345,556
SOuthiCirolinaese-eeee ete et eee aL, 7,660 8,225 276,046

The above amount of syrup, which is confessedly far below the ag-
gregate produced,* is equivalent to one hundred million pounds of
sugar, Which is five per cent of our sugar supply, thus showing con-
clusively how extensive this industry has become within the past few
years.

It is to be remembered that, at present, the demand for good syrup
is so great, and the prices so remunerative, that many of the largest
manufacturers have aimed solely at the production of syrup. Indeed,
it is a not unusual inquiry on the part of manufacturers, ‘‘ how they
may prevent their syrups from crystallizing,” showing, conclusively,
that there is no trouble in obtaining sugar from the sorghum juices.

The statistician of the Department of Agriculture reports as fol-
lows, as to the production of sorghum in the United States:

It will be seen great, fluctuations in area have occurred, that the greatest ex-
tent of cultivation in the oller states was during the war period, and that a de-
cline followed, except in newer states rapidly advancing in settlement.

There is scarcely any record of sugar, except in Ohio, where the product was
greatest prior to 1870.

In the more western states, there has been a revival of interest and extension
of cultivation since the introduction of the Early Amber variety, from which
some sugar has been made.

In 1860 and 1870 the census presented production as follows:

1870 1860.

Gallons of syrup.|Gallons of syrup.

PRG EATLA). 2oejco se leaean- 5 coke nace osieset EE Ae ey 2,026, 212 881.049
OVERtty edie NE Sere Se HAO Oe GET aE a ee ere Aah 2,023,427 779,076
UVEEE CES: 26 ER NL abet Me See te ee ne DER See LSA 1,960,473 806,589
AMOMLHH CRY toa tp Soest eee sb oscmue cece as. ees aaeited 1,740,453 356,705
IWEISSO (Ltd pee a ee oe accmclar eins een iicnaccesisior et spass nae 1,730,171 796,111
{MENON eye (ele ee en JOR a 5 SS UBC anata SEES Aare eae 1,254,701 706,663
PUTRI ge SPR Tat ea i She te ae eee ee ek ee ay 1,218,636 1,211,512
Product OLihe abovyeistates.. 2. oc 2 o2c< oe es cn ereln ess 11,954,073 5,537,705
PEOCIIECH Gis OFNE? SULLESE 2. Foscnsee eee etre sor ome te 4,096,016 1,211,418
Proguctor the United States. <5. io. 2:8... 6b ee 16,050,089 | 6,749,123

* A more carefully ascertained return from Wisconsin, according to Prof.
Henry, gives, as the production of syrup in that state, 385,668 gallons, instead
of 281,300; and the production of syrup in Kansas, in 1882, is estimated as being
about 2 250,000 gallons, instead of 950,947, and an acreage of over 90,000.

410 are SORGHUM.

The returns of sorghum in the recent census have not been tabulated, except
in two or three states. Only South Carolina and Kansas are complete, as fol-
lows:

1880, , 1870.

Aeres. Pounds sugar. | Gallons molasses |Gallons molasses.

SoutheCarolimase cesses. 7,660 8,225 276,046 183,585
RGANSASH A. sre cessed ete en SAP 25,643 | 18,060 | 1,414,404 449,409

The following states, in which the interest has been and is most prominent,
are thus represented by local official enumerations :

OHIO.
Years. ‘ Acres. Sugar. Syrup.
Pounds. | Gallons
1h 4 Sig oda oe Ana OMe CACCCCIE COC ODED CORT O3EC cooGGar mar tae naceaes 80,872 27,486 2,696,159
The Sh ee SESS HERA Not ose BOD AaOR Cap OeBran Sac sacar disedgaaaristie 31,255 27,359 2,347,578
SGA eee as EE UN ese cavas path patonetote x Ria atorsie sere epei dare otencaior llama rei 29,392 41,660 2,609,728
Tel G Sirs SRE Meare Lc aia GRO OR CE REtL EnAobor ant earictopen pea Asancs 37,042 56,066 4,003,754
BBB eee ee cain qwrS oh wesramnate fete eiets ie a wis 9) Sieveic\a Weg hba Magers clays 43,101 46 951 4,629,570
US owes sPse ecote otal sare etete tete ta ens ais Sim tenet oie lee oye tale ate oieials ue ete el ntetnistety eters 17,804 20,094 1,255,807
PRBS ihe seals Bele D Aenea ares Woh alee ote tiacpiie Sia Paes eee cea a 25,257 28,668 2,004,055
TSG ies tc torsiecuolers 3 xioa hs wie tatatatave Ste lorwislevebacois oie oie winieforsdeonremetiabie 29,931 27,048 1,683,042
ES OMA erase creveteserstane ccc scetsrpitie: sheceteleralats 'eidictaie alee a eieiaicssin tesa a etelsrae 23,450 21,988 2,187,673
Ot A hee AC 0 SOSH Cn Seon OAC SOM Ae NDR ach cid dood oso 23,072 25,505 1,817,042
TET Rae OR OA On GION SOC OOS oy Taesese a Ono aa GM acunwe oo ORM narOD 12,932 31,599 5
MURS) Narotelatars cholate te reieke voters rerotVolo nie eiciareletcieteiaie ereie iciete is Steins wieerave’sters= 9,426 36,846
Te SRA a OO Oe Oo uaa Ee SI CAGE REDE OO Ar ergostito Hiccohoced 12,108 36.410
DR TO Metre kocicioeste As scrapie be eietiae Siar nsieie ales ase = clo Mee creterelois@eine i> 13,144 21,768
AB7Gie Sat eigen eta 8 Ot (ORI O OE AI nea sie boli abe 15,9293] 25,074
Tee er ee Re enn Br enn a 2: RE ane a be 16,1043] 7.507%
ST Brsetetevictastere ele le tetra ieiche ole whee ae ciao cteiares, Lersublei acs eoteeremis are alert 16,305 11,909
MINNESOTA.

(No official returns of sugar.)

s
Years. Acres. Syrup.
* ———

Gallons
eS RDO REDO OOS ACIS Ope Rn OFC CRE PESO ATOR Ten Chm <td SOTO CACO EAR [irs SeA eS 5 81,375
Ite ae Sceptaae Beno OME Gar On sod, BIOS DSO O COR Oar ENE Obes Hocooe SAnCorabaodan: 629 31,191
IA tantiqoncne Dep ono a 156 ona oc renee Eco occ. See SOMM MAME G Sea 728 56,370
7 De ree aha tnic ae reierars atthe te ener atoll che oiets\cha-e avaterate tere m myerarchelaioece esis eon neater 1,244 73,425
LGD a Ree ee tates rise csste tebe seis Bis nee eng, Giik eisid eleven lav otts eae manel Aaemtel niate ceateno tae 859 78,095
IB Re aoaer: Stic book Paden 06 At od GObeDEaeie Cone n ics koee da eemeas OBER SORES 747 53,226
TISVEINS Se pnbiceteo ar eb da Sot 60455 Secon TE SnOE Sr AMoE has hoo UcaS eae ite ater orale telcos 1,146 69,599
Sys ag tice CG eh lars hl Sie ate MTU Re ee SES siereta a one's aielee s eblere aloe nae, ce oleae ead 1,534 70,479
WSL sare lede Sst svete etalon clea aie deverera piers eosin} sve sja'n-o en's Bl ete kedaleae okenay eva elena ies Siento operas 1,695 72,489
IV TT Ra Ae Horan Stee OO Mca UC 6 DRTC ROCHE oAUR cota 5b Da codnoc Seecudorcric "2.200 140,153
DIRS is ctameichereratasein is stavete fe ere Uy areata ark islets els: scalejs stw:s¥e/sielerepess eile AEG ERGaDE > FOO Ee 3,207 329,660
TO auttcrt cede ata tena tar terrains ees eiciate stetabatas ise Sorianeetctoteistarete staeiarettate epeietets 5,033 446,946
ASSO chart ties tees RR eer ca tslect csiond nis siseeete mele avsteneyace sinha tote sma ae yRGAWA Plt oe as

pete

PRODUCTION AND PROFITS OF SORGHUM CULTIVATION. Ai1

IOWA.

Years. ; Acres. | Syrup. Sugar.

Gallons. | Pounds.
410,776! ...

Be 21,496

1,443,605 8,386
2,094,557 14,697

2.592.398 |. ..... a)

0s al (ee

ILLINOIS.
(No official returns of sugar.)

Years. Acres. Syrup.

Gallons.
ST nae Cee een ae ee Rd ote Ses oh aa ae aie tea Ree eer OS 17,883 | 1,309,400
PICU ea een | RE OL Mel: BET ake OO eNas Eee aE ee | 9,825 636,216

KANSAS,

Years. | Acres. | Syrup. | Sugar.

| Gallons. | Pounds.
SPARE SEA tl es SS SR a ee eS Ree bie Be mal Oras Nae ay) Liston | a

ia sek ewancce en pee skihoe Bee cte ora etx wine Boe to wicks act ieieks RR Oe Let oes Eats be Pata Pare

NS A rt eaten ere sy stevaa meee Nhat taxa Eerocieis stajs Sie x 2 e/a a eER erase mide oa! tegereave ee: het os : 540,338
RS PO to, cee nic eas Ole od Otel abet cr gaa @ ents Seto Wise g's ore actarminale be eles DT 12 gl (ae ee 1,149,030
[Tre SE Ra rs PO A fer kb alt eats ue a ae ep A tone plead by ris are $39.147
BRERA cerca tara ho ht en a eres IN a taxis Jo atu avore alee Sinarae aeons 20,784 | 2,390,131 | 1,195,066
ROS Ap ees ciee ate eraceiet wea lar nix We eel Oaiite 6 aR Va Maid b nimo ene eee 20,292 | 2,333,566 | 1,166,783
LIS i LS en ape eae Behe eit ate aroha clark ale Miele ee oreo 23,665 1,224,557
EM GE reine ee Re MS HO herds a's Tat S Shoes h Cee ee ee OS [he See tes 10429 476) 12. 25022

For twenty-five years past, the average yield of syrup, varying from 16,000,-
000 gallons per annum to 5,000,000 or 6,000 000, has probably averaged about
11,000,000 gallons, valued at 65 cents to 40 cents. For syrup, fodder, and ail
purposes, the average value of the crop may have approximated $8,000,000 per
annum. -

Mr. J. A. Field, of St. Louis, Mo., in December, 1882, sent out
several hundred circulars of inquiry as to the cultivation and manu-
facture of sorghum, and received replies from the following states, viz.:
Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Virginia, North
Carolina, West Virginia, Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana,
Ohio, Indiana, [linois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska,
Kansas, Missouri, Texas, and two provinces, viz., Quebec and Ontario,
Canada: in all, 21 states, 1 territory, and 2 provinces.

All our reports are for the manufacture of syrup. We have, therefore, no in-
formation pertaining to the granulation of sugar from these sources.

412 SORGHUM.

The number of acres grown by the parties making these reports was 639, with
an additional amount, worked upon shares, grown by other parties, of about 900
acres, making a total of 1,539 acres. The number of gallons of syrup produced
from the 639 acres was 54,245, to which must be added the product of that worked
on shares, equal to 76,100 gallons, making a grand total of 130,845 gallons.:

The average number of gallons per acre was 87;4,. The average price of
syrup was 54% cents per gallon, making the value of an acre $47.76. The aver-
age cost of cultivation, harvesting, and manufacturing, was reported at 15 cents
per gallon, making a total cost of $13.10 per acre, leaving a net profit of $34.66.
If we add to this the average product of seed, of 30 bushels per acre, sold at 35
cents per bushel, or $10.50, we have a total net profit of $45.16 per acre.

The lowest number of gallons per acre was 26. This was grown on sod
ground in Kansas. On the same farm, and nearly adjoiningit, was another lot,
planted on old ground and properly cultivated, which yielded 200 gallons per
acre. This contrast proves that the proper preparation of soil and cultivation
of crop materially advance the product in this, as well as any cther crop. The
highest number of gallons per acre was grown from Early Orange, in Southern
Illinois, producing 360 gallons per acre.

A large number of the parties making these reports were new beginners.
This accounts partially for the small quantity produced per acre. Others re-
port a wet, cold, backward spring, followed by severe drought, as the cause of
shortness of the crop.

All the parties speak in the most encouraging manner as to their faith in the
profitableness of the crop.

Professor Henry, of the State Agricultural College, Madison, Wis-
consin, reports as follows as to certain sorghum growers in that state:

S. Hanson, of Whitewater, one of the oldest and most experienced growers
in the state, reports 18 gallons from 10 rods of ground and 200 gallons per acre
from larger pieces.

Joseph H. Osborn, Oshkosh, reports the highest yield 226 gallons, with an
average of 150.

N. D. Comstock, Arcadia, Trempealeau county, estimates the average at 125
gallons,

Maxon and Almony, Milton Junction, Rock county, estimates the average at
150 gallons.

J. H. Rhodes, Sextonville, Richland county, raised on 1 acre 170 gallons,

O. S. Powell, of River Falls, Pierce county, estimates the average crop at 100
gallons.

H. T. Webster, Keene, Portage county. obtained 40 gallons from 28 rods of
ground.

J. D. Sherwood, Dartford, Green Lake county, reports one-third of an acre
yielding 12,588 pounds of stalks, from which 79.14 yallons of syrup were made.

A. J. Decker, Fond du Lac, considers 125 gallons the average.

Mr. S. Nason, of Nasonville, Wood county, where cane was grown this season
for the first time, reports 800 gallons from 4 acres.

Evan Erickson, Stevenstown, La Crosse county, obtained 1,050 gallons from
5 acres.

The average yield of syrup on good ground, in a favorable season, may be

PRODUCTION AND PROFITS OF SORGHUM CULTIVATION. 413

set down at about 160 gallons. With such culture as is usually given to it, the
yield will be about 100. It may be set down as a fact that, wherever it has been
planted in the state, it has succeeded, no matter how poor the soil was. It
promises to be one of the very best crops for our sandy lands, for, though the
yield per acre will not be large, the syrup will be of fine quality. Land on the
experimental farm, which produced 50 bushels of corn per acre, this year gave
200 gallons of thick syrup.

The following tables give details as to the crop, the products, cost
of cultivation, and profits, from several cultivators and manufacturers,
and the accuracy of most of them have been established by affidavits -

SORGHUM.

414

a a a ee
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< a BP) fe =| 3 % Sita ep Go Sloot eos lav || eee :
= | =) \ =| MD | ow set ie a Bes SES" aoe NS =
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Sot eee oe Baa Seco nejiee el el 9 io Sie) 8

PRODUCTION AND PROFITS OF SORGHUM CULTIVATION. 415

= Phe) Oi 2
> = + . = = >
fo (a Ss ag We cies a a | 2
5) cela Maes cl aA Sage Ac eed Mae bers
= me S = = 3 5 S = s
See te | elte- | ae | ee
a a = S r= = = = = =
Pg 7 ee ni eed Weems ead feat ier:
= reall Wee wn 4 |. 0° gS > 3 s
Sieve | Gio La je lida he
. rs ]
i Ho dee | fd |
Number of acres...-.--.-.. 2 bo) 1 / 1 1 1 3.41) 14 | 10 | 1
|
| i—a raoae -——|——
Rent of land........ ... ...| 6. 212.50] 3.00) 2.00 | 200 10. | 42 ba | 1th
Plowing ........ ..........} 2B. |127.50] 2.50) 1.25] 3.00) 1.50] 9 5. | 20.50] 10.00
Planting and cultivating../ 75. |100.00) 1.75) 2.00) 3.00) 2.50) 6.75) 33. | 36.00]__..
See ee 112. | 75.00) 150) 1.50) 1.00) 1.00) 10 vig =: ;
MARNORESDE CAMEL oe eH acre 79. | 96 00) 2.00) 2.50) .... | 900 — aS
Hauling to mill........--..- 57. {160.00} 2.12; 2 20 4.00) 10 30) 28 55.37) 6.00
Gathering seed ........-..- 110. | i 2.00 | 200) 1.00 / 2.00
Manufacturing ........... 3 $.$0|512 00). -..| 9.00) 20 00) 34.00) ->--.]258. [275.55] 19.00
/ / / wea | ed
Total cost of one acre.... | 26 87) 15.09 | 20.75] 33 C1 30) | 24.14] 38.74] 39.50
. ) rCune Siena (ce
Cost manufactg one acre_| 13.95) 6.02)._.....| 9.00) 20.00) 34.00)...... | 18.43] 27.56) 19.00
: ice at i eae eS —— ae
Cost of one acre at mill...| 12 = 9.07) 14.87) 11 2D) 13 00) 27.30) 18.70) 5.71; 11.18) 26.5
; | ]
Profit on one acre.... ... 18.13) 43.76) 7.86) 74.93 16.00) 30 00) 26.35) 30 os| 24.06, 54.00

|

The average net profits per acre of the entire 26 reports is $32.14,
and the average net profit upon each ton of cane worked was $4.18;
also the average number of tons of stripped cane produced per acre
was 9.04, and the average value of the products of an acre was
$74.64.

The average cost of an acre of sorghum, delivered at the mill for
grinding was $14.50, and the average cost of manufacturing an acre
of sorghum in syrup was $18.50. The average price of the syrup was
slightly over 50 cents per gallon, and the sugar about 8 cents per pound.

It is to be observed, that very few make much account of the seed
in their estimates; but since the value of this portion of the crop has
been ascertained to be equal to that of the crop of corn for feeding
purposes, it can not be left out in any plan for the most profitable
production of syrup or sugar.

At Rio Grande, New Jersey, where this industry appears to be most
permanently established, the seed is utilized in feeding and fattening
swine, of which the company have several hundred, living exclusively
upon the seed and bagasse of sorghum, and it is stated that the profits
arising from this feature of their enterprise is such that the company

416 SORGHUM.

are enabled to grow their cane and deliver it to the mill absolutely free
of all cost, so that the only expense of attending their production of
sugar and syrup is that of manufacture.

Gratifying as is this result to those who desire to see the success of
this new sugar industry, it can not be surprising to any one who will
consider that our chief consumption of corn is for the fattening of
swine, and that it is so used profitably needs no argument to prove.
If, then, the seed of sorghum, equally abundant and equally nutri-
tious, may be substituted for corn, the stalks of sorghum, like those
of maize, may be regarded as being produced free of cost. A!so, by
means of such use of the seed and bagasse, fertilizing material is secured.

PRODUCTION OF SORGHUM SYRUP IN THE UNITED STATES ACCORDING TO THE
CENsus oF 1860-70-80.

Number of gallons,
|
States and Territories. |
1860. 1870. 1880.

AVS SSAGHALS CUES IS ca iereltacarciiee ees were saa leicio ais evofersrere aisteesat ieee Prada his) ct are 18
Rhode Usland sa... - st a1 Ss Watatse asa eiajeie atoleGle ae Melowbxere se 20) S207 eee
COMME CET pne oars ees weselh cele ecole lets non infsteos ot-ted- erorey oi sievelafotatare lefts 395 1,163
INGEN 2009 <a Aes Soon ono te bea se ue Ip ROUaOE enn sco GonoU 516 1,134
INGWi ORDO iemta wostantenicein eo weer ieieliash sisleveue See Btsduac anes 396 1,261
le Sinbskshdl\ bt hes Sed Seater CBO n aU ao ae ne pon ana rooUn a ooEnoRoDe 22,249 69,767
UD (sit Reh VaR yes ei UC te on GO at oa GE Orn G0 AS ae MOceoOE 1,613 25,136
IMEI GWE} eS se sosan coosas SBaaS TocMpoEaconobeourondacsdapoasdae 907 19,837
Wii ehCS he SE EARE Gant pooh ooar SodEeEedoue so cbOSnoo0nD Ie 221,270 564,598
NOLEN ORO eb ece cer laaer ete wie sore isis oie. ois aiale erattaininiatets Senator 263,475 964,662
SOMA ar Olin. ects tase ays chic [otras oe ee mE bie meteleiearereeyats 51,041 281,242
GeOGrela.(25 6 oie te. eclncane BF Scie tote elie Accra Dom en alele tae = 103,490 374,027 981, 152
Li koia to hy ges nscsos Gopdote Gey Dou a LACUdoR aa Sam avooadracsor sear Sec [ees ; 10,199
PAUSES STEMS re tere eticrcrecaveew eeieiote oe velelove e ata ae civ cicvane pieicretelaleaiaterc ss : 55,653 267,269 | 1,163,451
WINER Ol ek Sapo a code dncomsonsece “BE Qo nODaSUDC TI QO ates 1,427 - 67,509 | 1,062,140
FOULS TIDE ea isco wteterren eRe cine ie nic eons oiere orale orators) sista eeretetoreeroras sic : 180 33,777
NES fan On eS da enor ode Or RRR Fore Cos copbiods SOare 112,412 174,509 432,059
Arkansas........ i cee EE cere tac aye Na arate celle, Sieemiaie meiveneisteis ae 115,604 147,203 | 1,118,364
ARS ars Ris ae doy moses po Coe GONE OC OAD SACO Reb SE eoaoD oan AaTaody 706,663 | 1,254,701 | 3,776,212
WERE Vino EG. cere eise ac ais apepsiticie wieeieretenie blue ot ss peaveteMcomtohhe ate - 780,829 817,168
AONB ECR: ie less yae ostecraote capictarsinert Balchin eee sia's mies ener Sate 356,705 | 1,740,453 | 2,962,965
GTO ere ee ame ae ee eictaters mnie itare Sciassin sy tea Nee mee nents 779,076 | 2,023,427°| 1,229,852-
ITC DAN Aes aaceaae Wie oetleien fe ayaletcie a cis ole. 1s lsh srer= Bre aneve Busta terete 86,953 94,686 102,500
ON GR SHER ec rac syotttee cients cet cp Sinise co wo elms pore ele oi eine lates a sieie 881,049 | 2,026,212 | 1,741.853
WUIIOUS Bee ec Pees eaine aos ere wiejer & Late harmarcet eens eee 806,589 |} 1,960,473 | 2,265,993
WS COMALNG Hs sc cache ido ce Mle pcarales tice sesieue center es 19, 74,478 | 314,150
NADY GKSCI0) ty BAe on arte ore GAS oo Cer aaa tea pie nhats AAGdee 14,178 38,725 543,369
ION Pee OD One AOSD SAR eBcO BOD n EER ImOOOBaaaneod 4 cascquout 1,211,512 | 1,218,636 | 2,064,020
IMISSO UNE: Oe ts castes: chest ane ccieck se Sas Ree i DOS 796,111 | 1,730,171 | 4,129,595
CATIA Htc neta ese seater ater cial ale Siig Resid aoe ahas hus eR eaters iar 87,656 449,409 | 1,429,476
ONG fora sical ayes. & ctor creme eniiacsctetat sesicravels fe Des: -le romeo erent ema: 23,497 77,098 246,047
(CGE bhitornilt wosocmeoeonads Led sOOs BOO SePOREE betsnp dane scoc ODE 5d2 Spe 2,459
(Osasi2opat DAG. BamochaAcunccs bc cdcdaQtnndeeeae nn Sdolt Be Saicacad Sas eceeee ; 2,283
IN Viste dee cise cio eke croaetemiemr sey be Boy state aye Siete OR ere rail hiets Stevetets 3,651 350
(6X01 Foe 6 la eae aA ae Hombido ean ao hee ea eee anaO mod Sh 3c. ooo Mal aerate o Sor ho ee ys 3,227
SATTZ OMA se ss coe eee Ieee ray, nee ta Shares sot eske iat eetepemmpaeich lft crete eucte eo fetautetces bythe!
Dakotaets enece ss. 2s 50 Baas Set at pes (esauahadsra siete ene eee 20 1,230 17,012
dICG Reo tae Seen aOR aA coro atte ARES 5 Scie. O Oe Bae Sule 36
INGW MGIC OS a. tocicte sok oh etre ce ets elaiotahe nice Bias Baie oreere es 1,950 1,765 D1
USB TN cheek oe eterna arsrsrete ateiete te Semyatemhe acta tetect b,c Aiicto alc miaeretetapa ie aiiets 29,475 67,446 58,221
\MERS! oub oVea 10} Olan ctoie date obo Ln RoC RO OMMEHE Ara eobcrwniic| (a sa ‘ 612 1,472

Totals Hoes cek eins his Sects tols Sone toe Was Se eke oes acelon eae eh ners 6,749,123 | 16,050,089 | 28,444,202

I

rr

PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SORGHUM. 417

Tt appears, from the above, that the increase in production from
1869 to 1870 was 133 per cent; and, from 1870 to 1880, 77 per cent,
and that, with the exception of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana, no
state with a large production shows any falling off; while, in certain
of the states, the increase has been remarkable.

PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SORGHUM.

Very many manufacturers of sorghum have produced amounts of
sugar fairly comparable in quantity with the results obtained from sugar-
cane.

Mr. A. J. Russell, who produced in 1879 over 22 tons of sorghum
sugar, polarizing 96°.5, reports that he secured 15 to 23 gallons of
syrup from a ton of cane, and obtained, as first sugar, 4$ pounds to the
gallon of syrup.

Mr. John B. Thoms, an experienced sugar maker, reports that sor-
ghum sugar may be produced at an expense for manufacture of not
over 1} cents per pounds.

Professor Henry, of Madison, Wisconsin, made sugar in 1882 at an
expense for cultivation and manfacture of not over 43 cents per pound.
He obtained, as ‘‘ firsts,” 45 per cent of the weight of the syrup in
sugar of exce]lent quality ; and upon their experimental plats, Profes-
sor Swenson and himself secured, approximately, a thousand pounds
of sugar per acre.

The president of the Rio Grande Sugar Co. reported the expense of
working the cane in the mill as not being over $1.75 per ton. Much
of the cane yielded for each.ton worked 65 pounds of first, besides the
molasses; and, with sorghum in good condition as to maturity, the es-
timate of 100 pounds of sugar to each ton of cane is confidently made.

Mr. Thoms estimates the expense of working 100 tons of cane into
syrup and sugar at $80.25 + $42 for 30 barrels, equal $122.25, or
$1.22 for the manufacture of each ton of cane.

These results are such as have been often reported, even by those
working with far more inexpensive plants.

‘Edwin Blood, of Stockbridge, Wisconsin, reports that, in the season
of 1881, it cost him 11 cents per gallon to manufacture syrup, but in
1882 he could make it for 7} cents per gallon.

D. H. Anderson, of Kansas, reports 10 cents per gallon as the cost
of manufacture of a gallon of syrup.

Now, at 15 gallons to the ton of cane, it costs at Rio Grande 113
cents, and Mr. Thoms 8+ cents, to manufacture a gallon of syrup-#-re-
sults closely agreeing with the results obtained trom smaller mills.

27

418 SORGHUM.

Reference to the average results of many samples of juice from
many varieties of sorghum, given on page 210, will show that such es-
timate is far short of the possibilities.

Mr. A. J. Russell, already quoted, reports that he has ubtained 280
gallons of syrup from one acre of cane, and obtained from this syrup
74 pounds of sugar to the gallon. This is 2,100 pounds of sugar from

the acre, besides the seed, which he estimates at from 25 to 40 bushels
to the acre, and which he sold at 50 cents per bushel. He also reports
that 10 tons of cane is an average yield to the acre, and 14 gallons of
syrup to the ton, and 7$ pounds of sugar to the gallon; and that, at
such yield, the sugar would not cost 24 cents per pound; but he says
that a good season and good land should give 20 tons of cane per acre,
17 gallons of syrup to the ton, and 95 pounds of sugar to the gallon.
This is a result of 5,230 pounds of sugar per acre.

Of the heavier and later maturing varieties of sorghum, over 30 tons
per acre have been repeatedly obtained.

Geo. W. Chapman, of Stirling, Kansas, reports having obtained
334 tons of Honduras sorghum to the acre, so that the above state-
ments of Mr. Russell do not appear to be beyond the limits of possibility.

At Rio Grande, New Jersey, Hon. James Bishop, Secretary of the
Bureau of Statistics of New Jersey, reports that, in 1882, the product
of sugar and cane upon which the state paid bounty was 5,658 tons of
cane and 519,944 pounds of sugar. Also, that 1,011 barrels of syrup
were produced. That the average of the juice worked during the sea-
son was 11°.11 Beaumé, and the average purity of the juice was
84°.16. That the first two weeks of the season more molasses than
sugar was produced, viz., 112 barrels of sugar and 181 barrels of mo-
lasses, but that, on the fourth week, the proportion was 150 barrels of
sugar to 110 barrels of molasses.

One plat of eight acres, by actual survey and weight, yielded 136
tons of cane, an average of seventeen tons to theacre. Another plat of one
acre yielded twenty-one tons, and a third twenty-two tons to the acre.

During the season of 1883, three acres, by actual measurement,
yielded 78 tons of cane, an average of 26 tons per acre.

Sorghum Sugar in Japan.

Consul General Van Buren, of Yokohama, Japan, in a report to
the Department of State upon the agricultuye of Japan, under the
head of sugar, says:

The sugar oi Japan is made from that species of the sorghum plant known

as the Chinese sorghum. It grows luxuriantly in all the southern portions of the
empire south of the 36th degree of north latitude. The whole product of the

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF SORGHUM AND OTHER CROPS. 419

empire in 1878 was 64,297,580 pounds. Importation in 1878 was 67,434,805
pounds. For three or four hundred years, the processes of granulating and re-
fining sugars have been known and practiced. Sorghum is not grown, as with
us, from the seed, but from euttings. In September, selected stalks are cut and
buried in trenches a foot deep. Through the winter, from each joint of the
stalks, sprouts grow. In thespring, these joints are cut off and set out in rows 15 to
18 inches apart, and about the same distance from each other in the rows. The
ground has previously been thoroughly dug up and pulverized by a long-bladed
mattock. The fertilizers used are ashes, fish, decomposed hay, straw and sea-weed,
or night-soil. The plants are thoroughly hoed, billed, andirrigated. In October
and November, the leaves are stripped off, and the stalks are then cut and the
hard outer covering is removed, and the remaining portion is then ground be-
tween rollers of stone or hard wood. The cane juice is then boiled in iron ket-
tles until the granulation takes place, when it placed in bags and pressed dry.
The expressed syrup is used as molasses. Dry upland soils are required for
the successful growth of the cane, and the expenditure of labor and fertilizers
is as great, if not greater, as for any other crop. Great exertions are being
made to promote the increased production of sugar, which will probably be, in
some degree, successful. In fact, 1am informed that large orders for the ap-
paratus for sugar making have been received from districts which have hereto-
fore not grown sugar-cane.

Sugar Product per Acre.

Nelson Maltby, Geneva, Ohio, reports that E. Winchester, of that
place, obtained, from one-third of an acre of sorghum, 336 pounds of
sugar and 47 gallons of molasses; that M. D. Cole, from one-half an
acre, obtained 350 pounds of sugar and 50 gallons of molasse
that, from 700 gallons of syrup, Mr. Maltby obtained 4,230 pounds
of sugar from the first crystallization.

Professors Henry and Swenson, of Madison, Wisconsin, report, as
the result from two experimental plats, 923 and 998 pounds of sugar
per acre, and, in addition, 1,235 and 1,042 pounds of molasses, besides
274 and 32 bushels of seed from the respective plats.

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE SORGHUM AND OTHER PRINCIPAL
CROPS.

In the Iowa Agricultural Report for 1872, page 268, the following
average acreage values of the leading crops grown in Iowa during
the years 1862~71, inclusive, is given as the report of a committee
appointed for the purpose of investigating the sorghum industry
in Iowa:

420 SORGHUM.

Average acreage

value of crop. |Difference.

Sorghum $68 18 2 eae
Corn 3 26 $54 87
Wheat 13 79 54 34
Oats 11 73 56 40
Potatoes 55 84 12 29

It thus appears that the acreage value of the sorghum crop was.
more than five times (5.27) that of the average of the other cereals,
and that the only crop which approached it in acreage value was that
of potatoes. The average net profits of an acre of sorghum has been
shown (page 415) to be $32.14, nearly three times the gross returns.
from the cereals.

For the purpose of comparison, the following tables from the Annual
Report, Department of Agriculture, 1881-82, are given, showing the
average cash value of each of the principal crops grown in the United
States, separately and together for each of the states; also, a summary
of the amount of each crop grown, the acreage and value, average
acreage yield and price, as also the statistics of maize and the cereals,
as a whole, from 1871 to 1881, inclusive:

TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE CASH VALUE PER ACRE OF FARM PRODUCTS FOR
THE YEAR 1881.

43
. 3
2 ai 3
“ Sse he:

States. 4 ey : a 2 ag; = 3 :

2 o Pe) S) = 2 me

fe) iS a 3 os =} ° ° Ss

'S) = i oe) a) a) AY a /s3)
WERINIG Wye sce oot, se eeyioeas $30 94/$22 00/$16 05 $15 03)$18 '70)$12 90/440 04 $10 41
New Hampshire............... 29 75] 23 71] 11 13} 18 04] 18 20) 15 00) 15 40) $225 12) 10 57
WMeETMONG 44s ae seer ene eres 30 70) 26 46) 17 14| 16 80) 22 10) 14-47) 52 50) 234 30} 12 82
Massachusetts)... 02ecesecc-ee) 22 09} 23 70] 18 26] 19 76} 24 32) 9 97] 55 90} 228 00) 20 83
Rod eslsland eee ccs oe 24 30] 15 60} 12 88] 19 63} 22 41) 9 72) 60 < : 20 41
Connecticntsss:52---onc nse : 20 40} 25 13] 14 60} 15 85} 19 80) 12 35] 66 3 951 52) 17 64
ING WRVCORIKAM - cmacNe ert eee, 20 33] 19 04] 11 16] 13 82) 21 95) 9 76) 49 59} 174 86] 16 30
Ne WAJeTSOV. Gt kc rasiemenertoe hoe 17 86] 18 16} 10 48} 15 04] 16 3 9 00) 62 40) 129 00) 20 54
Penney) yanial-nececekeese sore 18 90) 16 75} 10 08} 15 26] 20 04| 9 70) 46 56) 152 49) 14 88
Delawarevtsci41 2). dace eee 8 64) 14 14) 7 05) 8 32 3 43] 43 00).. 18 05
intend Py nts Ree eon can ebocbeaatene 15 49] 15 79] 10 80) 9 26] 28 38}° 9 00} 48 41! 54 08] 17 64
WManeinie:. 2286 as coakeses bore etesas 10 65] 10 64] 5 89} 419] 17 05) 7 08] 8140) 47 82) 17 56
North i@arolima.sys--0-se.e.csue: 9 20] 10 28) 6 01] 5 02] 11 50} 6 82) 26 60) | 59 80} 18 17
SouthpGanolina.-. oy. eee cs- cee 6 63] 9 40] 7 20] 10 67} 16 80)...... 21 31 34 72| 19 36
GO OREN ob visne bercietonineommteremraners 3/05)! 29) G4 sOReA 792) 1S ce tieaenie. 21 00 3 88} 21 55
BLOM a WS: hated os cantons: coke 8 80) 8 41} 7 84) 7 54 2200 3 20) 19 95
Alla Danie: -j asks faeeee eee 9760) 10 43\iaenlo|) (8:10), Tsao ose 43 20} 39 78} 19 78
IMM SSUSS1D Dl ter paor seeierenrsy aes 10 56} 8 96] 8 68) 8 75 ope 36 80} 48 79) 18 94
WEOWISIAM GA cl dcrccoectes ee eitianee 12 74! 4 95) 12 18} 12 28 seh | leas aoe Sonos 17 82
Web .<o ho fin eee a en ee eae rite Mir 11 78} 17 78) 16 80) 16 35) 17 87). .-... 389 20 54 72) 13 75
TATION SHS Ss cle litres ners tees 13 91) 7 80] 7 37) 9 80 folly 43 56 40 66) 18 00
MENTICSSCE’: «stesso as vee sevens 8 93] 8 30] 5 60} 7 95] 14 63] 6 97] 34 40} ~41 80) 16 22

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF SORGHUM AND OTHER CROPS.

Table Showing Average Cash Value, etc.—Continued.

States. = a

5 x=

S. =
EE Wir Ia oss coxe ee: w 16 80} 13 12
MOWING y.~oo is <5 s cress. soe 11 90} 982
, TEC hee ghee SES ay ot phe Sa a 15 49) 17 16
LTT oT yee Ge eee 17 64) 13 62
CUS TS See Se Sh Se eee Seale | 13 08! 13 72}
EERRINENIS UAE Se, <tc CR oe tee cote 1l 25; 10 00!
\\EES 20 Ey ae ae tm pa end aes 14 90) 13 45
EEEBIICROMB 3) wae n= cose ee ke 16 96) 12 0S
LO. 2) eS as a ee 1L 3) 7 00)
WINRED Rots cos ease. san +s 19 72] 10 23)
LEG ATS TT pay. EN Re Se SR ae aa 10 56} 9 55)
Li GUT eee 10 69} 6 S89)
TSU ee ee 21 2) 12 36
LI ee ee 15 15} 15 14
Lon) Tn SSeS Se gh eS 24 80} 17 40
LEG 0 ae es ee « 2 eee 26 77| 26 33
RRPETREIOS. fc a= 5 Cee ae es 238 - | 30 59) 19 33

’

421

bs
Cpa Se :
! ibe bose a
4 = = “4 = 3 :
Bea pees? {ek iP -ea-t chee pa | Ee
& ° r=) 33) a = 5
9 41} 790) 18 45| 834] 4455] 42 75| 13 62
10 99! 7 66| 15 13] 7 03| 37 00| 61 60} 15 60
12 05| 12 19| 16 24) 8 06| 3410) 77 12| 13 54
11 37) 15 04! 22 60) 13 05| 46 40| 62 25) 15 12
9 49| 9 66| 27 30| 10 89, 37 10) 53 77| 14 64
14 10) 14 36] 13 33] 752) 5040) 54 20) 14 2
12 87 11 44} 20 58! 10 08! 63 00} 108 25| 12 44
10 $8) 15 31] 23 07| 10 29| 61 75).... .. $ 44
912} $91] 15 39] 11 16| 56 10)...._.. $ 28
10 03| 10 71| 15 48| 12 25! 43 68| 72 79| 13 75
9 03} 792} 922} 9 40} 49 40} ....... 5 $3
7 883| 7 92| 489] 7 86] 47 Of)... .... 5 40
11 10! 13 86] 14 55| 17 90| 68 00}. 16 47
13 40} 14 88] 14 91) 15 00| 57 50)_....... 16 91
-.. | 28 53! 25 68}... 121 50). 22222. 19 50
19 40) 2 19| 207 104 00 24 00
16 36| nha a ses. rh, 14 88

TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE CASH VALUE PER ACRE OF THE CEREALS, POTATOES,

TOBACCO, AND HAY OF THE FARM, TAKEN TOGETHER, FOR THE YEAR 1881.

States.

Maine.
New Hampshire
Vermont .
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York
MEW OCISEY.0 . it~ oe wabonae Las
Fennsvivanias. << .22.5.2 SS ee
LEE EE Seen Sere tas Je mani
Maryland ....
Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Florida .
Ata baina...:..---2 oa Sages aera as ea
SSISSED ESL = cee eal. 2 anon ace area
Lonisiana
MEGAN ios eaceekacewae Soon 5 = eter

Average
valu:

|

|| Ohio.

States.

Arkansas
Tennessee. .......-.-- fe Sees 4
| West Virginia
Kentucky

Michigan
Indiana
Illinois.
| Wiseonsin
DUP OR OMe aeons
Iowa...

Missouri

California

| Territories.

|

MGB TaSE sect tases cnet eos ase

Averag
value
per acre.

| all all andl oll eel al

12

422 SORGHUM.

A GENERAL SUMMARY,

<

8

SHOWING THE ESTIMATED QUANTITIES, NUMBER OF ACRES,

AND AGGREGATE VALUE OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS OF THE FARM IN 1881.

“Quantity pro- | Number of a
Products. duced: Meno. ae Value.

TMA COMME oie ctetee tele uate ier = i= bushels 1,194,916,000 64,262,025 $ 759,482,170
Wib@ibeascccsotctieisoicte a. SERS oe oe (loye oce 383, 280,090 37,709,020 456,880, 127
NGO b Ren nne. an Soc opaor eee ochaa sa bon ae do 20,704,950 1,789, 100 19,327,415
ORES eke More peek Ueriemne men Mbee Pe GSS cb 416,481,000 16,831,600 193,198,970
ley Talove | See BAe aoe aga McocuL conser ode’ dor ee 41,161,330 1,967,510 33,563,513
Bure swine ates amines cerran ech clei crete dower: 9,486,200 $28,815 $205,705
Potatoes ....... ols ictolfetetstalieiete Piste tatnererele tors (ooyeee 109,145,494 2,041,670 99,291,341
Opal sete<tolere Siiciets eiabaersinieiaie eine siete ote 2,175,175, 064 125,429,740 1.570, 248,541
TODACCO. ... 22.2 cee e ene, vere nen ees pounds... 449,880,014 646,259 43,372,336
Le yee aces An pe Ieieiaieh vis.clgacvetonetat starats CONS: =, 39,135, 004 80,888,700 415,131,366
Cotton... SulimeocsoadocUoasaade bales 5,400 16,710,730 259,016,315
‘el erh ats lel (0) Hl bn an en ae Sanaa CO aR laaticdasn Sucbeor 173,675,409 2,287, 768,558

a ——————————

TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE YIELD AND CASH VALUE PER ACRE, AND PRICE PER
BUSHEL, POUND, OR TON, OF FARM PRODUCTS FOR THE YEAR 181.

iS) ue 2 eo Ses o
Cc 2S = 3 226 | 4
33 54 eae) Sa 252 S 5
me | ae SSS me AG 5 - =
Products. Os ee od Products. os eens) 28
oR wp oA oy ods on
> > S anoles! >
a < a < < <
Indian corn .bu..| 18 6—| $0 63.6—| $11 82 || Buckwheat .bu..} 11.4+|! $0 86.5+1! $9 90
Wheatic..2-. do. 10.2—| 1193+] 12 03 || Potatoes.... do..| 53.5— 90 9-| 48 63
VGstuene yen do 11 6— 93.3+]| 10 80 |! Tobaceco.....1bs..| 696.1+4+ 9.6+ Pe
Oats. do 24 7+ 46.4—| 11 48 || Hay....... tons. 1.14 | 11 8% 13 45+
Batleyicad.cr= = do. | 20.9+ 62.3—| 17°21 || Cotton ...... lbs..] 155 10 15 50
CORN.
ee
Average
Average | Average =
Total pro- | Total area | Totalvalue =! F s* | value of
Calendar years. ae sro, op value perjyield per| 7 ;
duction. of crop. of crop. ehele marie yield per
acre,
Bushels. Acres. Cents. | Bushels.
TS Tika stieue tele eens iets 991,898,000 34,991,157 $478, 8,275,900 48 2 29 1 $14 02
BS PAR nie ifr Mee 719,000 39,926.856 435, 149,290 39.8 iN) Va) 12 24
IP BGG b Ano, se miqu © 932,274.000 39,197,148 447,1833,020 48 0 23 8 11 4L
TS Teel ects coma oh Sa 1A8: 500 41,036,918 590,043 O80 64 7 20 7 13 40:
LV seh Siacok cos Cas 1,321,069, 000 44,841,387 599,445,950 20 29.4 12 355
DS7G eee ere se pee mem alee tsi ea e610) 49,032,364 475,491,210 37 0 26 1 9 69
UT Aobeiaaanes co 3 1,842,558, 000 50,369,113 480,645,400 30 8 26 6 9 54
TSF RE Meola: setae 1,388, 218,750 51,585,000 441,153,405 31.8 26 9 S 55
SWAT SS erica hota cack 1,547,901,790 53,085,450 580,486,217 37 5 29 2 10 93
Tote ly Sere cine ...{ 1,717,434,943 62,817,542 679,714,499 39 6 27.6 10 9L
ikstotl Gee. ave Cet neieke 1, 194,916,000 64,262,025 759,482,170 63.6 18 6 11 82
Motal ese es 3,662,965,083 525)346; 204) IS 8881068, 021 |) 2. ee tee eee ee
Ann’laver’ge..| 1,242,087,735 47,758,746 584,824,375 43.1 26 11 20

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF SORGHUM AND OTHER CROPS.

a?

423

The average yield and value per acre for eleven years, from 1871 to
1881, inclusive, is thus comparatively presented:

Corn

Cereals.

Yield

Value

per acre. | per acre.

ee ee ee ee i

ee ee ee ee ee ee

RECAPITULATION

Ce ee ee i ras

Bushels.
26.0 $11 20
122 12 82
27.6 9 97
13.9 10 03
22.0 16 14
16.1 11 3

OF CEREAL CROPS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Years.

ee ee ee |

es

21,884,133, 158

Total produc-

tion.

Bushels.
1,528,776,1°0
1,664,331,600
1,538,892,891
1, 454,180,200
2,032,235,300

2,302.

54,950

2/437,482,300 |

2,718,193,501
2,066,029,570

Total area

Total value

1,989,466,651

| of crop. of crop.
|

Acres. Dollars.
65,061,951 911,845,441
68,280,197 874,594,459
| 74,112,137 919,217,273
| 80,051,289 1,015,530,570
86,863,178 1,030,277,099
| 93'920/619 935,008 S44
| 93,150,286 1,035,571.078
| 100,856,260 913,975,920
102,260,950 | 1,245,127,719
120,926,286 1,361,497, 704
123,388,070 1,470,948, 200
| 1,008,971,223 | 11,713,584,307
| 91,724,657 1,064,871,301

In a letter to the committee of the National Academy of Sciences,
C. Conrad Johnson, Esq., an experienced sugar-boiler, after a careful
consideration of the results of the investigations made at the Depart-
ment of Agriculture during the years 1878 to 1881 inclusive, makes
comparisons between sorghum, sugar-canes, and beets, as sources for

the economical production of sugar.

with interest. He says as follows:

His results will be examined

Having thus-compared fully the chemical constituents of the canes under dis-
cussion, the processes best adapted for the attainment of the ends in view, to-
gether with such suggestions as may seem proper toward enabling the operation
to be conducted with a minimum loss, we may return to the comparison of the
actual results obtained in practice with the ‘‘available” ones presented by Dr.

Col

lier in his tables.

If we accept it as a fact that Louisiana cane will produce

on an average 2,000 pounds of sugar and 120 gallons_of molasses to the acre
(and we believe that, taking the plant and ratoons together, this will be found
a high estimate), we have the following data:

Average Louisiana cane:

Sugar.

WO IASNESTS oor ee ce ec ce we menae Sle ere e era emdcine ween eb ot tated 5 seis

SA AG Ss SR See pounds...
gallons.... 120

2,000

424 SORGHUM.
French beets: :
CT ar) a een ae Guia SOB ODD Sor BODOG ODD EMDES sabrocy inicpoaccueccooourien pounds.... 3,600
WOIRSSES). oo Soci eewlec Bd aeictele Dk Sicle Heol pepe ober tie Peakins hraliet Sepa sells gallons.... 156
Sorghum-cane:
GUCAT (LAVELLE) onic clsieis witie won ale nim vie oie'n's mle else elnlbiololeislelelens.e(elrinis . )=/a\sie.0 pounds.... et
MOLASSES) (OSLINTALEG) os o.- fe .cun.cleiew > amielelsic.o.e = vioterniels PAE Us eblor0 (eens «ie Finis gallons).... } _
AGRICULTURAL EXPENSE.
Average cost of working per acre:
Louisiana cane (estimated) $14 00
reel DRCiS 4. sete emis ciate ceninela roe 14 00
Stop yepru bie netOpy she ap monh co o-Sactncaciaad Bite aio AS OE a ICAO CIT OBIOG Oo 11 50 to17 50
VALUE OF RESULTS.
Louisiana cane:
Cor Ne. Sees tne tate olatstate Gjerkccnis'= slave: Mat appeat seal evahe niente outa olor fe af /a/1s\ lala cleretetatetaratets $140 00
Molasses ....+..-... Agia Wc ecole lato « stasis Biz staie ciure ojcpeaeealatee etuisips ame pelea s wis emsee wisps oe 72 00
212 00
French beets:
TAT ee ee eo ne aise o ole Ioeiclcinbe cie's 1c ee olofertalale m Sielete oe mi alevelevelerelaia(4,4ioleinje/atolnlofoterstainietetel= 189 00
IMESERS REG ce oar relen ere clei cla clole oe oieuata ce Gheratete rate mere ielateioiorsisrestareicters cis ernis(aieielomtaiaic kee 16 38
205 38
Sorghum-cane:
eu wore $113 36
Sucar (AVeTASE). 5.2.6 as ale cise oo cles vinrs ove ols 'es «les s\01e10 Sivje's\e 0 «1 q'6/»\019,0 «110.0 54 00
aa Z 167 36
. 189 72
IMOlaRSeS) CESEINTALCE) |. <0- oo cte eos ole! la.cls state Me 6 orstety ols sleieisic'o010.0(0)sislaisisieleara'e 48 00
*237 72

MARKETING OF SORGHUM SYRUPS.

The amount of sorghum sugar thus far produced, has had no appre-
ciable effect upon the general market, and has been readily sold at
fair prices in the local markets.

The production of syrups, however, has already reached such pro-
portions as to have almost entirely supplied the demand in certain
sections, and there is a great diversity in the prices received. The
prices vary from 70 to 75 cents in certain places, to even 40 cents or
less per gallon. It is without doubt true, that the quality varies as
greatly as the price, and it is therefore a matter of great practical im-
portance, not only to secure a good yield of cane, but a superior pro-
duct from it—since the difference in cost of manufacture is at the
most trifling between the best and poorest grades of syrup found in
the market. To those who hope to establish a sure and permanent
market for their syrup, it is of the greatest importance to secure a uni-
form product. This is more diffeult to the small manufacturer than
the large, as usually the large works are able to retain the supervision

*In considering Mr. Johnson’s paper, the committee of the National Academy of Sci- _

ences remark that “Mr. Johnson's estimate omitted the value of the seed of sorghum,
anitem which itis important to state, and which, in the opinion of many cultivators,
is fully equal to the cost of cultivation, or more. Evidence on this point abounds in
this report.”

_

CENTRAL FACTORIES. 425

of a skilled person, and, besides, the large quantities made each day
are of uniform quality. On the other hand, even the greatest care
will hardly prevent the small manufacturer from now and then getting
2 portion of his syrup far below, or much above, his average product.
It would be well if the syrups were, after cooling, put into large storage
tanks, which, when the tanks. were filled, could be barreled for mar-
ket, thus securing at ieast many barrels of like character; and if two
or three such tanks should be kept of different grades, the inferior
product might be kept apart from the better.

To those desirous of securing for their products the highest market
price, it will be found worth while to attend carefully to the packages
in which the syrup is sent to market. Stout, clean casks give greater
security in handling, and will generally more than pay any extra cost in
the readiness with which a purchaser will be found.

Those who are satisfied as to the character of their syrups, should by
means of a stencil plate attach their name to their packages, so that
they may thus advertise their products, and secure permanent custom.

CENTRAL FACTORIES.

Tt will be found by far the most economical, if the central factory
system should be generally adopted in place of many independent,
and small factories. The advantages of such a system are obvious,
since improved and necessary apparatus too expensive for the individ-
ual could be secured. Steam could be employed with the greatest

economy, and the services of an experienced sugar maker could be

secured. The economical production of sugar in the small factory is
practically impossible; or, even if not in certain cases, its production
by a well conducted central factory would be found far more profitable.
The small farmer might then content himself either in growing the
cane and delivering it to the factory ; or, if at a distance, he might pro-
duce syrups of a high grade, 1. e. containing a large amount of erys-
tallizable sugar, and depend upon a local market for their disposal, or
furnish them to the central factory to be worked for sugar and mo-
lasses, where a larger and better product could be secured than would
be possible for him to obtain on his own farm. By this means a sup-
ply of syrup might be produced by the neighboring farmers sufficient
to continue the work of the central factory during the winter, and un-
til another crop—thus, not oniy keeping the necessary force for conduct-
ing it constantly employed, and the machinery always in running
order, but having the expensive plant at no time of the year lying
idle. Already such systems have been introduced in many of the in-
dustries of the farm, and, if wisely conducted, always with increased

426 SORGHUM.

profits and less labor. That such ultimately will be the result so soon
as this new industry shall have been more generally entered upon, there
can be no doubt; or, what is practically the same thing, large com-

anies will be organized able to cultivate and manufacture severa
p g

thousand acres of cane. A recent report of the Department of Agri-
culture says: “at one large factory there is reported a yield of 792
pounds of sugar, valued at 8 cents per pound, and 112 gallons of
syrup, valued at 40 cents per gallon, from an acre, indicating a net
profit of $50.67. It should be understood, however, that this en-
couraging result was not obtained by the ordinary manufacturer, but
by chemists who were skilled in the manipulation of the juice, and
who were working with apparatus designed especially for the manu-
facture of sugar.” That intelligence in the conducting of such oper-
ations is of practical value none can doubt, and that sugar is to be
made with apparatus designed for such purpose, goes without saying,
but the report emphasizes the fact that the best results were secured
by intelligent supervision, and improved appliances,

ae

MAIZE SUGAR, HISTORY OF. 497

CHAPTER XIII.

(a.) Maize sugar, history of.

(6.) Detailed analys+s of the juice of several varieties of maize.
(c.) Average results of analyses of many varieties of maize.
(d.) Sugar and ripe grain from maize.

(e } Comparison of the juices of sorghum and maize.

(f.) Pearl millet, sugar from. .

MAIZE SUGAR, HISTORY OF.

The presence of sugar in the juice of the maize stalk has been long
known. In the “True Travels, Adventures, and Observations of
Captain Iohn Smith, Account of Sixth Voyage, a. p. 1606, London
Ed., a. D. 1629,” he says of Indian corn (Zea mais):

The stalke being yet greene, hath a sweet iuice in it, somewhat like a sugar-
cane, which is the cause that when they gather their corne greene they sucke
the stalkes; for as we gather greene pease, so do they their corne, being greene,
which excelleth their olde [Maize and Sorghum, F. L. Stewart, page 17].

The historian, Prescott, in his ‘‘ Conquest of Mexico,” says of the
cultivation of Indian corn:

The great staple of the country, as indeed of the American continent, was
maize or Indian corn, which grew freely along the valleys, and up the steep
sides of the Cordilleras, to the high level of the table-lands

Prescott says :

The Aztecs were as curious in its preparation, and as well instructed in its
manifold uses, as the most experienced housewife. Its gigantic stalks, in the
equinoctial regions, afford a saccharine matter not found to the same extent
in northern latitudes, and supplied the natives with sugar little inferior to that
of the cane itself, which was not introduced among them till after the conquest.

In the United States, in the early colonial days, it appears that ex-
periments on a large seale were made, looking to the utilization of
cornstalks as an economical source of sugar.

The entire acreage of all the cultivated land of the United States,
including that in the cereals, root crops, cotton, and: the grass lands,
equals 152,910,281 acres. Of this area, 50,369,113 acres, or 38 per
cent, is in maize. The enormous extent of this cereal becomes thus
apparent.

The availability of these plants as a source of sugar has been known
for a long time; but, although much has been known, little has been

428 SORGHUM.

done in the way of careful investigation for the purpose of determin-
ing their practical value for the production of sugar. Indeed, many
of the statements made in reference to maize seem almost prophetic.
It appears reasonably certain that had the matter been carefully fol-
lowed up by a series of experiments, the enormous drain upon the
country, which has required all the gold and silver product to supply,
could not only have been prevented, but we might have been, a half
century ago, the great sugar producing country of the globe.

In a letter from Abigail Adams to her husband, John Adams, Sep-
tember 24th, 1777, she says:

An instance may be seen in the progress which is made in grinding corn-
stalks and boiling the liquor into molasses. Scarcely a town or parish within
forty miles of us but what has several mills at work; and had the experiment
been made a month sooner, many thousand barrels would have been made.
No less than 80 have been made in the small town of Manchester. It answers
very well to distill, and may be boiled down to sugar. There are two mills fit-
ting up in this parish. They have three rollers—one with cogs and two smooth.
The stalks are stripped of the leaves and tops, so that it is no robbery upon the
cattle, and juice ground out. ’Tis said four barrels of juice will make one of
molasses, but in this people differ widely. They have a method of refining it,
so that it looks as well as the best imported molasses.

David Lee Childs, on the culture of the beet and manufacture of
beet sugar, says:

Other plants usually grown in our soil are capable of furnishing sugar, and
some of them may be found worth cultivating for that and accessory products.

We have tried Indian corustalks and the pumpkin, and have obtained from
them good sugar and molasses.

Perhaps these crops may alternate advantageously with the beet. If the
manufacture of sugar from the stalks of Indian corn can be reconciled, as we
believe it may, with the maturity or near maturity of the ears, this source of
saccharine may supersede the beet root.

Under date of March 13th, 1880, R. S. Hinman, of Hartford, Con-
necticut, writes me as follows:

I have found that, in 1717, one of my ancestors procured a patent from the
general court of the colony of Connecticut to make molasses from cornstalks,
on condition that he should make it as good and as cheap as it could be got
froin the West Indies.

At a meeting of the French Academy, M. Biot stated that he had
found 12 per cent of sugar in juice from cornstalks in one experiment,
and 135 per cent in another.

In the Farmers’ Encyclopedia is the following :

The juice of maize contains as much, if not a larger proportion of sugar,
than that of sugar-cane.

EXAMINATION OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF MAIZE. 429

In Porcher’s “‘ Resources of Southern Fields and Forests,” he says:

In the first place it has been satisfactorily proved that sugar of an excellent
quality, suitable for common use without refining, may be made from the stalks
of maize.

Again:

The sweetness of the cornstalk is a matter of universal observation. Our
forefathers, in the Revolutionary struggle, resorted to it as a means to furnish a
substitute for West India sugar.

Thaér, in his “‘ Principles of Agriculture” (1844), says:

The use of unripe maize for the manufacture of sugar has lately been again
recommended, on the ground that maize is better adapted for this purpose than
beet root. I have long been of the opinion, he adds, that of all plants which
can be raised in this country, maize is best suited to thé purpose in question;
the syrup extracted from it is, before crystallization, decidedly superior to that
of beet root.

I have been recently informed that, over thirty years ago, there was
a factory in the south of France which produced large quantities of
excellent sugar from the stalks of maize, but the rapid development
of the beet sugar industry caused this factory to decline, and their
practical results have been almost forgotten. Also, about 1844, a cer-
tain judge, of Williston, Vermont, produced a fair quality of syrup
from cornstalks; but his experiments, like those of so many others,
caused only a temporary and local excitement, which speedily died
away. The same is true as regards the sorghums.

EXAMINATION OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF MAIZE.

For the purpose of a thorough investigation of this matter, the au-
thor, as chemist of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington,
planted several of the more common varieties of maize, and cultivated
them according to the general method adopted when the grain is the
object. The several varieties were subjected to daily examination
during the season, in a manner identical with that employed in the
examination of the sorghum, as described on page 185.

The varieties of maize planted were as follows:

No. 1. Egyptian Sugar Corn.

No. 2. Lindsay's Horse Tooth.
No. 3. Blount’s Prolific.

No. 4. Improved Prolific Bread.
No. 5. Broad White Flat Dent.
No. 6. Long Narrow White Dent.
No. 7. Chester County Mammoth.
No. 8. 18-rowed Yellow Dent.

No. 9. Stowell’s Evergreen.
No. 10. Improved Prolific.

No. ll. Sandford.

No. 12. Early Minnesota Dent.

430 SORGHUM.

Each of the above varieties were planted in plats having ten rows,
24 feet in each row, and the rows 34 feetapart. There was, therefore,
of each variety planted +, of an acre, or 840 square feet.

In the above list of the varieties, it will be seen that white and
yellow, flint and dent, common and sweet varieties, were included, so
that the results secured may be regarded as by no means exceptional.
Besides, these investigations were continued year after year, with sev-
eral of these varieties, without any marked differences being mauifest
in the results obtained.

The following table gives the several stages of development of the
plant, as mentioned in the tables of analyses, similar to those used in
the case of the sorghums.

The examination of sugar, or sweet corn, since the grain is used in
its immature condition, was continued with one portion of the plat
after the 11th stage, at which time the ears were removed. The stalks
were left standing in the field, and exawined at intervals of one week
after the ears had been plucked.

Stages of Development of Maize.
Stage—
1. About a week before the appearance of the tassel.
3. Tassel just appearing
5. Tassel entirely out.
7. Ear just appearing.
9. Ear just forming grain.
11. Ear in roasting condition.
13. One week after roasting condition.
15. Two weeks after roasting condition.
17. Three weeks after roasting condition,

Intermediate stages were recorded in the observations, but the above
list is complete enough to enable the reader to understand the condition
of the plants when examined.

The following table gives the average length and weight of the
several varieties of maize, as also the number of stalks of each from
which the averages were taken :

DETAILED ANALYSES OF STALKS OF SEVERAL VARIETIES, ETC. 431

RELATIVE LENGTHS AND WEIGHTS OF THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF MAIZE.

= Number Total | Stripped
Name. of stalks.| L€™Sth-| weight. | weight.

Feet. Pounds. | Pounds.
Egyptian Sugar Corm......-.----...0+.-++++++++--- 58 835 | 1.710 1.105
Zangdsay?s Horse T0oths, (2.6: <= 22-25. 3-5 22s <--o= 38 $93 | 2.933 1.583
inn we PrOluGee aie. 662 2 ee kes. cf cose. 23 9 6 2.065 1188
Improved Prolific "oy a Se ie eal ae 23 10.03 2 865 1791
Broad Flat White Dent.......-..-. too ee eee ee 19 9.48 2 616 1 684
EPR Pee ek AL ey 102) tS ae a 19 9 13 2.87 1 658
Chester County Mammoth. -.-............2.....-- : 22 8.49 2 732 1.459
TUS CO oe gel eh or Se ee ee oe eee 20 § 24 2 860 1 560
Bi w el SU VRTETER fcc ec 2s <255d5s=. cosewnceens = 32 6 08 0 S816 0 610
JO ee ea 1 er Ore ree 5 26 7 37 1 93 1 485
PRIA NED STAB ee eee ec eco. oS oem fae —: 49 5.94 0 662 0 426
Early Minnesota Dent. ....--......- Oe eek None ee 52 5.78 0 449 0.295

DETAILED ANALYSES OF THE STALKS.OF SEVERAL VARIETIES OF
MAIZE.

The following detailed analyses of one of the sugar corns, a yellow
and a white dent, will give a general idea of the results obtained from
each of the several other varieties examined:

EGYPTIAN SUGAR CORN.

a | = - | S S é ~
= 3 = tle Re eo | &
= = = a 4 ~ = = = eo =
ae tee Sos | So | = ah ae
Date. | 2 | 2 Bef se) SB | & Sie (iS 18s fess
eS a ,s } Fle 2 see) 2-) 2) 275
2h poet Bead |-e8 > Spee) we Le Pears
° = 2 = 2 Bot SO 4cee = 5 i) o
= a = = = na / 5 mn oS mR mR &
Stage. Feet. | Inch.| Lbs. | Lbs. | Pr. ct. Pr.ct. |Pr.ct.|Pr.ct. ae
ume 43) 22... ay | Sees (gO? | eee | 67.30) 1.016 o4 951-192 EA:
June 20) 1 Fre heey fee bat ..---| 69.10! 1.014] 1.17 Ai] TSS ee
June27| 2 SN ee ee, ih = aS BD fe cO1s |) 0 16) 1.30 [ee
July 5) 3 ciigy | pe 81 21] 15] 68.78| 1.017] 2.52 05 :
July 4) 3 | 1 | 73 Ya pee 8} 64.86] 1.019] 214 .69| 2.81 q
July 16) 4 | chet la es 8] 15} 1.0] 64.07| 1.019] 1.32 .74| 4.90
July ii] 5 Je iat, aod 23 A) 66.96 | CO | 2:5 Si] S519 Ree
July 18) 6 1. 110.0] 12).24) 15] 64.56] 1.027] 2.49 | 2.321230}...
July 18} 7 1 “=U Weg ad Ps 3.67 | -1.025 |] 3.29 580) 438 S22
July 20} 8 SPOS | 2.4 0 34) 68ioe PPG 1 2-92 [ea
July 21] 8 ca Ngee Be Ness 8] 62.28 / 1.029] 2.50,] 3.97) 3.05 ]......
July 2) 8 1 }/100| 11] 2:5! 14) 60.64| 1.037] 3.39 | 4.09} 2.74] _...
July 2} 9 1 | 95] 12] 26] 1.4] 60:90] 1.084] 2.67 | 5.07) 1.64] —2.-
SPT Ae aa Bee | ee es ee 1.085 | 2:60 | 3'761 2:03 | ee
July 26) 10 1/100) 14) 36] 18} 62.95] 1.039) 3.07 | 5.07/201]......
Aug. 1) 11 1 |100}] 10) 23] 13] 59.97] 1.050] 3.21 | 7.69] 2.81] 7.32
Aug. 6) 11 i) 3a oy eR 9| 63.26] 1.036) 417 | 3.94}212] 3.98
Aug. 8} 12 ¥ | 9.2] 11] 21] 1.0] 64.33] 1.034] 3.22] 3.85] 289] 3.66
Aug. 9} 11 ee Bice: 9] 2.1] 1.1] 61-81] 1.013] 3.56 | 5.73) 1.73] 5.61
Aug. 13) 13 Oh opened de hae) 57 Ab 12099 | SAP | Say aa
Aug. 17} 13 1 | 95] 10] 23] 1.2]! 57.00] 1.038] 350 | 434) 1.99| 3.18
Aug. 2) 14 219.0] 9} 3.3] 1.7] 58.99] 1.053] 2.19 | 9.27) 2.03] 7.92
Aug. 27) 15 1 | 82] 1.0] 1.8] 11] 58.38] 1.062] 2.40 | 11.02] 4.14 | 10.98
Ang.31) 16 1 | 92] 13] 2.1] 13] 54.71] 1.010] 2.74 | 4.72)3.11] .....
Sept. 2) 17 1 | 90] 10] 15] 1.0] 57.30] 1.061] 2.59 | 12.80} 1.95 | 10.84
Sept. 7] 17 Lp Se 09 26 aes | 54.85 | 70738)| Tvs) | 1839) ae Se
Sept.10) 18 1 | 93 9} 1.3 9] 53.63 | 1.047] 2.50 | 7.58] 1.05 ]......

432 SORGHUM.

EGYPTIAN SUGAR CORN.

Analyses made after the ears of corn had been plucked.

Be a a3 A 3 3 §
Ones = = = cs} S o
eo [es 2 | AP) So al aes = ese
Saye 2 » 2 o w 2 B SB = a
Date. | °#,| © e soy 3 a tb a S = Be
eee ok [easel Seale p | Mec aa ante a | ooh ei
a } So ar) = oS (ist o n n a SS
Gee | ask @ [bo al |e ee see: | 6S ore eee
Be OB pete lee nl) 0) ES eee oh Se ee ees
A ZB =) (2) a a) 5 MD o n oD) eq
Feet. | Inch.| Lbs. | Lbs. | Pr. ct. Prct. | Procter ch preaGic
Aug. 9 0 Fil 9.3 NON Dies | SG Da Geese en Salo 56 5.73) 1730 aren
Aug. 18 he 1 11.0 ital 1.8 14 60.16 1.055 3.24 7.60) 2.38 | 23.87
Aug. 18 7 1 9.5 a bead 1.8 14 60. 60 1.047 2.98 7.46] 1.92 7 54
Aug. 23 14 2 9.5 Up Aa? 23 63.88 1/049 2.82 8.13] 1.92 7.28
Aug. 23} 14 2 SEOs tial) 2535 aOR sop tone aeiedn0: | enS.45 7.24) 2.45.| 7.84
Aug. 30] 21 DeecOe04) tele 163) 1.2) seen lls0534|) as66) || “9160lMicosti tomes
Aug. 30 21 ah 8.2 1.0 15 ASS 61.19 1.057 1.89 10.33) Lost] 8.96
Sept. 1 21 1 7.8 1.0 ee 1.0 60 00 1.061 1.76 12957 03)
Sept. 1 21 1 7.6 3 | a ikea 59.02 1.060 2.18 11.20) 2.18 } 10 39
Sept. 1 21 Moye Malem oll ye cecil west Aa ate Eg te oe 1.061 2 46 11.17] 1.63 | 10.49
Sept. 5 28 1 9.4 abt et 8 50.14 1.071 5.41 9.90 48 350s
Sept. 5 28 2 9.0 9 ih) is} 51.12 1.060 3.85 9.10) 2.61
Sept. 8 28 2, 8.0 theal 18 g5) 51.79 1 065 2.26 11.73] 2.20 | 11.40
Sept. 8 28 2. 9.0 1.0 1:8 iD: 5d". 21 1.059 2.97 11:34) 1.19 | 10.55
LONG NARROW WHITE DENT.
wi ns 2 So 3
a = = rs in S) 3 H
eM ete Sep Doe ee ime sake oy
Soiies S| Se yl melange || ee "ee acs an
Dates py SB i} © es lee Neb ea Bot ees
Sr eNeS odie: Anau. | yomelipmane al dese 2 Role yh aaa
Cs a Gee A | Cee ee g Se 8 an ee
® MIE ee eel es = a> | & Sh fas eae
=) a H A i nO 5 mn Oo mn | Ay
|
July 7 1 1 ASS e AUS Sera) ALON PRO SeSte |e eOL9s || QED 199 |i 7a| eee
July 15 2 al Ves) 1.0 1.9 14 60.27 1.024 2.41 1583| 3.96" |e
July 21 3 1 7.0 Si 159) D0 Gar97 |) 1.029") “3254 1.43) 2:56) | ooo
July 21 4 1 78 Salles ee eGarS7al e006 |) 3207 1.04] 3.29
July 21 5 1 7.8 ibeit 2.4 16 60.27 1.023 3.48 1560) 22845
July 26 6 1 9.7 dg 1.9 dts 60.96 1.082 3. LF 3.56] 2.10 2.80:
July 26 7 1 GPS ae D aie 2 ||| ea etho eon) a OBS) I. 869 3.0p) 216 hee
Aug. 1 Diva iis cee SAR OP eter ees eine es ill leet: 1.045 3.56 3.34) 8.10 As;
Aug. i 8 1 10.0 ibe ot 1.9 59.77 1.045 3.16 5.81, 3.12 5.36
Aug. 9 9 1 STOPS Ee ty |p S22 1 9) 56 tGoel| 04) |) Aap 4.40) 1.47] 3.65
Aug. 12} 10 AGS 6 el Guersoe70) |) 1053.) 4a4e 8.321 2.27] 8.03
Aug. 18 11 1 10.4 ilaab 40 IRA 62 77 1.049 2.58 6.90} 2 48 08
Aug. 23} 12 1 9.2| 1.5| 4.5.| 2.8] 62.34 | 1.059] i197 | 10.67| 2.32 | 10.49
Aug. 24 13 1 10.6 ae Dh 18 53.58 1 048 2.53 7 34 225) |e
Aug. 26] 13 1 Ovgnie dQ) 453 1) 9271 |) 59.05,) 12062". 9036. ||| E62 te oe tae
Aug. 26 13 worde Edema ee oF « ca Wee are tee 1.062 2 36 11.74} 1.90 | 11 63
Aug. 27 14 i 9.5 akes| 3.3 Aa 51.738 1.048 3 16 7.59| 2.78 7 28
Aug. 31 15 1 10.0 1.4 3.4 1.6 53.59 1.042 1255 5.20} 3-99 5.26
INTE IG ee Geen PROM AN TUS bbe 2AIIR & 1.042 J°-1.61 5.42) 3.62
Sept. 2 16 1 9.5 1.0 22, 1.4 45.95 1.056 3.25 9.51) 3.24 9.39
Sept. 7| 17 1 9.8 9} 1.5 | 1.1| 56.00] 1.065: 1.84 | 12.11) 2:52 | 23781
Sept. 10} 18 Po} Loeb alee Bes) | 92-5. 55.47 | 1058 le 2556 P1059) 270Gn a Onan
Sept. 10 LS he ila c-8 wera] Sisk cic PO nlaaoe sede tc il mero td 1.058 2.51 10.30) 2.31 | 10°29

433

EIGHTEEN-ROWED YELLOW DENT.

DETAILED ANALYSES OF STALKS OF SEVERAL VARIETIES, ETC.

*LOTIRZTIBLOd

USNS JOU SpTLOs

‘ootnt up asorong

‘oornt ut osoonTy

‘oornt
yo Aypavas oypoods

*possoadxo oorne

4 SpoM poddisyg
——__—_,———_
“QUSLOM [RIOT

_— >?

nq yu LojoULRT CT
"yy Su0T

‘SY[VIS Jo 1oquNN

uo UdolaAod

Date.

FN. eT he Os

Pr. ct.
76
75
7
8.5
8
07
07
8

gad Midd hy
SRAgs ESS rerer
frawaniaaansnyanene
S19 Dig Di i= FH Oty lt 1H =>
PRASBZGBSAE AAA A:

Pt THR OIOLCOID OO HOOD

ro ce

VRESFRASSSSRARSRA

coanrienanaanancnnaminnn

ing given,

11 4s
analyses by
s of sorghums, page

fr

=)
ge be

goin

GRRE RARARSSASSABBSIS
ASSSaz82 2B BSzSeE9f552

BHAA OM AMADIN HOCDD |
Nee ee eee eee ‘

q

YRWANDSAOMOINOAMms :
Beales Aaaalesin eo '

ms
3
sq

~ Is OO OI He Pe i
Gene

d in the analyse
SUGAR CORN.

the number of analyses thus averaged
EGYPTIAN

SE MAMMOM AMHR EDEN :

o

a ee oe ee Ne ae Ree Roe oe ee oe he

DiIDWIS Hl ONADNHOWDS
onl ol

hy

Sees esses ease Ne Se

AAO HID DIS DAO F100 00
ee es et
l= 10 18 DH ot rd ve
=I 10 D— * aid
Aah ete at
be es be 2 bp bp bp BO bp
Ses ssoS Ree ees
Le Na Veer Ta ar Dane Dee Tit nc Te fi ic

sults of the analyses under each sta

giving

Analyses made after the ears of corn had been plucked.

the average re

.
?

The several varieties were planted April 50th, so that the date of
each analysis will enable the reader to determine the time necessary

to reach the different stages
The following table presents the results of the fore

each stage, as has been explaine

as also a column

191

ri
“AVANT S282
oytoods osuloAy es ienian!
VACA
‘ooIn[ OSUIOAY ESS8H
VARBS
‘OSOLONS O[QUIIVAY pcan
al eh 2 a eae all © ae Stax Is D
omuzranpod acta
OSOLONS JO YO 10 alge
PRRBS
“SPTLOS [VIOT, ee OI HD
G BARES
‘IRdNs JOU Spltog ioe al
BeBe
osorong EP ros
va SAAR
‘asoon|y) tha lay

“STLOTP UTIL UL
-10jOp JO JOG UMN

TT

| OUOUIO =

a Baas
‘odnys Supyyouar Piet
jo oyBp podsdosqo ers
a4 4
meee
TOTRUITISO eg
Jo oyup oBu10AV Pe PP ee
qn
‘supddypa4s 10778 | ‘
shup Jo 4oquInN ae
MAA

28

434 SORGHUM.

Egyptian Sugar Corn— Continued.

ca Go 4 a o )
3 | of | 2 | = eS | . |e
og 2s D Dy) Buf & o | ca
“=HG) on ora} =) = 5S 3 ie On
ce Sy |) ees iS fe) (pS) ee ee ies
Stage. a 5 sss 52 s 3 ° iS — 5 2 ae oe
bp >a o= | & a & a Ho | 2 t | &e
Pe) Ho 2.5 ° ° n ta 3 3 op
Hn os g¢ 3) = S ras rs te u BK
eo BH 5 e| Seer <s- |stats > | &
< rs) Zs ccoe dl erate aloes Ae Sa 1 iene
Pre ct: (Pract. etaces ens. Cb. Pr. et. (Pr. ct
Before l..... June 13.| June 13 1 94 Cah) pS 7a I eee beste’ 3 67.30) 1.016
Dee oeteeueeiciehs June 20.| June 20. 1 lei PATEL So's MOIS = .ca,ovall sheet 69.10} 1 014
De itera ates Os -| June 27.) June 27. i 2.20 ral Gh | eedesstil|eates | Oi7i| pec tees) tree 78.10} 1.015
sok eicteebtnce July 10.| July 5 2 2.33 £1 P enol | MORO! \cr oss. fevemeeae 66 .§2] 1.018
TO datos otek July 16 | July 9.) 1 1292 |n Melee O06 96 |e eee 64 07| 1.019
Desei mente: July 11.) July 11 1 2.38 tS) A I BTS oe sells once 66 96] 1 021
(reir tae ---| July 18.) July 15. 1 DVAQW Dea SO |e GeOlll| fe Serre | lees coeur 64.56] 1 027
Hise ae, eee nes July 18.| July 18 1 3.29 89; 1.388) 5.56 63 67} 1.025
Sheath July 21.| July 19 3 2.94) 4.06] 2.90) 9.87]. 3 83] 1.081
Oreos ....-| July 25.] July 20 2 2 GA\) ANA 84) VSEOO IES 288 Ji eae 60 20) 1.035
NOR steno July 26.} July 25 1 SOM" SiC 2200 LOMO Rosen 62.95} 1.039
Ue act ec aaes Aug. 4.| July 30 2 Oe OO | ROMEO pee | EL OOleteis 61.45] 1.043
US Sere ee Aug. 8.| Aug. 5 1 3.22} 3.85} 2.89) 9.96) 3.66/—2 26] 64.83] 1.034
ber See ete Aug. 15.] Aug. 14 2 296) 5 03} 1.538) 9 52) 318 .54| 57.23) 1 0389
Ape e baer ece Aug. 23.| Aug. 17 i 2.19) 9.27) 2.03) 18.49) 7.92) 5.05) 538 99) 1.0538
WD Ac iaisieiiae aie Aug. 27.| Aug. 19 1 2 40} 11.02} 4.14) 17.56] 10.98] 4.48) 58.38] 1.062
TASS Se eese Net Aug. 3l.} Aug. 26 1 2.741 4.72) 3.11) 10.57) .....|—1.13) 54.71) 1.040
Wha Saree Sept. 4./ Aug. 3 2 2 66] 13.20} 2.07) 17.93; 10.84] 8.47) 56.08] 1.067
1h ese Prarie Sept. 10.) Sept. 6 1 ZOO id eleeOS| Meelis | se ale 4.03] 53.638] 1.047
LONG NARROW WHITE DENT
Ll ctebw ceded July 7.) July 15 il Dae eal aad), PAA Se ei) Sherer 68.84} 1.019
Da ee July 15.) July 16 1 Dai 283i" 13-96|" 8.201: ck r-i|l neces 60.27} 1.024
Siew aielvolrce July 21} July 18 1 3.54), 1243]> 2':56| * 7.53 65.97! 1.029
A Rie weteiistiy July 21.; July 19 1 eT (ended OU | wird 2| Herr: GO |eecere ar | arora oe 65 .37| 1-026
Ben Aa Antik? Ql apne ee) al 1] SFE) Tea BGR epee all ceo. 60 .27| 1.023
(Oi osocossea. July 26.) July 25 il Selo VOLOD|) G2eOl) wOsOlk|l : t2noO| enters 60.96] 1.032
Wcuetvarserobics es July 26.) July 28 1 BeO9 lor OD | sed Geta 90) es rae eee ie 56.83) 1.033
Berenice Aug. 1.}| July 30 2 3.36] 5.57) 3.11) 12.04) 5.36).....,| 59) 77) 20d
Oe rreatarcicbers nicest Aug. 9.| Aug. 38 1 4 50) 4.40} 1.47] 10.87] 3 65)—1.57| 56.96} 1.041
Oa ctersts ateloeests Aug. 12.) Aug. 5 1 4.41] 8 32} 2.27] 15.00] 8.03] . 1.64] 59.70) 1.053
Der Petar esstherersets Aug. 18.}| Aug. 11 i 2 58] 6.90} 2.48] 11 96) 7.03) 1.84] 62.77) 1.049
We Se aeeioes Aug. 23 | Aug. 15 alt 1.97) 10.67} 2.32} 14.96) 10.49] 6.38] 62.34) 1.059
See Metee pe Aug. 25.| Aug. 17 3 2.42) 10.23] 2.04) 14.69) 11.57) 5.77) 52.81] 4.057
DA csisieiete es Aug. 27.| Aug. 19 1 8.16) 7.59) 2.75] 13.50] 7.28] 1.68) 57.73) 1.048
MED A etapeic toterexersiete Aug. 81.|:-Aug. 23 2 1.58] 5.3 3.89] 10.69} 5 26) —.07} 53.55) 1.042
Leamastoon ck Sept. 2.| Aug. 27 il 8.25) 9.51] 3.24] 17.00) 9.39] 3.02] 45.95] 1.056
ily (aa Aire aecseis ar Sept. 7.| Aug. 30 J 1.84| 12.11] 2.52] 16.47 7.75| 56.00) 1.065
Ike Se a Mosk bee Sept. 10.) Sept. 2 2 2.53] 10.44] 2.18] 15.15] 10.25] 5.73) 55.47) 1.088
EIGHTEEN-ROWED YELLOW DENT.
ces eect hes | July 7.| July il 1 3.08 45) Mae Mer) [Me oe a le cae 65.96] 1.022
Ene ea rereh ace: July 15.| July 15 il 3.64 AGI FO ted | en foe temin 62.38] 1 023
Sie EA) July: 15> | Suly 16.) 1. | 2.86] | :.65| 480) g8 40) old cay 62.32] 1.023
HARRIE GO UET Gg July 18.| July 18 1 2.49| 1.89] 5.34| 9.72 63.47] 1.028
Bie ees erate July 21.{ July 19 1 Byte |: ale he |) OURS Es Kobra) ee 62.84) 1.028
oe SSA EA July 21.) July 20 il ALONE DAO iT) 32-98) 219526] (ee we eer aees 60.17] 1.0381
De Saisie erie aie July 21.) July 25 1 | PPE SUA CGM teietss)|) = oo 60.09] 1 028
Giatas en prn es July 26.) Aug. 5 1 BPECTAIO Sis} as bya) eyes West 61.03} 1 032
Vheg aniscoaes Sl A worse ilel rN all 1 8.65} 5.17| 2.92] 11.74)..... |—1 40} 60.62) 1.043
TO saa tee neste Aug. 9.| Aug. 15.| 1 | 3.05] 6.87} 1.38] 11.30] 6.40| 2.44] 54.82] 1 044
BL eee terevereteteneeet Aug. 12.) Aug. 19 1 3.20] 8.24) 2.81) 14.25) 7.58] 2.23] 54 90) 1.052
MP Gicts teyetaere Aug. 18.| Aug. 20. 1 3.35) 4.15! 2 05) 9.55) ?'7.48|—1.25] 55 40) 1.036
WS iereiate a Aug. 25.) Aug. 23 4 1.47! 11.46] 2.14] 15.07) 9.77] 7.85) 54.12] 1.055
Ase eats Aug. 27.| Aug. 25 1 2.80] 8.13] 8.39] 14 32) 8.34] 1.94] 59.38} 1.051
sR Ce ies Aug. 81.| Aug. 28.| 1 3.22] 6 18| 2.56] 11.96]... 40] 49.64] 1.045
Ge tespeteae Sept. 3.| Aug. 30 1 2.11] 11.39] 5.80} 19.30] 11.44] 3.48) 50.00] 1.062
AA ec are Sept. 7.| Sept. 3 il TPA ee ON PASO AT COUNT | [Scat 1.02] 37.94} 1 030
Ios ys Fee Sept. 10.| Sept. 6 2 1.57] 11.65] 2.64] 15.86] 10.85] 7.44] 63.53] 1.057

DETAILED ANALYSES OF STALKS OF SEVERAL VARIETIES, ETC. 435

The following table gives, by stages, the average results of the anal-
yses of the twelve varieties examined. It will be observed that there
is a general resemblance to the results shown on page 194, of the ex-
amination of the sorghums—a gradual increase in specific gravity
of the juice and in the content of sugar; but an inspection of the
detailed analyses shows that this is not as constant as with the sor-
ghums, and that the juice does not reach at any time the high content
of. sugar which was found in the sorghum juices.

But that this is often so high as to give reason for belief that even
cornstalks may be found a profitable source of sugar will appear, when
we consider that, of the analyses made of ten varieties of maize grown
in 1880, the juice gave, of crystallizable sugar, as follows:

124 analyses of 10 varieties gave over 9 per cent.
90 analyses of 10 varieties gave over 10 per cent.
Sd analyses Of 9 variclies Gave aver 12 ber cent

8S analyses of 4 varieties gave over 13 per cent.

2 analyses of 1 variety gave over 14 per cent.
lanalysis of 1 variety gave over 15 per cent.

And of eight varieties grown in 1881, seven of which were common

field maize,

3 analyses of 3 varieties gave over 13 per cent.
9 analyses of 7 varieties gave over 12 per cent.
22 analyses of 7 varieties gave over 11 per cent.
29 analyses of 7 varieties gave over 10 per cent.
35 analyses of 7 varieties gave over 9 per cent.

GENERAL RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF

MAIZE BY STAGES.

2 me a = aS
a | aed es fae 3
pad (oars Meal hae Zz a 2
roe] ie hal | SS ee z
Lalas | AD howd epee Pat
He Aen fog a =
a ee 5 3 i
= "| <= = ] S ' S | > =
ZA o miw | <j <
Before first stage..........0-......--s 6 1.37| .33]1.77| 68.36 | 1.016
WGRIS SENSED. oes. o 2 acs Coe ce ess ered Nig 6 EY ee 38 | 2.09] 64.39 1 019
Second stage. .... Bee ee eer ee og ir ee A 66.92 | 1.021
na A Se Se eee ee ee nee 9|2.81] .74/298] 64.22 1.025
Lira DU Oe ce Eis Se Se ae .--- | 9] 2.88 | 1.43] 3.42] 61.76 | 1.028
TiN P| or a Es Spo --| 10} 296] 1.33 | 2.75 | 64.86] 1.025
SH RAPES Sarno as Senora ccmen ncn 8 | 3.37! 2.19 | 2.44) 63.85 }' 1.030
BeVenth stapes !. 2c. - 255 ees ca dels ress. 9 | 3.09 | 1.9F | 2.63 | 51.42, 1.029
Miphtientaser sr, = a Mees 14| 284] 439|2.76] 62.20] 1.035
LETTS TAP] CCR RR arya a a 10 | 2 92; 6.25 | 2.00} 60.25) 1.041
PGTURI RENE sero ne a. ows. 10 | 3.17 | 6.26 | 246 | 56.77] 1.045
Bleyenthy singe... 00 es F es ero. oe Il | 2.86 | 5.61 | 2.53 | 58.13 | 1.042
ah elk es ir) FC a epee ee Se ee 11 | 2.64 | 5.86 2.58 | 58.57] 1.042
Thirteenth stages .. 22.55. 2s. 0 2... -| 16 | 2.27 | 8 38} 2.06 | 55.72] 1.048
Fourteenth, stagen-. 750250. eco... 9 | 2.36 | 7.56 | 2.74] 56.78} 1.045
Wiltecnth: stages. 35.25 2.co8. 2, een ts 10 | 1 92] 5.95 | 3.19] 55.59] 1.043
Sixteenth stage. . 2 52.925. aus sak 7 | 2.18) 6.17 | 3.64] 49.56] 1.044
Seventeenth stage.......1.-..s2s.. 0... 10} 1.69} 912/251] 55.05| 1.051
Pirhteenth stage =.: 3s s2.cussecwes acess 9°} 1:92 | 8.33 2.37 | 54.88] 1.049

Available sucrose.

et.

Pr.

HO sIAT TST ONO & Oho

Per cent sucrose
by polarization,

436 . SORGHUM.

It is to be remembered that maize has been grown for centuries as
a source of grain only, and to that end varieties have been selected and
developed. It is found, even now, that very great differences exist in
the several varieties, in regard to the juicy character of the stalk
and in its content of sugar. Some varieties have a. spongy stalk,
quickly drying up, and yielding little juice upon pressure ; others have,
even when the grain is quite hard and ripe, a heavy, juicy stalk, re-
sembling the sugar-cane or sorghums, and this juice is found to be rich
in sugar. Differences quite as great are found in the sorghums, as will
be seen upon page 101; and it is quite possible, if not even probable,
that, by a few years of careful selection, varieties of maize may be
grown, the stalks of which shall be more valuable for sugar than is the
crop for grain, even though the product of this may be but little
_ diminished.

The following tables give the acidity of two varieties of maize
juices—one sweet, the other field maize—which may be compared
with similar tables for sorghum juices upon page 253:

CORN JUICE, ACIDITY.

Egyptian Sugar Corn.

c. c. Of
N

—HNaO Specific | Per cent.

Daie. Stage. | 50 gravity of | of acid

for 100\¢..c.| juice: as malice.

of juice. ;
Spill wa sated ward obo Coto Rod Uonaraaamea ct oocrer 9 93 1.034 121
DG eit t aro aie etnie SEE hee Oe iekelnerh bis etotetarsfatertats 10 152 1.0380 197
IAT aa Cena ab aapot sadn adorn Od boner GoOOnGdEsBes ar 11 122 1.050 156
CT ee GUM CIS It SAT ee RE Se eee eet aero or 11 152 1.086 .197
ODER lek GOOG et ar dona Samoa aacoto sae 12 140 1 0384 181
a Tee Le ROPE erhaaah iets Rie Doane Seema 11 J24 1.043 159
Dee rarane Aienee ore cate elctets lalcteeciaha is Res rarsve einre oie Peper ret 13 164 1.0388 211
aD Sore wet rave lieve a7os ave lake sSierone et aesepetehe sherecorepaia tevatatenets 14 184 1.083 .228
U2 BAD OOSEE OO Da SLO Tone OSE aoe as DOSDonaoor Gee 14 92 1.053 17
PO ES HAE RO) PAS a ed tide Cook Born oL Re Od GMs One 15 148 1.062 186
SD orn. Bethe oes cee reer ye stale ocretey ook eval sia evereAiare 16 13 1 ae a
HP eras ole fara fale pehsr eho ts Pcfats inte vatatc}atterslmiaie’ ofa ave ae levelays eta 17 80 1.06 P

a3 ies aeSeredinthctAw ele sbidiclels[erel= SeYSia eeverslatavereiehionetsror 17 104 1.073 .129
dU Ee Pepe acnnGracca’ 6 cles RGroooeeoraaue 132 1.042 .169
a eerie Meee Uecte sininicteis cree occreeesteese 18 148 1.047 190

DETAILED ANALYSES OF STALKS OF SEVERAL VARIETIES, ETC. 437

Lindsay's Horse Tooth Corn.

ec, of
N
—HNaO Specific | Per cent
Date. Stage. | 50 gravity of | of acid
for 100¢.¢.}| juice. as malice.
of juice.
July 25. 9 152 1.033 197
9 128 1.03 166
Aug 11 156 1.040 201
10 132 1.050 168
11 118 | 1.041 Beil
2 | 112 1.040 144
14 112 | 1.042 144
15 | 140 1.041 180
16 116 1.050 .148
Sept. 17 56 1.056 * 07
17 64 1.032 -083
18 | 124 1.061 | -157

Analyses of Maize Stalks.

The following table shows the average results of numerous analyses
of several varieties of maize. In these averages, every analysis made
during the entire period is included, and none were made until the
grain was so far matured as to be at its best for feeding purposes.

The average weights of the canes are a little different from those
given on page 431, but those are the average weights of those
stripped stalks which were analyzed, the table upon page 439 being
of all the stalks cut of each variety.

If maize was grown in drills 3} feet apart, and the plants were 6
inches apart in the row, there would be 24,960 plants per acre. Upon
first rate corn land such a crop is possible, and there is a column giv-
ing the results per acre upon an estimate of such a crop. In one plat
there were grown at the rate of 25,150, not allowing for those carried
away by boys. There are also given the actual results obtained on
the small experimental plats, calculated to the acre.

The stalks give an average result in juice fairly agreeing with the
several varieties of sorghum, and the specific gravity is also fairly
good; but the relative amount of impurities in the juices, as compared
with the sucrose, is larger than in the sorghums.

There is an idea prevalent among farmers, that the stalks of maize
are dry and juiceless when the grain is ripe, but this is quite erroneous,
as any one may for himself determine. Owing to the practice of either
topping the corn and allowing the ears to dry upon the butt, which is
left standing in the field, or, more commonly, of cutting up the corn,
and then, even after months, husking out the ears, the stalks, though
juicy when topped or cut, speedily dry out.

438 SORGHUM.

It appears that some other arrangement for drying and curing the
ears could be devised, so that the sugar in the stalk could be secured.
In the case of sweet or sugar corn, which is used for canning, there
appears no reason why the stalks should not be utilized, since these
stalks retain their content of sugar for weeks after the ears have been
plucked.

It seems that judicious use of these stalks would add greatly to

_the profits of an industry which has reached very great proportions in:
‘ our country.

DETAILED ANALYSES OF STALKS OF SEVERAL VARIETIES, ETC. 439
| Number.

TABLE SHOWING THE COMPARATIVE VALUE, DURING TIE WORKING PE

Varieties of corn.

Egyptian Sugar Corn........ ran
Lindsay’s Horse Tooth..........

Long Narrow White Dent.......
Chester County Mammoth ....
Bighteen-Rowed Yellow Dent...
Stowell’s Evergreen......... AP ie
Improved Prolific....... Riki eor
Bantord COMM, .ersus teres» ‘

Karly Minnesota Dent.......

king.

Number of days for wor

umber of anal

Seneterers N yses.
weoocono-co
| Average weight of stripped
: stalks.

t

st

uice.

7
.

| Average per cent of

56.40
67
26

ifie gravity of

peci

Average Ss
juice.

105

1057

LS

juice.
juice.

Average per cent sucrose in
| Average per cent glucose in

Aver

age per cent other solids

in juice.

RIOD, OF ALL VARIETIES OF CORN STALKS EXAMINED,

a

lable

i

per cent ava

Average
sugar.

gars.

Average per cent total su

Actually obtain

acre.

7
v
=")
a

ad

et
ce}
rr]
7]

Lo}
o
i="

=
a

pe)

17]

Lbs
14,084

21,562
6,187
4,278

t
|

Juice per acre.
Available sugar per |

4,822| 251
12,185) 845
3.150] 112
1,686] 62

ed,

|

Total sugar per acre.

Lbs.
BOD

1501

1220
1326
896

546
1022
b12
178

Computed at 24,000

stulks per acre,

| Stripped stalks per
acre.

36,720
86,240

14,640
35,760
10,820

7,200

Juice per acre.

Lbs.

18,180
24,480
14,017
19,983
21,797
21,028
14,487
17,907

20,208
5,255
2,837

sugar per

Available

acre.

935
416
672
187
105

Total sugar per acre.

2027
2191
1485
2117
905
1695
520
800

er S

440 SORGHUM.

From the above table it will be seen, that five of the above varieties
of field corn gave an average yield of available sugar of 527 pounds to
the acre, with a reasonable possibility of averaging 873 pounds per
acre. Thatis, the sugar present in the juice, was in this excess above
the sum of glucose and other solids, and our experiments have shown
that this available sugar may be increased by properly making the
syrup, see page 309.

It will be seen that these five varieties also give as the average of
the total sugars per acre 1,195 pounds, with a reasonable possibility
of 1,977 pounds per acre, which is equal to from 1,553 to 2,570 pounds
of syrup, by allowing, as is correct, 70 per cent of total sugars for
syrup. This would be equal to a product of from 124 to 206 gallons
of syrup per acre, allowing 123 pounds to the gallon. The average
actually obtained was 124 gallons, and the —06 is at least possible.

Besides the above results embodied in the table, there were made
seven separate analyses of bundles of sugar corn stalks, from which
the ears had been removed for canning from 1 to 6 weeks before the
stalks were cut and examined. As these stalks were from a field of
over 2,000 acres, the entire product of which was used for canning
purposes, the results are perhaps of greater practical interest. The
average available sugar in the juices of the seven lots was 6.38
per cent.

The average of 57 analyses of 9 varieties of common field corn stalk,
taken for analyses from 1 to 6 weeks after the ears had been removed
for roasting, was as follows:

Percents ice ex Pressed patie se etna aati et ye Meta cts ciate ell ete Ola clciedate ase. eicisia agate tenet 52.66
Specifie gravity of juice.......-..........- i EC eee ent EU ak Soe ee SN Se eee 1.0646
IPATe COMUSHE LOSE ely RLLG Cena cae tee ets eters ate eset fel alel eber= rattle tele ater (aseie 5s /aveip See eee aS . 10.88
TP P(A asin eeliLelo eu shel PUIG My ae dee oaaemnadaso:& doc COR Soe OUeonBUaoNse GeO cesuaccre rcp 1,04
Per cent other solidSan Juice®... 5..-. 2.2 aeciee a Fe SOI Aer rs Satie ti ok Hee . ao
Per cent available sugar in juice........ Mabe See adeno vere datas tata abeiess cae eee ae ee 5.74

This would give 1,053 pounds of juice, and 605 pounds of available
sugar, to each ton of stalks, or 13 gallons of syrup.

Sugar from Corn Stalks.

The author has made many experiments for the purpose of extract-
ing the sugar from maize stalks, and in every case secured such a re-
sult as the character of the juice indicated. All of the experiments
were by open pan evaporation, so that there would appear to be no
trouble in more than reaching such results upon a large scale. The
sugar extracted amounted in several experiments, in 1878, to 32 per
cent, in 1879, to 39.3 per cent, and in one case to 47 per cent, of the.
weight of the syrup made. This sugar was by many preferred-to the
raw sorghum sugar. In taste, it much resembled maple sugar.

SUGAR AND RIPE GRAIN FROM MAIZE. 441

An experiment made with the stalks of Egyptian sugar corn, taken
after the ears had been plucked for canning, was as follows:

621 pounds stalks with leaves and tops.
240 pounds leaves and tops.

381 pounds stripped stalks.

159 pounds juice expressed.

10.63 specific grav ity of juice.

41.7 per cent of juice from stripped stalks.
30.35 pounds of syrup made.

19.1 per cent syrup in juice.

14.25 pounds sugar extracted from syrup.
47 per cent of sugar extracted from syrup,
16.08 pounds of molasses remaining.

The above is equal to a yield from each ton of stripped stalks of
74.8 pounds of sugar, and 84.4 pounds, or 6.75 gallons; of molasses.

Nelson Maltby, of Geneva, Ohio, reports a similar result, January
8th, 1883, as follows: ‘‘ f cut 200 pounds of corn stalks, when the ear
was just fit for use. It made one gallon of syrup, and from this, I ob-
tained 35 pounds of sugar. I think Ican improve upon this next time.”
His result is about 35 pounds of sugar, and 7.2 gallons of molasses to
a ton of stalks.

SUGAR AND RIPE GRAIN FROM, MAIZE.

A small plat of three varieties of field corn (Lindsay’s horse tooth,
Improved Prolific, White Dent), planted in drills 3 feet apart, the
stalks about 8 to 10 inches apart in the row (the rows were in all 166
feet long), was cut after the grain was fully ripe. There were left for
this experiment but 142 stalks, and there was obtained from these
41.25 pounds of thoroughly ripened shelled grain, from which, in 1880,
a crop was planted and grown. (Upon an acre there would have been
17,424 stalks, in drills 3 feet apart, and the stalks 10 inches apart, and
at the rate of yield obtained, there would have been 5.450 pounds of
shelled corn, which, at 56 pounds to the bushel, would be 97 bushels,
a very remarkable but not unprecedented yield.)

After having had stalks removed for analysis, there yet remained
142 stalks to the 166 feet of row, which yielded at the rate of 69.1
bushels of shelled corn to the acre.

These 142 stalks were worked for sugar, and the results were:

; Pounds.
Weight of stalks with leaves : ieee chek Dee
Weight of leaves P Bee oe 3 : 67
W eight of stripped stalks Soe WOO RO Oe Oe CE FR EO rIaE Ob aan name 155
APT eo soptesbte eWlop lly oe GM soos deariosospuncsd pase ane Goosne de oroaerb oncoerda tic! 70
Per cent of juice to SUA M OLSEN SBA cud Sobebo son sbce penoodaeedaseeavcasodssansaes 45.16
SPOSL A Costa Walt yO Lid ULL GS INS ciey ci Syetatss wi tcaeealc sen Renan Kader’ Atl s Bejertiore tate us siete tle lesion acum 1.070
SV LUP MAI ey. eee trl eet Se ceie 2 Se BARE IMN cient etek COR Sone SME ee ties 9'5
Per cent of syrup from LLG Creer ete nelcteleteeictaleeta invents wise cielela ate o sale oii sicse) Avie cie eleiaimierersinieiae ate 13 .57

449 SORGHUM.

Analysis of Syrup.

Per cent.
SUGrose’ in 25 SAA alate ane trae chk areas svete due ak ureee Sete ta ys Me eet es eyo ternal sce A ohare eee ete See 65.70
GOT COSE coe ae tee Sah bah dine c Dialers ie ee ee Rea te meer ar Se eee 13.07

Of this syrup, 53 per cent was obtained as excellent sugar, and 47
per cent as molasses, which afterward gave a second crop of sugar
erystals. This result is equal to a yield of 618 pounds of sugar per
acre from first crystallization, and 44 gallons of molasses, besides the
crop of ripened grain.

In 1881, owing to the drought, a less yield of ripe grain was ob-
tained than in the last experiment, only 48.4 bushels per acre—but the
available sugar in the juices gave a yield of 366 pounds of sugar per acre.

While, therefore, the yield of sugar and syrup from maize is less
than that from sorghum, it would appear worth while to pursue these
investigations, since the results already obtained show the presence,
in the stalks of our common varieties of maize, of an amount of sugar
far more valuable than is the grain, and which may be readily secured
by the same processes employed in the extraction of sugar from the
sugar-cane and sorghum.

The general practice of drying the corn upon the stalk would, of
course, have to be modified, in case the stalks were to be used for syrup
or sugar production; but there is no doubt that means could readily
be devised to accomplish this result.

In the case of sweet corn, which is plucked while immature, there
is no reason why the stalks should not be thus used; and, since they
retain their content of sugar for weeks after the ears have been re-
moved, there is ample time to utilize what is largely a refuse material.
Besides, if it shall be found that the profits of canning may be en-
hanced by this additional product from the stalks, there is reason to
belicve that this business, already so extensive in certain sections of
the country, might be greatly enlarged, and, by exportation of canned
corn, increase a demand for the crop, which even now occupies fully
38 per cent of all the cultivated land of the United States. In 1880
over sixty-two million acres of land were in maize. Although it may
be premature to declare the utilization of any portion of this enormous
acreage of stalks for sugar and syrup production, it is true that at
present they are, for the most part, practically wasted. It is also, be-
yond question, true that they contain, at the very least, twice as much
sugar as would supply the United States. That the economical pro-
duction of this vast amount of sugar is only a question of time is
probable. It yet remains a promising field for future investigation.

COMPARISON OF SORGHUM AND MAIZE JUICES. 443

Per Cent of Leaves and Stripped Stalks of Maize.

The relative amount of leaves and tops, as compared with the strip-
ped stalks of maize, is as the average of several hundred stalks of
nine varieties: 59.8 per cent stripped stalks, 40.2 per cent leaves and
tops.

COMPARISON OF SORGHUM AND MAIZE JUICES.

The following table has been prepared from the results of analyses,
made in 1880 and 1881, of 38 varieties of sorghum and 9 varieties of
maize, and comprise some thousands of analyses.

The average results of the analyses of all those juices falling within
the specific gravities given are included, and we have those between
1014 and 1073 both for sorghum, of which there were, in 1881, 722
analyses made, and of maize, of which there were 202. So, too, in
1880, between specific gravity 1019 and. 1073, there were 2133 anal-
yses made of sorghum and 188 of maize juices.

The analyses also are averaged of those juices between specific grav-
ity 1050 and 1070, of both sorghum and maize, for 1880 and 1881;
since these specific gravities include those juices generally worked from
syrup and sugar.

There are also given the average results of those sorghum juices
which were of greater specific gravity than those of maize, viz.: In
1880, from 1070 to 1090; and in 1881, from 1070 to 1095. And,
finally, the general average for both years, of sorghum and maize
juices between 1019 and 1075, and between 1050 and 1070.

Besides the average analyses of these juices, the per cents of availa-
ble sugar, total sugars, total solids, sucrose in total sugars, and in total
solids, is given. The table represents a very large number of anal-
yses, over 3,000, and a large number of varieties, 38 of sorghum and
9 of maize; also the results of two seasons very unlike in climatic
conditions, as will be seen on page 148. This conclusion, therefore,
may be regarded as clearly established, which to many will appear
most surprising, viz.: In every case where two juices of the same spe-
cific gravity are taken, the one of sorghum and the other of maize
stalks, it will be found that, in every respect, that from maize is supe-
rior: First, in the content of sugar; second, in the per cent of sucrose
in the total sugar, through a less quantity of glucose; and, third, in
the per cent of sucrose in the total solids. In other words, the maize
juice is the purer, and, by consulting the table, it will be seen that it
is very much more pure. For example: As the result of the analyses
of 1880 and 1881, the juices of maize, of specific gravity between 1050
and 1070, contained 12.11 per cent on an average of total sugars, and

444 SORGHUM.

10.41 per cent was sucrose, or 86 per cent of the total sugars. The sor-
ghum juices of this specific gravity averaged 12.28 per cent of total
sugars, of which only 9.56 was sucrose, or 77.9 per cent of the total
sugars. The per cent of total solids was in each the same, 15.173but
in the maize juices 68.6 per cent, and in the sorghum juices 63 per
cent, of the total solids was sucrose. The average available sugar was,
in the maize juices, 5.65 per cent, — in the sorghum juices 3.95 per
cent of the juice.

It is, however, to be remembered, that at present sorghum is far
more valuable for purposes of sugarjor syrup production, owing to the
following reasons:

1. Sorghum is far more constant in its composition, as well as uni-
form, while maize appears to vary greatly, even specimens of the
same variety taken at the same time from the same field.

2. Sorghum reaches ultimately a much higher content of sugar
than maize, as in 1880 there were 778 analyses made of juices having
a specific gravity between 1070 and 1090, and averaging 14.26 per
cent of sucrose, of which 8.66 per cent was available; and in 1881
there were 485 analyses of juices of specific gravity between 1070 and
1095, averaging 15.85 per cent of sucrose, of which 10.68 per cent
was available. At present no such maize juices have been obtained,
except at rare intervals.

Owing to the habit of the plant in bearing its seed, and the con-
ditions necessary for its complete development, a greater weight of
crop can be grown to the acre of sorghum than of maize.

But sugar of excellent quality, and in paying quantity, has been
repeatedly secured from the stalks of maize after the seed had
thoroughly ripened; and it is by no means beyond reasonable expec-
tation that certain varieties of maize may be found or developed by
careful selection, which shail rival the sorghum in its sugar content,
and prove to be as constant and uniform asare the best of the sor-
ghums. That we have in maize a p!ant possessing a marvelous degree
of adaptability to the varying conditions of soils, climate, and culti-
vation, is known to all. In this respect it certainly equals, if it does
not surpass, the sorghum, which has through centuries of cultivation
produced varieties so widely different as to have perplexed the botanist.

But we have large groups of the sorghum family poorer in sugar than
any of the varieties of maize thus far examined, and there is reason to
hope that when investigations shall have taken the place of ridicule
and dogmatic assertion, a plant so plastic in the hands of the culti-
vator as maize has shown itself, may be developed into varieties equal
to any at the present known as producers of grain, and at the same

PEARL MILLET.

time more valuable as sources of sugar.
foreshadowed in the work already done upon this distinctively native

cereal Zea mais.

COMPARISON OF JUICES OF

445

Such a result appears clearly

SORGHUM AND MAIZE. |

Specifie gravity.

Per cent glucose,

Per cent sucrose,

Per cent solids.

nt sucrose in to-

Per cent available su-
Per cent total sugars,

~
=) = :

= Z

as —

ie faa)
18S1/Sorghum....... 1014-73} 29-999} 5.032.993 oo!
1881) Maize 1014-73} 2°-9° 9} 5.83)2.54/2.53)
1881|Sorghum.......- 1050-70} 79-9" 4} 9 45)2.77/3.15}
1881) Maize... 1050-70) 79-9" 5) 10.53)2.25/2.47|
1881|/Sorghum......- 1070-95/9° 5-12° 5) 15 85)1.55/3 62)
1881|Sorghum...... 1019-73} 2°.6-0°.0) 5.493.11/3.07)
I8SliMaize...-..2..... 1019-73} 2°.6-9°.9) 6.38/2.64 2.60)
1880|Sorghum.......- 1019.73] 2° 6-9°.9] 6.37|5.27,2.2
1880) Maize.....-...... 1019-73} 2° 6-9° 9} 7.47)1.19)2.89
1880|Sorghum ...... 1019-79}2° 6-10°.5| 7.103 102.36
1880) Maize... .-.....- 1019-79)2° .6-10°.5} 7.95,1.163.10
1880'Sorghum . ..... 1050-70) 9 7°-9°.5) 9.67\2.67/2.62
A880) Waize.. .- <2. 2 1050-70 72-9? 5) 10.29)1.14/3.65
1880|)Sorghum........ 1070-90} 9°.5-12°. sac eds ft
80-81|Sorghum.... . | 1019.73) 2°.6-9° 9] 5 93/319 2 65
shia te ey ea Se 1019-73) 2° 6-9°.9) 6 ak oe
80-81/Sorghum........ 1050-70] 7°-9° 5] _9.56]2.72/2 80
80-81) Maize..........- 1050-70} 7°-9° ‘| AR 7 ean

2 ist
a 12

; |=
— 96} 8.02/62
-76| 8.37|69
3.53] 12.22177
5 81] 12.78|s2
10.68} 17.40/91
—.69} 8.60)63
1.14] 9.02)7
88} 9 aS
3.59} 8.66/86
1.64} 10.20)69
3.69} 9.11/87
4.58| 12.34]78
5.50} 11.43/90
8.66} 15.82/90
09} 9.12/65
2.26] 8 ai
8.95] 12.28/77
5.65] 12.11|86

Number of yarieties.

‘rose in to-

Per cent total solids.
Number of analyses.

65 1 c
6)1341 38
2 114| 9

die Vi
2827/38
376) 9

$
50.4
.60/59.7
15.17
15.17

-
‘a

63.0
68.6

1687/38
156} 9

9
-0

The effects of frost upon the sug&r in the maize stalk, and of allow-
ing the stalks to remain unworked after having heen cut, are in all re-
spects identical with those which have already been fully set forth in the
chapters upon sorghum, see pages 154 and 126.

PEARL MILLET.

The following analyses were made of the stalks of this plant, and,
as will be seen, the content of sugar was remarkable, after the plant
had fully matured—in this resembling the sorghums:

446 SORGHUM.

PEARL MILLET.

mB |2@el8 |Ss/H=] & oes = = co 19 (Fo
Sai pliers eter oa: o S | eae
MEST) beet oc Hal es = So ela Ps) a HE aS oe
wT iad ays foe lian al eit cs oes [Red een a ae
Date. | Development. |CS|S—]e .|oale se] 25 feul4| & | 22 loslodias
Wel a2 ole le | eeistieas| ©. | ae seleotee
HeS4 eos /a~| Os eelse|/ Ss | $F jozlaslas
ge) oo! E | bn | be] © lee | es tae Se ae
Fosslsslorlaoe| +a Is 2] os He fn S|Helee
54/5 4|.4-4 “Fu! or |PAG] Sa on |orlon|p@2
Z| A ES ice PE lay ol |e i ie
Sept. 10) Stamens still on. 2| 5.7) 062)1.67)1.12) * |.505/30.0} 1.085] * 6| 3.7
10| Stamens fallen.... 2) 6.7| 062)1.57|1.04) * 480)30.5) 1.034 1:6) 463i
16] No change in ap-
pearance....... 2) 5.3] .073]2.00}1.02] 76.31] .373)18.6] 1.049] 11.17) .8| 7.3/3.07
aE lege (0 COVES Ee ence cosh ai 2) 5.1; .062)1.78|1.09| 76.98} .406/22.8| 1.049] 11.53} 1 5} 7.0/3.03
25| Dry tops; sucker-
TRAE A ao eae ale 3] 5.7| .065}2.50)1.49] 72.00] .547}21 5} 1.054] 11.09) 1.1) 8.7|1.29
OGM rae Obese eat weet: 8] 6 6! .065|3.00!2.08} 75.53}.783/26 1) 1.060] 11.21) 1.2] 9.6) .41
Oct. 4| Dry tops; suckers .
well developed 2| 5.1! .056)2.09] .98] 67.35) .529)25.3] 1.061] 14.10} 1.3/10.1/2.70
=4| Leaves dead and
VeHlOWs.) Gece: 2! 6.1! .072]1.85| .97! 64.41] 377/20 3] 1 068) 15.30} 2 0)11.3)2.00
20) Frost-withered.... 2) 6 1) .072}1.65}1.06] 65 65}.560/33.9] 1.058] 13 15] 3.0) 6.7/3.45
29' Quite dead ....... 3] 5.6|.059/1.53] .88] 72.54) 337)22.0) 1.070) 16.18) 5.4) 7.4/3.38
24) Withered ... ..... 2) 5.3} .059)1.20) .77) 75.77] .802/25.1| 1.058] 18.14) .5 11.7)5.94

An experiment was made with the juice of pearl millet, with the
following results: Stripped stalks taken, 13 pounds. These were
passed through an old mill, which only gave 29 pounds of juice, or 22.3
per cent of the weight of stripped stalks. This juice had a specific
gravity of 1062, and it gave, upon evaporation, 2 pounds 10 ounces
of syrup, or 9 per cent of the weight of juice. ‘Lhis syrup readily
crystallized, and gave, in the first lot of sugar, 173 ounces of sugar,
or 42 per cent of the weight of the syrup. The sugar polarized 92°.

Owing to the enormous acreage yield of this plant, it seems worth
further investigation as a possible source of sugar.

* Burned.

EXHAUSTION OF THE SOIL AND FERTILIZATION OF THE CROP. 447

CHAPTER XIV.

(a.) Exhaustion of soil by growing sorghum.

(d.) Exhaustion how prevented in growing sorghum.

(c.) Average yield of principal crops in each state of United States,
from 1868-72, and from 1872-80 compared.

(d.) Value of ash constituents of principal crops of United States.

(e.) How exhaustion of soils may be prevented by use of fertilizers.

EXHAUSTION OF THE SOIL AND FERTILIZATION OF THE CROP.

In another place, page 395, there is given the amount of mineral
matter, or ash, which is removed by an average crop of sorghum. A
crop so heavy must, in its seed, stalk, leaves, and roots, make an un-
usual demand upon the soil, and the analyses of these several portions
of the plant confirm the fact, that few of our crops are, in reality, so
exhaustive of plant food as is sorghum.

In the face of this fact, which is unquestionable, there is abundant
evidence to show that sorghum may be grown for successive years
upon the same land with little if any diminution in the yield; also,
that it will succeed where many other crops fail, and that, in fact, sor-
ghum, even after a succession of heavy crops, leaves the land in good
condition for other crops. These facts are apparently established.

The following, from one of the recent reports of a convention of
sorghum growers, will illustrate the erroneous conclusions which have
been drawn from these facts:

There is this about it, and it ought to be taken into consideration in study-
ing to diversify our industry, that the wheat crop is a very exhaustive crop for
the soil. I can recollect back in the State of New York, where I was born, and
where my parents now reside, my father, when I was a boy, used to raise 25
and 30 bushels of wheat to the acre, with no difficulty in obtaining that yield. I
was back there last fall, and he has a good farm, one of the best in that section,
puts out his little patch of wheat, even now, every year, and, if he gets 8 or 10
bushels to the acre, he thinks he is doing very well; and this has been the his-
tory of all wheat counties throughout the state of New York. It is the same in
the state of Maryland, Delaware, and portions of Pennsylvania; but, as time
has gone on, those fields which have produced this crop have been exhausted of
those properties which make wheat, and they are no longer able to produce a
paying crop, and manures and fertilizers and phosphates and superphosphates
have to be applied, and the yield sometimes hardly pays for the amount
paid out for these. That same destructive policy is going on throughout the
entire west, and it will not be many years, even within the recollection of some

448 SORGHUM.

of these younger men, when a yield of 8 or 10 bushels to the acre will be all
that you will obtain from your wheat crop. There is another thing in connec-
tion with the sorghum crop, and it is a remarkable thing—it is not an exhaus-
tive crop. It was said to you to-day by Prof. Swenson, and it has been said by
professors of chemistry of numerous agricultural colleges, that your sugar and
syrup are obtained from the sunshine and the air, and not from the soil. The
ash of the sorghum is simply nothing, the amount which it obtains from the
earth very small indeed. Some of our farmers believe that sorghum acts upon
the soil something like clover, that it is a fertilizer. I have heard, at different
sorghum conventions, farmers talking among themselves, and’ saying that they
did not know what crop of grain they could safely plant after a sorghum crop.
If they planted oats, or wheat, or barley, it was so productive and grewso rank
that it would lodge, and they would have to put some other crop upon it on that
account. Here is Seth H. Kenney, who was spoken of by your worthy presi-
dent this afternoon. He said that for sixteen years sorghum had been raised
upon the same field, and the last crop was just as productive as the first that
was put upon if, and no fertilizer employed during that time. I think, however,
T heard Mr. Kenney say that, a year or two ago, he did apply some fertilizer.
Mr. Swartz, who lives in Illinois, near St.. Louis, for 12 years has grown a crop
upon the same soil without the application of any manure, and he says that
every year the juice is purer, and the syrup and the sugar are better from that
land. This is a remarkable quality in this crop. It is not going to immpoverish
your land.

Without questioning any of the interesting facts above stated, as to
this remarkable plant, it would be difficult to draw conclusions more
erroneous, or ultimately more fatal to successful agriculture.

The fact that the acreage yield of wheat has fallen off in many sec-
tions of the country, is beyond question, but it is also true that many
crops may be successfully grown upon lands which will not yield a
good return in wheat.

Clover, for example, has been long used as a crop preparatory to
wheat, and yet clover makes a far greater demand upon the soil than
does wheat, as is established by analysis. So, also, sorghum really
exhausts the land far more rapidly than wheat or even clover, and yet
it may be grown for years upon the same land successfully.

It is also a matter of common experience, that sorghum is capable
of withstanding a period of drought, which would be fatal even to the
crop which most nearly resembles it, maize (or Indian corn).

We must look further, for the solution of wheat appears contradic-
tory.

The mutual relations of wheat and clover have been thoroughly
investigated, and their apparent anomalies fully reconciled. Wheat is
a plant of a short period of growth, of a very scanty leafage, and, with
mostly surface roots, comparatively limited in amount; while nearly
opposite conditions are found in the clover plant, with its abundant

EXHAUSTION OF THE SOIL AND FERTILIZATION OF THE CROP. 449

leafage, its prolonged life, and its root system, which enables it to seek
supplies of food from the subsoil. It is then obvious, that, with these
far greater facilities for securing food, clover, even though requiring
far more food from both the atmosphere and the soil than does wheat,
is adapted to thrive where the more dainty wheat plants would fail.
Not only this, but the clover plant, during its growth, accumulates an
enormous amount of plant food from the atmosphere and the soil,
which is left in the soil by its roots: these, by their decomposition,
being sufficient to supply the limited demands for such food bya future
crop, as of wheat. It must not be concluded that such crops as sor-
ghum or clover, because growing where other crops fail, are, therefore,
not exhausting crops; for, on the contrary, few crops remove so much
plant food from the soil as do these. They must inevitably impoverish
the soil sooner or later: and it is, therefore, of supreme importance
that correct ideas shall prevail among our sorghum growers, before it
is too late, concerning a matter of such fundamental necessity as that
of maintaining the fertility of our lands. Indeed, one of the leading
motives which should prompt us in our efforts to produce our own sugar
is, that this important commodity is wholly derived from the at-
mosphere, and therefore may be produced in indefinite quantities, and
for unlimited time, upon our soil, without in any way decreasing its
fertility. On the other hand, it is probable that our soils would be-
come more productive, provided only that care be taken to return to
the soil those constituents which, in the seed, bagasse, leaves, and the
scums and the sediments of the sugar, will have been removed from
the land.

The system pursued at Rio Grande, New Jersey, appears in the
highest degree judicious. By meaus of several hundred swine, the
entire crop of seed is consumed upon the plantation, and the bagasse
is thrown into the pens to be incorporated with the manure; thus fur-
nishing, for the enrichment of the land, an abundant supply of good
fertilizing material. In addition to this, quantities of sea-weed and
muck from the adjacent beach are added to the accumulations of the
pens. It has been found that the hogs thrive when fed no other food ;
and the profit derived from this disposition of the seed and bagasse is
estimated as sufficient to enable the company to raise and deliver their
cane at the mill entirely free of cost: the sugar and syrup obtained
‘from the cane costing only the expense of its manufacture. It is esti-
mated that one acre of seed, with the bagasse, will prove quite suffi-
cient for the production of one hog weighing from 350 to 400 pounds.

This estimate appears reasonable, since, as is well known, the sorghum
29

450 SORGHUM.

seed equals in quantity the yield of corn upon the same ground, and
chemical analysis shows, it to be practically identical in composition
with corn. If swine may be fattened without loss upon corn, as is the
case, there appears no reason to doubt but that this method of using
the seed at Rio Grande may enable them to pay all expenses for their
crop of cane. Mr. Joseph Sullivant, of Duncan’s Falls, Ohio, made
a thorough examination of all available statistics concerning the fat-
tening of swine upon corn, and sums up the evidence as follows:

T conelude that nine pounds of pork from a bushel of corn, fed in the ear,
twelve pounds from raw meal, thirteen and a half pounds from boiled corn, six-
teen and a half pourds from cooked meal, is no more than a moderate average,

which the feeder may expect to realize from a bushel of corn, under ordinary
circumstances of weather, with dry, warm, and clean feeding pens.

The two most important considerations, then, in connection with this
new industry, viz., the economical production of sugar and syrup, and
the maintenance of the fertility of the land, urge that this practice,
followed at Rio Grande, N. J., be imitated, so far as ‘may be, by all
entering upon the cultivation and manufacture of sorghum.

The corn crop of 1881 occupied 57 per cent of all the cultivated
land in the United States, even including the grass lands, viz., 64,-
262,025 acres out of a total of 173,675,409 acres.

During the years 1871 to 1881 inclusive, the total crop of corn pro-
duced in the United States was equal to 13,662,965,085 bushels,
which at 56 pounds to the bushel is equal to 382,563,022 tons.

The average of 28 analyses of maize gives 1.63 per cent of ash, and
of this ash 46.55 per cent is phosphoric acid, and 52.56 per cent is
potash.

So that there was removed from the land in the corn crop of those
eleven years 6,235,777 tons of mineral matter, of which 2,901,507
tons were phosphoric acid, and 2,030,569 tons were potash. At 12
and 7 cents per pound, the prices respectively in the so-called com-
mercial fertilizers, the value of these two componeiits of the ash of
the corn crop for those 11 years was $696,561,680 for the phosphoric
acid. and $284,251,660 for the potash, or a total for the two of $980,-
613,340.

Now, the total value of the corn crop for those 11 years was $6,-
883,('68,121, so that the phosphoric acid and potash in this crop were
worth at those prices which are paid for those materials 163 per cent
of the total value of the crop. For those same years the average
number of bushels per acre of corn was 26, and the average value of
the crop per acre was $11.20.

It is hardly probable that, at the present, corn is grown 7 a profit

+

EXHAUSTION OF THE SOIL AND FERTILIZATION OF THE CROP. 451

much, if any, beyond 163 per cent, and yet it is beyond question
true that at no distant period it will be necessary to resort to fertil-
izers to maintain the fertility of our lands, as has been so largely done
in the Eastern States.

It was in view of these considerations that the present chapter was
written, which, at its conclusion, refers to another method by which
this exhaustion of the soil could be arrested. It is nardly necessary
to say that it was by the introduction of the growth of sorghum in-
stead of corn, by the feeding of the seed of sorghum upon the farm,
and by the production of our sugar supply from the stalks, that this
exhaustion was to be permanenily arrested.

In view of our rapidly increasing population, and in consideration of
the fact that the land available for purposes of agriculture will be oc-
pied within a very short period, as also that the exportation of our ag-
ricultural products, especially of the cereals, already enormous in the
aggtegate, is steadily increasing, the subject of the maintenance of the
fertility of our farming lands is one of supreme material importance.

The question whether the past and present productiveness of our soil
is to continue indefinitely, or whether sooner or later, through exhaus-
tion of its elements of fertility, diminished crops shall result, is one
which ordinary prudence should not postpone for future consideration.

It may, perhaps, be doubted whether as yet we possess sufficient data
from the records of our own experience, and in our own country, to
enable us to decide this important question; still, we have the ac-
cumulated experience of other countries and other ages to guide us as
to the probable solution of our own problem.

While upon limited areas of land the fact of exhaustion appears to
be pretty well established, it is a matter of some considerable diffi-
culty to establish the fact that exhaustion, more or less in degree, has
manifested itself over the whole country. The productiveness of the
soil depends upon so many and so varying conditions other than the
simple question of a sufficient supply of plant food, that any conclu-
sions drawn from the returns, of a few years even, are liable to error.
For example, as we have heard repeatedly reiterated during the past
few years, the country has for several years been blessed with almost
unprecedented crops, which it would be folly to expect are to be con-
tinued in equal abundance during the next decade. As may be seen
by any one looking over the agricultural statistics, there appear to be
‘‘ off years” for certain crops, so that, while the conditions are favor-
able to some crops, they are not favorable to others.

Again, since the demand upon the svil for plant food varies both
qualitatively and quantitatively so widely for different crops, while the

se SORGHUM.

ability 0. plants to avail themselves of the supplies of food present in
the soil also differs as widely, it therefore happens that, while certain
crops suffer a falling off, others may be produced in their original
abundance.

In the hope of throwing some light upon this question of exhaustion,
Thave had recourse to the Annual Reports of the Department of Agri-
culture since the year 1861. Since then there has been, with but few
exceptions, annually published the average acreage yield of our prin-
cipal crops in the Northern States, and, since 1865, in the Southern
States.

These annual average acreage yields of the principal crops have
been averaged for each state for the first half of the period, and for
the latter half of the period—i. e., for the Northern States, the average
acreage yield is given of each crop from 1862 to 1870, inclusive, and
from 1871 to 1880, inclusive; and for the Southern States, from 1866
to 1872, inclusive, and from 1873 to 1880, inclusive. i

These results are given in the table following; and, of course, cov-
ering so long a period of years, and so wide an extent of territory, local
or temporary inequalities would tend to disappear, and the general re-
sult would probably closely approximate to the truth:

AVERAGE ACREAGE YIELD OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS IN EACH STATE.

+
5 ;

- 3 a % fa)

zi = A ee aie ene 5

States. x A | 3 a a 2 & = i &

Ay a) | S mo ao cs 3 fo) ey fo)

MAING sn ore oekeme reece 1862-70] 31.05) 12.77| 15.51] 26.51) 20 94] 33 44] 125 6| 1801) 750

‘s ge estore hess ano ot 1871-80] 32 22] 13.70) 16.15] 25.79) 20.43) 23.29) 108 0} 1834].....
New Hampshire........ 1462-70] 33.27) 14.34) 15.46] 28.60) 23.09) 19.69] 121.4| 2002] 510
“ CER Rare 1871-80] 39.98) 15.14] 16.87| 37.00) 24.22] 19.77] 114.2) 9004! 1358
VerimOntis) cs-enee ce eee 1862-70} 36.90] 16.33] 15.70] 34.41] 24.69) 22.63] 189.8} 2097| 766
ae Rte ea 1871-80! 36.57| 16.40] 17.17] 35.31] 25.58] 21,79) 183.5} 2126] 1246
Massachusetts. ......-.. 1862-76| 32.19! 16.29) 14.82! 27.85} 21.99! 16 88] 112.9} 92343! 1968
Les ae ooo S Ie ‘| 1871-89] 34.75] 18.21] 15.86] 32.33] 22.82] 14.18} 114 8] °9956] 1524
Rhode Island ...... 2 aos 1862-7.) 29.23} 16.94] 17.40} 3: 25 18] 16.31| 99 9} 2175] 1166

2 CS Re tase 1872-80] 30.27|..... |: 14.72] 30.10} 21.43).... 90.9} 9051]. . .
Connecticut. .--.- nase 1862-70} 31.65} 16 84! 13 91] 31.22' 23.69) 15.36! 104.7, 2484] 1329
Cie adacucsneabmre 1871-80] 30.07] 16.65) 14 66) 29.46] 22 45) 16.54| 88.6] 2844] 1356
infsayy MOVE Se AR Re CabSoee bons 1862-701 30.20} 14.93} 15.17} 30.32] 22.83) 19.77] 108.1] 2516 918
* wt. eee. 1871-80) 38.13] 14.98) 14.09] 32.71] 22.27) 18 85) 82.5) 2372) 959
New Jerseys isescnetcsence 1862-70] 35.95} 14.79] 14.37] 28.94] 22.82) 18.95] 83.3! 2873] 991
Be as hod oto hoew sels 1871-80| 37.09] 14.54] 13.35) 28.38] 22.87] 16.69] 80.7) 2404) 1150
Pennsylvania )ciense err ce 1862-70) 33.01] 18.25] 18.88} 31.70) 22.50} 18.09} 94.1) 2680) 979
LER ce nraeenentct 1871-80] 36.14] 14.13] 14 06] 32.50) 22.16] 18.56] 86.8] 2249] 1972
Dela WaMnGrern a. teoss meen 1862-70] 20.23] 11.70] 10.63] 16.73] 19-86] 18.62] 84.5} 2577 440
“2 Dos See abocadras 1871-80] 24.10) 12.71] 11.72} 21.386] 16.55) 19.50) 88.2) 2094).....
Icha ors le peered oe 1862-70| 25.82! 10.92) 12.39} 22.09) 25.67] 19.35) 738.9] 26382 €52
oe 54 SU ASROUOOHO Soc 1871-80] 26.16] 12.12} 12.43) 19.78} 17.09) 19.95] 68.8) 213 682
Wameisvistyes ey eeieapte sine aes 1866-72) 19.90} 8.51] 10.25] 17.25] 16.60] 14.64}. 66.0] 2157] 603
bE AWE, As aterose . | 1873-80] 20.26} 8.51} 9.47] 14 16) 15.25) 15.90} 74:0} 2412) 643
North Garolina. .32.--..\. 1866-72| 13.90] 7.11] 7.48} 13.61] 15.85] 17.73] 87.0) 263: 621
is CE ee Bue naan 1873-80] 14.90} 7.15) 8.52) 14.27) 16.30} 15.70} 86.0) 2662; 530

1

EXHAUSTION OF THE SOIL AND FERTILIZATION OF CROP. 453

AVERAGE ACREAGE YIELD, ETC.— Continued.

Ss }
| | ea
| gt eS be ke g
= < = = = c :
foi Sb aires ae thee (etl eof ts
ee = elealelezlei2gi|3
ym 1 Oo = = |}°o ) A A} es | 3 =
tia, : —— ff
; :
South Carolina..... ...-. 1866-52} 9 53) 5.91) 5.93] 9 50) 11-41)... 79.0) 1943) 525
“ EN Nera Ss 1873-80} 9.25) 6 92) 6.17) 13.48) 17 00 $0.0) 2340) 497
RGR, Sas a teas 1806-72) 14 33) 6 71| 7 All| 12.24) 13.55 §7 0) 2563, 491
Bie eee 1873-80] 10.55) 7-45} 6.42) 12 61] 13-67|......| 73.0) 2817) 626
je a ee ae See 1866-72} 11.11] $97} 9.62) 14.38} 14.20 110.5) 3225) 352
oe te Ree ee ee 1873-80] 10.10} .... | -.._| 13-28] RES eke
UA eee ee ele 1866-72} 14.37, 7.37| 8.20) 12.71| 12.14 76.3) 2483) 496
BOR ser 1873-S0| 12.85) 7.42} 8.67] 13.71} 11-50 74.0) 2790} 580
MISSISNIpM .- =), -=85 2. - 1866-72 16.11) 8.94) 8.35} 14.74) 11.80)... _.. 80.0) 2471) 511
TH ppt eo oe 1873-80! 15 11) 8.28) 10 40} 15 51 .-- | 79-0) 2910) 552
WOMIGIANA: = 22.2 ey -c- 1866-72) 19.28) 8.54) 10.16] 17.65} 18.00) _... | 94.0) 3040) 533
EP ee atsnreset 1873-80} 16.95) -__-- 2.) 14.98 ---. | 67.0} 2600) 77
arses res Cee oe eae. See ft 1868-72} 25.57| 11.47] 15 $2] 25.15) 22.91] .._..| 111.0} 2840) 598
eerste le Pee 1873-80) 21 3+] 13 01) 155i] 30-15] 29.10) _... | 83.4) 2840) 7
5 eee 1866-72} 27.28) 10-08) 13.03] 21 43) 14 50} 15.00} 87.0) 2857) 7
+ oe ae | 1873-S0| 23.38] 8 87) 11.88) 2.21 |} $9.0) 27735) 72
Mem Esee so 5.: 1866-72] 23.33] 7.45} 9.51] 17.61] 20 $9] 11 90) 73 2) 2703) 718
2 ipa aes | 1873-80) 25.25] 7-55) 9 77/ 17.95] 15.42] 15.44) 78.0) 2637) 659
West Virginia. ......... | 1867-73] 29.71| 10 60] 13.18) 24.97] 17.31] 16.48} 73.3] 2382) G74
> sg eee ee 1874-80) 28.21) 11.18} 10.68} 21 $5) 14 60) 17.64, 80.0) 236
ongueky 2 ce" 2-2. 1864-70) 29.82} $.S1/ 1103} 21-97) 18-49] 16.58} 72.3
a Bigs ee: | 1871-80} 29-39] 10-2} 11-58) 21-65) 23.25] 17.62} 71-3
Me eee | 1862-70, 33.29] 11-90] 13-46] 28.45] 23.15) 16.21, 3.6
pe ye See ee | 1871-80} 36.36 14 39 13.80} 29.17] 24.29] 14.34) $3.3)
i _TIGL Oy ea ee ae 1862-70} 32.68) 14.06) 15 86) 31.30) 23.25) 17 40) 111 8
Ce eet eee 1871-S0} 33 35) 14.99] 14 41/ 31.91] 2 7s! 16.16) 860
MrIIAMR, 522A 8 hes Os Os 1862-72] 33 09) 11.72] 14.73] 24.32] 22 6] 18.24) 81 1]
Cai See aD 1871-80) 31.58) 15 54) 14 16] 25 76| 22 60) 15 46) 69-4
Wifinisin 2502s 2k | 1862-70] 34.78) 13.80] 18.24) 33.08] 26.94) 16.37) 86 3
Se nas ee | 1871-S0| 29.07} 13.47} 16.80} 30 49] 22 64) 14 34) -75.7
PAV SEPERIIRS EID 2 a ee es 1862-70 37 35) 15 72) 17 85) 37-69) 27-77) 20.05) 116.9
5 NS age Sees Cee 1871-80} 32.64) 12 70} 15 56] 34-93] 26-19] 15.52) 901
Minnesota.............. 1862-70} 33 07| 15 S7| 19 32) 35.58} 25.72/18 $5) 125-6
Se See ee aig Be 1s71-S0} 32_67| 14 07] 24 35) 33.98} 26.33] 16.02) 105 6
ey eee oe 1862-70) 34 64) 13.73] 18 41] 34.99] 25.78] 19.25) 103.0
+ ER eG ae ae 1871-80} 35.14) 10.83] 16 91) 34 62] 23 45) 17.02] 92.9
TSS rig ag a pe Le 1862-70] 31.45) 14 44) 17 04) 28.47| 24 04) 20.47, 909
yee ee eee en 1871-80; 29 95) 12 23) 15 O61 27 66] 20 30) 17-21) 76.2 :
3 See aes 8 1862-70} 35.33) 16 85) 22.45] 33 30) 27 40| 21.72) 100.0) 3174) 680
fe re a 1871-S0} 34.43] 13.76] 15 28] 30.77) 21 32) 16 00} $4.0, 2954) 640
Deirrastkac (20-2 5-20 nen 1864-71) 34 60) 16 37| 20.57] 36-28) 27.83) 22.31! 94.8) 35 472
a Se Se 1872-S0] 33.86} 12.05) 16-11] 30 86] 22.94) 18 25) 842) 2964) __..
California... .......... 1862-73] 37.71] 16 88} 26.07) 33 00) 24.66) 22 57| 100.9) 2733
hip enh 1874-80} 32.85| 13 38] 16.56] 31.40! 2° 47| 21.66) 118.0) 3003) -..-..
reren 52-2. Se 1869-74) 29.96) 19 06) 28 S86) 25.01, 29 40) 22.25) 10S 0} 2960) - ... -
SA aS Peres: 1875-80} 26.51) 18-10} 19-86 36 33 26 (85) ......| 127-0) 3230)...
| | :

As will be observed the returns for cotton are unfortunately want-

ing, owing to the fact that the annual returns for this crop, received

by the Department of Agriculture, appear to have been very meager
and incomplete.

For convenience of comparison I have prepared the following table,
in which the acreage yield of each crop for each state for the latter
half—viz., for the Northern States from 1871 to 1880, and for the
Southern States from 1873 to 1880—has been calculated to the per
cent of the yield per acre of the several crops during the first half. It
will thus appear, by a glance at this table, the gain or less per cent

454 SORGHUM.

which each state has made in each crop. For example, the average.
acreage yield of corn in the State of Maine was 3.7 per cent greater
from 1871 to 1880, inclusive, than it was from 1862 to 1870, inclusive ;
while of wheat it was 7.2 per cent greater. Again, Connecticut fell
off 5 per cent in its acreage yield of corn during the latter half.

PERCENTAGE YIELD OF EACH CROP DURING LAST PERIOD, THE FIRST PERIOD
BEING 100.

=

oO = .

+3 EN Seapine 3

States. A = , | ee lame = & =

Bo eee | oe 2] se ae ae

On|: Ba IO =o ae oe fee

Maine sk). scememsr eiered se aeaseces 103.7) 107.2| 104.11 97.2) 97.5) 99.3) &5.9) 101.2) *
NewaAH am pshire.). ft. eae sacs 120.1} 105.5} 109.1) 129.3} 104 8} 109.4] 94 0} 100.0! 265.2
MEPNTOMELouseec noes wore ees : 99.1] 100.4} 109.3} 102.6} 103.6) 96.2) 95 4! 101.8] 162.6
IMASSHCAUISET IS eco ic<ectoe ero. 107.9] 111 1! 106.1) 115.7] 103.7) 81.0} 92.8] . 96.2) 120.2

RHOdeS WS ANd ae - v.< cio os Sa 103.5 S75) G24) 85 * 90.9) 94.8 *
CONMECTLOUE RE Foe oe orsis tek oiris oe 95.0! 98.8] 105.3} 94 3) 94.7] 107.6) 81.6) 94.3! 102.0
MEY SY OTIC cd nicislan siete, Aete ouclere mane 109.7] 100.3] 92.8} 107.8) 99.7] 92.9} 80.0) 9t.2! 104.4
INGA ETSO V seua a tactete ernie ayaceee 103.1] 98.3). 92 9} 98.0] 100.2! 92.9! 96.7: 83.6! 116.0
PENS UV ATTE YW ierdtone c,-1< b etoreierco ore 109.4} 106.6|:107.0) 102 5) 98.4] 102.5) 92.2] 88.2! 129.9

DELAWARE: oc ti = econ . ante ls 119.1] 108.6} 110.2] 127.6] 83.3) 104.6] 98.4] 81.2] *
NSM ele etm -thec emia: 101.3] 110.9} 10)-3) 89.5) 67.8] 103.1] 93 2) 80.8] 104.6
TOMA oe Ser pi stcinnd Sioa steel Pe sete oes 101.1} 100.0} 92.3] 82.0) 91.8} 108.6] 112.1] 111.8) 106.6
WROTE CATOLLN GL: «.. 20 aco sc wees lect 107.1] 100.5] 113.9] 104.8] 102.8) 88.5) $8.8} 101.0) 83.3
SouthiGarolina:s \.42-..<28.ce552 97 0} 117.0) 104.0) 141.5} 148.9 “3 101.2) 120.4) 94.6
CO OVOT AM ces set eee tie noe eee. 73.6] 111.0} 86 6} 103.0) 100.9) # 83.9} 109.9] 127.4
RlOriudlveat a pete soo AHA ect 190.9] = - Hors) oF * * * | 122 6.
JAVA A ee oO ce sletais'sanem: Salty et 89.21 100.6} 105.7] 107.8] 94.7) * 96.8] 112.3} 116.9
WDTSSIEET oj Re ooe en ouonsadsosnnee oc 93:71 92a 12410522) -** oe 98 7) 117.7] 108.0:
TOUTS: el at ee enya ctiei esr ot ST Oe ee Sx 80 6 * * 71.2) 85.5) 145.7
TREES Hise oh. sens tre acerca bial eras $4.2! 113.4] 98 0]. 119.8] 122.2 * 75.0} 100.0} 124.4
A AQ ae HSE Re 8 cerita hOkh= cho nomen 85.7| 87 9} 91.1] 103.6 * * 102.3] -97.1). 9258
MenMeSS@G seat oe seis ota 108.2} 101 3) 102.7] 101.9] 88.1] 129.7] 106 5| 97.6} 91.8.
\iGsiisivornobitk. 25eecncangococcoeon 95.0} 105.5} 81.0} 87.4] 84.5] 107.0) 109 1) 99.1) 101.3
Kenic veces: see occ ace 98 5| 116.0} 105.0} 98.4] 126.3} 106.3) 98.7] 94.7) 100.7
OULU Me mew ear eae A poets Ee 109.2} 120 9} 102.5} 102.5] 104 9) 89.0] 100 4} 85.5} 107.9

MICHA ene eer nie eey asm = 102.0] 106 6} 90 8} 101.9} 97 9} 92.8) 76.9) 88.5 *
PNGUMNAIOS ors es erinea eee meee 95.4) 115 9| 96 1] 105.9) 98 8| 84 7] 85 6] 85 3] 86 2
UO IS aaa tone note tsita oe ee oem 33.5] 97.6] 92.1} 92.1] 84 0) 87.6) 87.7) Si) Sion
WISGONSTB +=. tee cman cients sare =i $7 3) S8U.7| 87.1] 92 6) 94.3] 77 4) 77 0] 86.6] 88d

IY Int haKet(0) yee sdo dep asoaooTd 98 7} 88.6, 126.0] 95.5) 102 $49 > 4; 908 *
fai @; eae hea eeeyesoccorss socedn te 101 4] 78 8} 91.8] 98 8| 90.9] 88 4) 901) 82.5) 89.4
1 PRETO 1 peek ts SOOT Drees ees 95 2) 8477] 88.9] 97.1] 84.1) 84.0) 83.9] 85.9) 97-7
MS Oy Seen aumento Gniasesacte : 97 6| 81.6] 81.4] 92.4] 77.8} 73.6] 84 0) 8t.4| 94.0

INCA Rel t heaies Merioas nino. ao Oaad ae 97.9] 73.6] 78 3] 85.1) 82 4} 81 8] 88.9) 84.7 *

Gartisritia ao sete ere eter act 87 0| 79.2] 63.5} 95 1] 87.0} 85.9] 116.9] 108.0 *

Orboony. e-toe sence cervicisnshs a 88.5} 95.0] 68 s| 103.8} 91.3 23 117.6] 110.8} *
d Naifa) Keo ee panic ame SHOU Toe 98 0} 99 9} 95.9| 101.3] 96.7] 94.8} 92.9] 95 wee

It will be seen that the average percentages for all the states is, with the
exception of those for wheat, oats, and tobacco, less than 100, but these
averages must not be taken as representing the relative production for
the country at large; since a slight decrease in those States of great
productive areas would more than counterbalance a large increase in
several of the smaller states, and vice versa.

Reports not given for one or both series of years.
+ New Hampshire's per cent, being so entirely disproportioned, is omitied: in taking
the average for tobacco.

EXHAUSTION OF THE SOIL AND FERTILIZATION OF THE CROP. 455

The two tables given must be studied together, since many of the
states showing large percentage increase are at present very low in
their actual acreage yield, in comparisou with other states which have
declined in their percentage yield. For example, while South Caro-
lina shows an increase of 17 per cent in her acreage yield of wheat, and
Connecticut a slight decrease, yet the actual acreage yield of wheat
during the past few years in Connecticut is about two and one-half
times greater than in South Carolina.

For the purpose of showing which of the states are actually produc-
ing less than the average yield of the whole country, the average acre-
age yield of the principal crops in the United States is here given:

AVERAGE ACREAGE YIELD OF UNITED STATES IN 1880.
MOEA ee ee on Sao tce ce es 27.6 bushels. Buckwheat... 3-4 17.7 bushels.
ULES 9 Se ae ee eee iS = Potties =. oo eee 91.0 >
Lea te ee Se ie eee 3.9 op Rohaere/2eansteae soel 740 pounds,
EER Sn eek Cris cis Snes oa 2 25.8 Pe Hay 22-3 sh tee eee 2,460 -
APIO W soeet.a see ee eakeee ans) 24.5 “ Gotton: 2. i serene 184.5 ss

ETS Sy! er et ee 22 above the average and 14 below.
WERCAL Ceo rok es ose coed 18 . a 18 ee
RE pO ee are sl Sx co cee 20 ‘ z 16
(OS OSI 35 es Ae 20 ss < 16 as
Bar igen or an en BEANE 7 es Sa 29 a
BHGE WRONG sree ste ssc taco 10 *s ss 19 <
(IPOURLGCN ree ee enn g ve ons oats oS 10 S a 26 ae
TODACCON econ as =! EEN Ro 17 os x 17 “
GO Ls eek Se eee 20 sf a 16 s

In the following table I have taken the average acreage yield for
the United States of the principal crops in 1880 as a basis, and caleu-
lated the percentage yield of these crops in the several states in the
year 1879.

For example, Maine produced per acre, in 1879, 16.7 per cent more
corn and 4.6 per cent more wheat than the average acreage yield of
these crops in the United States; while South Carolina produced per
acre but 33.5 per cent of the average acreage yield of corn in the
United States, and but 52.9 per cent of the average acreage yield of
wheat in the United States. I have selected only those crops of gen-
eral cultivation throughout the country, and which are most largely
produced. The aggregate value of the corn, wheat, oat, potato, and
hay crops amounts to $1,608,007,820, equal to 83.7 per cent of the
value of all our leading agricultural crops.

456 SORGHUM.

PERCENTAGE ‘YIELD OF EACH CROP IN EACH STATE OF THE AVERAGE CROP
THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES.

Corn. Wheat. Oats. |Potatoes.| Hay.
Maier eee x Aen chara a ta etetelaseiate hoch eee 116.7 104.6 100.0 118.7 74.6
We wi damipsnines sof ch lnrt ce scrate Mowe 144.9 115.6 143.4 125.5 81.5
METUNON bas se eres avs fore fate le he sateralereneroret 182.5 125.2 136.9 146.7 86.9
MASSACMUSELS A ac-.cmivas cee ntanes tek 125 9 139.0 125.3 115.2 91,7
RHOdeMIslande ses. sn eeeer me eenen cee 109 6 Brsaeeh Ss 116.7 99.9 83 8
CONNECTICUT cscs cbc etiee anit ies ee clers. 109.0 AD Al 114.1 97.3 95.3
ING WHY OR Ke Se nuance cunt siceice ee pinea.. 120 0 114.3 126.8 90.7 96 4
NGNWETSCY= ei csittesat oettaeerhorrcce ne. 134 4 111.0 120.0 . 88.7 97.7
Penns Pl viaiilae se ee ako oace ele 130.9 107.9 126.0 95.3 95 2
Dela weneye 25s sare ceria ae se eee 87.3 97.0 82.8 91 5 85 1
Maryland nano ctctanees tence stemchyeer bei 94.8 92.5 76.7 70.6 86.9
AVA OLN arte 8 cree. Rete ete etree. ea 73.4 65.0 64.5 81 3 98.0
NortheCGarolima.s. > smceeeae. 54 0 54.6 55.3 94.5 108.2
South Carolina. 33.5 52.9 52.2 87 9 95.1
GEOTSlateiiese: contin eia ae tee es 38.2 56.9 48.9 80.2 114 5
sl DUCA) hb I: Remtecseu eet cersie ahaa ORR aera 36.6 : : BL xed: |, lf. is eosceve c/a | aa ee
BAD ean AIM Sess be acer hee er aralil Meeeasie's Sina te See 46 6 56 6 Hy at 81.3 113.4
IMAISSISSTP PI eats tyiecie wees cereee eee see 54.7 63.2 60.1 86.8 118.3
SN SOUVSUERIN SS 98 sare terelseyerei sities ek ote 61.4 eee 55.3 73.6 105.7
IROR SS: eet ee nteieaos Pi Setcieke tate eres vayatefe Sey 77.4 99.3 116.9 91.6 115.4
FAST SATIS AS eects. or save Taleo cial siaeloieiaie miseisis'e Eee 84.7 het 86.0 97.8 112.8
ERENTIOSSCEN Wor eons Asien Se cimretasaeioe Ave soiee 91.5 57.6 65.7 85.7 107.2
WieStAVinpiniatis vecpacdcietetn nome ccee 102.2 85.3 84.7 87.9 95.9
Mentu@kyary: 2s cratreets cee ce DO GOuMEtee 106 5 78.0 3.9 78 4 102.8
ODOR era eee nen des eblaiiceslewe TSE? 109 8 Se 915 94.6
MIT CAH Oran NN oe aia tars ac active <i 1s Sicieinosreectste neon 120 8 114.4 ie Iy 94.5 98.5
Hays fin: Bey eee SERRGr ae eeror to anne 114 4 103.3 99 5 76.3 102 8
UMTTIVOTS Nets. ceiccv ie ciariting eticisele ns betne a 105 3 102.8 118.2 83.2 110.8
IWHSCOMBIM SS to tehes et Atm sodas woeninsetns 118 3 96.9 135.4 99.0 110.2
MUITINVE SO ba weet herons Cota eoceioe aide daeneeee 118.4 107.4 131.7 116.0 119.3
LOWS Meares ice se iasente woe aeslard clube ste aicvaisioma 127.3 82.7 134.2 102.1 nb Pe
IMISSOUMI 2 see sets OBO OL AAG OoaaGLORCOCrenaEe 108.5 93 4 107.2 83.7 108.6
SRS BS ate oie vi ese Neterate detest ciate ale ety 124.7 105.0 119.3 92.3 119 8
ING TAS KS Metiit cuvacrcacermeme cctas cares cleres 12207 92.0 119.2 92.5 120.5
Coalifornisia fascias occ clicsies seme ses 119.0 102.1 121.7 129.7 12S
Oreponysagest Bone wae ead tone 96.1 138 .2 140.9 139.6 133.3

If, however, we limit our attention to the two most important cereals,
wheat and corn, the latter in 1875 occupying 36.7 per cent, and the
former 22.5 per cent of the entire acreage of our farming lands, and
the value of these two cereals being equal to 61.3 per cent of all our
principal agricultural crops, the conclusions may more clearly appear,
and will fairly apply to the remainder of the crops produced.

It is to be remembered that the years from 1875 to 1880, inclusive,
were years of very great productiveness for corn, while those from 1877
to 1880, inclusive, were equally so for wheat.

This will appear from the fact, that, while from 1863 to 1874, in-
clusive, the average acreage yield for corn in the United States was
27.04 bushels, it was, from 1875 to 1880, inclusive, 27.63 bushels, an
increase of 2.18 per cent; and while, from 1863 to 1876, inclusive,
the average acreage yield of wheat in the United States was 11.91
bushels, it was, from 1877 to 1880, inclusive, 13.48 bushels, an increase
of 13.18 per cent. .

The above would certainly appear to indicate other thau any ex-

PERCENTAGE YIELD OF EACH CROP IN EACH STATE, ETC. 457

haustion; but may not this increased yield during these later years
have been owing to the occurrence of other favorable conditions, the
continuance of which for the future we may not safely predict?

If, as we have done with the several states, we calculate the average
acreage yield of wheat and corn throughout the country for the first
and last half of this period, we shall find that, previous to these later
years of unusual production, the averages had fallen so low as to al-
most overcome this increase in the wheat, and to more than do so in
the case of the corn.

AVERAGE ACREAGE YIELD FOR UNITED STATES.

Bushels

Wikent— tons mal ore ANCHISI Ve, CQUGIS). .. 4 ose pace eee toe ame Ratele eee ane Poe 12.06
es PEt, UW tee, SCI USTVe: CQUals . 2 sikcllon-- sce omens awe staan Ek ny, ee ep 12.47
Corn — 1863 to 1871, inclusive, equals -....... £ NE eR ces ay oe gs thas oo eS 27.69
. 1872 to 1880, inelusiye, equals -..-:... .45.2.2.---22.2 Foes aa Se a ete tae oe 26.78

The increase in wheat, though including these four years of unusual
production, is only 5.4 per cent; while the decrease in the yield of
corn, though including the past six years of good crops, amounts to
3.3 per cent.

For the purpose of studying this matter more thoroughly, as also for
the purpose of throwing some light upon these results, I have grouped
the several states as follows, and have calculated the above results for
the several groups.

1st. The New England and Middle States, viz.: Maine, New Hamp-
shire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York,
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland.

2nd. The South Atlantic and Gulf States, viz.: Virginia, West Vir-
ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama,
Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas.

3rd. The Central States, viz.: Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, [linois,
Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Arkansas.

4th. The North-western and Western States, viz.: Wisconsin, Min-
nesota, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, California, Oregon.

In 1879 there was produced in the United States 1,547,901,790
bushels corn, valued at $580,486,217; 448,756,630 bushels wheat,
valued at $497,756,630.

Of these aggregates, there was produced in each of the several sec-
tions of country, classified, as follows:

458

North

above

SORGITUM.
E g | E @ 3
os Swdee Sd Serie
uO Hi oH =o et pas
es Se pe ene 2/35
a3 ¥ eules| 2s : ec 1238
ae 5 of | ow rE 3 Sa ie
wes 4 HR uP nm Pa — Le ne
5 s o ) 5 Ss ow o
fea) > a) Au ia) > a on)
New Engl‘d and
Middle States. |} 104,117,140} $59,960,715} 6.7} 10.3) 44,045,460) $59,999,107} 9.8} 12.1
Atlantic
and GulfStates} 181.353,950 125,028,392 ih sas 26,558,300 82,938,829 5:9 66
Central States. 863,746,700} 289,070,364] 55.8] 49.8} 201,691,860) 226,521,308] 44.9] 45.6
Northwes’n and
Western States} 395,953,000} 103,950,846} 25.6) 17.9} 159,561,010) 156,656,903) 35.5) 382 1
1,545,150,790) $578,010,317| 99.8} 99.6} 481,856,630) $476,116,142} 96.1] 96 4
In territories rl
and states not
included in
Less Sah 2,751,000 2,475,900 2 .4| 16,900,000} 20,914,000) 3.9} 3.6
1,547,901,790} $580,486,217| 100.0} 100 0] 448,756,630) $497,030,142} 100.0) 100.0

The average acreage yield of these several sections for the first and
later half of the period during which reports are given, and the average
percentage yield for the later half of the period, the first half being
100, is as follows:

New England and Middle States.
South Atlantie and Gulf States. .

Central states.

Northwestern and Western States

cs} cs)
one ‘Due
Pees) |) cates
Corn—Average | Wheat—Average | ¢e | aa
yield in bushels. | yield in bushels. | 2a | 2e4
r = Lor
ree

Ist half. } 2nd half.) 1st half. | 2nd half. 2 es
30 86 Bet, 14.46 14.86 106 5 104.8
17.38 15 96 $33 8 74 92.0 105 0
30 72 29.79 11.53 11:91 97.2 103.9
34 67 32.59 16.36 13.56 94.1 82 5

If, now, we take the average acreage yield of these two crops in
1879 as a basis, and the reported prices for that crop, we may readily
estimate in bushels and money the gain or loss to these several sections
in one year, in having maintained or fallen short of the average pro-
duction of the first half of the period under consideration.

This result will be found as follows:

NEW ENGLAND AND MIDDLE STATES.

6 5 per cent corn=
oe ae

65
48
4.8

“

“6

wheat
oe

6,354,564 bushels.
= $3,659,574
2,017,349 bushels.

2,748,051

Gain.

Gain.

Gain.

Gain.

PERCENTAGE YIELD OF EACH CROP IN EACH STATE, ETC. 459

SOUTH ATLANTIC AND-GULF STATES.
8 percent corn= 15,768,170 bushels. Loss.

8 * =$10,872,034 Loss.
5 “ wheat= 1,214,681 bushels. Gain.
5 s “= $1,568,516 Gain.
CENTRAL STATES.
2.8 per cent corn= 24,881,592 bushels. Loss.
2.8 oe “== $8,827.130 Loss.
3.9 * wheat= 7,570,724 bushels. Gain.
3.9 pe eS $6,002,720 Gain.
NORTH-WESTERN AND WESTERN STATES.
5.9 per centcorn= 24,825.959 bushels. Loss.
5.9 ry oS $6 507,641 Loss.
ae. 9 « wheat= 33,846,294 bushels. Loss.
17.5 or Sd, Oe Loss.

From the above it appears that the total gain was $16,478,866, and
the total loss $58,947,057, or a total net loss of $42,568,191.

Tt will, of course, be understood that owing to the different acreages
of the several states thus grouped together, as also the fact that their
percentages of loss or gain are unlike, the above results are obviously,
at best, but approximately true. It would be necessary to consider
each state by itself, to learn the exact state of facts existing relative to
the production of that state; but each for himself may readily make
such calculation.

I have, however, selected those states the production of which is
very large of these two cereals, and we will consider them somewhat
in detail.

The states selected produce an aggregate of over 70 per cent of our
wheat and corn, and are, moreover, those states whose production is
so largely in excess of their consumption, that it is from their surplus
that we derive our large supply for exportation.

It seems proper, then, to consider the past and present production of
these states with unusual care. Those selected are Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
California.

} i 5 E | Z
(oes Vise ee Ma a fee eh
e 5 2 ae g | 2
E eS | S s Zu pil Die ae
° = <A ret ae hes! — a=
2 e = =tS aa aa | #3 2a
4 2 a3 as -2 ee — i
ea EE = ~g ec Sry sth az
as Za | feces | Ste |) ee Wee eee
Sr oo on Ste RS SO! lahore ae
faa) 5 | o ‘> ia = | 0 | =
Ohio. ......----- | 105,686,000} 26,591,750} 33.29 | 36.36) 11.90 | 14 3s 109 2} 120.9
Indiana.........-- 134,920,500} 43,709,960) 33 09 31 58 11 72 13.54 | (95 4 115 9
SUINDIS 2.0 oo. 312.221,000} 44,896,880) 34.78 | 29.07 15 80 13 47 83 5 97.6
Iowa -wav o.ceey -185,189:200 32,786,880] 34 64 39.14] 13.73 10 83 | 101 4 78 8
MISSOUEL.-c--.- -- 141,939.400 26,801,600} 31.45 29.95 14.44] DB] 9.2 $4.7
CoRIGHN AWD. 55 3% 89,720,400) = 18.079,500) 35.33 3443; 16 $5 13 76| 976 $1 6
Nebraska... ...- 62,459,400] 13,043,590) 24.60 | 33.86 16 37 12.05 97.9 73.6
Wiseonsin.. .... 39,912:600}. 20,565,720) 37.35 | 32 64 15:32 12 70 $7.3 $9 7
Minnesota. .... 15,715,000} 31,886,520) 33.07 | 32.67 15 8&7 14 07 98 .7 &3
California......- 2,814,000} 35,000,000) 37. 71 | 32.85 | 16 88 | 15.58 87 0 ir
1,090,577,500| 323,372,350
j

460 SORGHUM.

The above states give an aggregate yield of corn equal to 70 per
cent, and of wheat equal to 72 per cent, of the total yield of the United
States.

The aggregate value of the corn is equal to 55.7 per cent, and of
the wheat to 64.7 per cent, of the entire crops of these two cereals in
the United States.

From the above data, we find that the gain or loss in bushels of
corn or wheat, and in value, calculated at the average prices for these
crops in these several states, is as follows:

Bush. corn.

Bush. corn.

Bush. wheat.

Bush. wheat.

Loss. Gain. Loss. Gain.
OVS Hanomobdae’ A Ace (eet een ees UAT P35) Py | et coe Ae Se Bee ee 7,647,676
InGiamatta.e cece meee 61206, 845% cuilteite ct eOrtns Alay ot een is 6,885,820
TOMO US eetep eee nese iste ea. Dl DUG AGH) Pa lbee tee T0772 bok Sil on te eee
TOWARD ER: ee eee ene tate is 2,592,649 Gi950;819e% | sib eee
MISSOURI ars secs Gece GSis09L yf tee oe roe A 100;645, J} 4 s<nte,ae cece
IKAIISAS eek ele ees cet wcoete DAH vO ce Seek Maer Bro shy: ats mam (ier Maas be
Nielbirais then jenc igh acute Siomiosiie AT GATE iter cate eens 934433508), Als P<igatae ert ete
WAOUSCOTISIN 2224 cos oo eee cee D068 9004+ ils. eee A eee 3,969 184." Tinie eas cet eee
MIN MES OLA... «ors eismsclecieccte ros PAU E30 5 Om Wiles see Re cis ok 33630, 063), ules Sees aeeeee
California ..... Mittin vaieatae BO; DOr cif cette ere 7,280,000 > Wf chee or eee
73,310,613 12,315,761 33,785,211 14,533,496
Value corn. Value corn. | Value wheat. | Value wheat.
Loss. Gain. Loss. Gain.

OTERO ceranieteriaretatan everatatetatsr stevert [On aiceene sy OO) Os ON ccccia cs dee tet ee $9,177,211
Indiana ssi i aa eese. $2,110,157 AEE EL a REE OEE er 8,181,364
UUDINOUS Storeiscine pales woe ete 15,970, 104 : $1,152;951 + - cease eee
AU GUWiStY Sere ote Ayeus tales ears een ate] Gees S fee tees 622,236 6,894,703 V VIERSE so eee
IMITSSOUTH eeectyae sich chloral L703 27S Callen eee chen eee 420413651 |S eaaes
ORV SHUSE ce isco cepecrerte cite nae BBTEAGS Hcl Meee eee 2962 837)+) ft hee fetes
INGDEASK ais 2c tisas ceteris Dip a460 = lee eee oe nee 2892547. eens ote
WiSeCOnSIN }. sea kchiees Milrar ct DGG. STikre. Aeheckne pee nee eee tee 45187 90 Nee eee
IMME SOTA ean © os eter rareiniese 55,160 3,416:960.- eae eee eee
CALITO ar reeaeikeen tee ene 288,998 8°954400/.. "= I ae ane

$22,961,397 $4,414, 250 $34,043,550 $17,308,575

In nearly all of these states there is a loss of both corn and wheat,

amounting in the aggregate to a net loss of 60,994,852 bushels of corn,
and 19,251,715 bushels of wheat, with a value for the corn of $18,547,-
147, and for the wheat of $16,734,975, or a total loss for both of
$35,282,122.

This deficiency and annual loss, it will be understood, represents the
diminished yield of corn and wheat of these states, through failure on
the part of the soil, from whatever cause or causes, to maintain the
same acreage yield which it had averaged from 1862 to 1870, in-
clusive.

Despite the very great inequalities of productiveness in the several
sections of the country, which are doubtless largely due to inherent

ay

PERCENTAGE YIELD OF EACH CROP IN EACH STATE, ETC. 461

and original differences in the character of ihe soil, to climatic condi-
tions favorable or unfavorable to agricultural production, and in part
also to better agricultural methods obtaining in some sections, it is true
that over large and most productive areas of our country, the fertility
of the soil has suffered appreciable diminution.

If we contrast the New England and Middle States, for example,
with those of the Central or the North-western and Western States, we -
shall find, although the former were but a few years ago surpassed in.
productiveness by the latter, that, during the short period of fifteen or
twenty years, the yield of the latter has fallen off, while that of the
New England and Middle States has increased, so that at present the
acreage yield of these New England and Middle States surpasses that
North-western and Western States and of the Central States.

This is the more remarkable, in view of the fact that these same
lands which have so increased in productiveness have been under the
plow for at least a century longer than those of the West.

This result is probably due largely to inherent differences in the soils
of the several sections. The rocks of New England, which by their
gradual disintegration have formed these lands, will probably be found
richer in the mineral constituents of plant food than the rocks of the
West. But it is beyond question that the early settlers upon these
western lands found them rich in the elements of plant food, which
through ages had accumulated.

The continued cropping and wasteful methods which characterized the
early years of western agriculture appear, however, to have partly, at
least, exhausted these accumulated stores of food, as evidenced by di-
minished crops.

As is well known, the cereals require for their development large
quantities, comparatively, of potash and phosphoric acid, and these
two mineral constituents exist in comparatively very small quantities
in the rocks or in the soil derived from them. It follows, therefore,
that they would naturally be soonest removed from the soil by contin-
ual cropping, and, as is known, this removal has necessitated the re-
storation to the soil of these constituents through the application of
products containing them.

The so-called commercial fertilizers which have within the past few
years been manufactured and sold in the country, especially in the
New England and Atlantic States, are chiefly valuable for these two
constituents.

If we take as a basis for our calculation the returns for 1879, we may
readily determine the amount of these important mineral constituents
which is annually taken from our soil by these crops.

462 SORGHUM.

In the following table this is shown, and the results are in every case
an average of a very large number of separate analyses, by different
chemists often, and of samples of the crop grown in different sections
and different years, so that there can be little doubt but that the results
are very near the exact truth.

The aggregate amount of our principal crops is 106,889,390 tons,
and the total mineral matter present in this crop equals 3,707,223 tons,
and of this mineral matter or ash there are 1,301,224 tons of potash
and 679,901 tons of phosphoric acid. In other words, 53.4 per cent
of the total mineral matter necessary for the production of our crop
of 1879 (and the same is practically true of every other year) was com-
posed of these two constituents, phosphoric acid and potash, which, in
commercial fertilizers, agricultural chemists have agreed are worth re-
spectively 12 and 7 cents per peund.

In the matter of fixing these prices, it must be understood that the
chemists have no more to do than in fixing the price of flour or nails,
or any other marketable commodity. They simply declare, from the
composition aud price of such fertilizing materials as are found in the
market, that, in certain forms and in certain markets, these constitu-
ents may be obtained at such prices.

CROPS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 1879.

Sess Wises a iS)
= SH | \er4 iS =
z Dllen=enher ane a 5 2
ems Sh fy al Pek hy a Bes
2 = =| + eS =. a
| z ° eae he = ea 4 a,
Eg = ma) a os os a we
as a =H Pa : | 3 oa,
2) oa Zils See = a ° a6
= 2 Peale |e & S ro Aa
= L Sc] G8 fe e LD n an?
_ c . oO val co“™- = fo] - ct
c 5 RS -=(e eo S S on
= a Ail te Nea) | SI a a
COTM Sets ate: | 0} Blea! pee ary a 5790 56 3,941,250/36| 1 67/27.8)46.8) 737,799} 201,216] 338,73
Wiheabc ose do ie 13,462,699/94| 2.00/31.3)46.1] 264,254 82,712] 121,821
Oats . ao i §,.820,181)21} 3.30/15 6/21 3} 192,066 29,862) 40,910
th oe eet ae do 93630, 460 56 661,905/21) 2.00/28 8/45 6 13,238 3,813 6,037
IBanleyaers- nes do 40,283, 100)4s 966,.794|43| 2 50/21.2/32.8 24,170 5,124 7,928
3uckwheat ...do..; _18,140,000/48 315,360) 2| 1.6014 8/48 4 5,046 7491 9,442
Potatoes.......do..} 181,626,400)60 5,448,792/39 .41/60.9]18.3} 22,340] 18,605] 4,088
TODACCOr. ss == lbs 391,278.30} . . 195,639/13} 20 80/17 3) 8.1 40,693 7,040] 3,296
Mayscs..c-: tOns 39,493,000 | 35,493,000/34' 6.74/39.8' 6 4) 2,392,228) 952,107] 153,102
Cotton ........ lbs. .}2,867,54(),900) . . 1,183,770 1.30/32.5]10.0 15,389 4,996 1,539

106,889,390| | 3,707,223] 1,301,224] 679,901

In the following table, the value of the potash and phosphoric acid
in the several crops has been calculated, and for the purpose of com-
parison the value of the several crops is given:

VALUE OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID IN CROPS, ETC. 463

VALUE OF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID IN THE CROPS OF UNITED STATES IN

1879.
= uy
& = as }
a = £6 =
3 e E Ee
° Os -09O - a
fo = > Ca » 2
Oe ay a S
= ces, = Oe. = ol
ioe a3 ee - =
ee 22 Zs5 == |2é3
> > a a x
CMiGLT Rone SOC RSet ee Lee $24,170,240] $76,297,120) $100,467,360| $5S80,486,217| 17.3
Vig ert tao eae els A a eee 11,579,680) = 29,237,040} 40,816,720] 497,030,142] Ss 2
WEES wc eae cacu ace es Sans Cas oes 4,180,680 9,818.490 3,999,080] 120,533,294] 11.7
LE SC eel ae Ae ae ee 532,829) 1,448,880 15,507,431) 12.8
ERRBIOSUA POOR ence bs lone das oi ~ a's els 25.45" 717,360} 1,902,700 93.714.444| 11.1
MUG IWHCHE: concer cuscess pet sos oe 104,860 586,080 7,856,191] S88
LP NATUR Ga ag Ne geo ee 1,904,700 976,120 32 79,153,673] 3.6
LUPLTE E27 Se ee ae 985,600 791,040 1.776,640 92.,727,524| 7.8
Pen VEER ao ait sana ie a ec aula aie'sl ah e 133,294,980} 36,744,480} 170,039,460} 339,804,494] 51.5
SULT ee 9 oe es : 699,440 369,560 1,068,800} 242,140,987 4
$178,171,360) $158,171,220 $336, 342,580/$1,919,954,397| 7.0

It will be seen that the total value of potash present in the crops is
equal to $178,171,360, and of the phosphoric acid to $158,171,220, or
together reaching the enormous aggregate of $336,342,580, equal, as
will be seen, to 17.5 per cent of the entire value of the crops.

There is also given in the table the value of the potash and phosphoric
acid present in each crop, as compared with the market value of the
crop, and it will be observed that in this respect there are great differ-
ences between the several crops. For example, while the potash and
phosphoric acid in a bushel of corn is worth 17.3 per cent of the aver-
age market value of the corn, these same two constituents in a bushel
of wheat are worth only 8.2 per cent of the average market value of
the wheat. This result is due to the greater price which the wheat
brings in the market as compared with corn; for the bushel of wheat
contains 9.1 cents worth of these two constituents, while a bushel of
corn contains only 6.5 cents worth.

The small percentage value of these present in the cotton crop is of
course due to the fact that this crop is composed almost wholly of atmos-
pheric constituents, and, so far as the fiber is concerned, makes almost
no demand upon the soil for its production.

The small percentage value in the potato crop is likely to be mis-
leading It is, of course, because so large a percentage of this tuber
is composed of water (some 90 percent). But, owing to the very great
acreage yield of this crop on good land, the actual amount of potash

464 SORGHUM.

and phosphoric acid removed is in reality very great, and, as is well
known, this crop is, especially as regards potash, a very exhausting
crop. |

The hay crop, from every consideration, deserves especial attention,
occupying as it does so large a portion of our cultivated land (19 percent),
constituting one-third the weight of the entire aggregate of our crops,
and removing annually from our lands an amount of potash and phos-
phorie acid almost exactly equal to the amount removed by all the
other crops combined. Its discussion is of the greatest importance.

Owing to its comparatively cheap production, it is sold at a price in-
comparably less than any other crop, and yet, as will be seen by refer-
ence to the.analysis given, which represents the average of 34 of our
native American grasses, the demand it makes upon the soil is very
great. The potash and phosphoric acid present in its ash is, at the
prices we have given, equal to 51.5 per cent of the average selling
price of the hay itself.

Fed to the animal, practically all of these two constituents are re-
turned to the manure pile; since in the animal economy but a trifling
amount of potash is needed, and only so much of phosphoric acid as
will suffice for the production of the bones of the growing animal.

It follows, then, that the manure obtained from the feeding of a
ton of hay, having an average composition such as those analyzed, con-
tains an amount of potash and phosphoric acid which, at the prices
given, is equal to a little more than half the average selling price of hay
in the United States, which was in 1879 given at $9.32. This will be
readily seen to be true, for 2,000 pounds hay with 6.74 per cent of ash
would contain 134.8 pounds of ash. Of this ash 39.8 per cent is pot-
ash, or 53.7 pounds; and 6.4 percent is phosphoric acid, or 8.6 pounds.
Now, 53.7 pounds at 7 cents equals $3.76, and 8.6 pounds at 12 cents
equals $1.03, or together $4.79, which equals 51.4 per cent of $9.32,
the cost of the hay.

What has been said about the feeding of hay to the animal is
equally true of the cereals and other feeding crops. Unlike the vege-
table world, the animal demands little mineral food, mainly phosphoric
acid and lime, which comprises the ash obtained by the cremation of
the animal.

We have, then, obviously one solution as to the important question :
“‘ How shall exhaustion of our lands be prevented?” The answer the
above facts force upon us is: increase so far as possible the home con-
sumption of our agricultural products, and carefully preserve and re-
turn to our lands such portions of those products as are either not fed
to the animal, or, if fed, are not assimilated.

VALUE UF POTASH AND PHOSPHORIC ACID IN CROPS, ETC. 465

None need to be reminded that this practice has been repeatedly
urged upon the farmer, and, indeed, thousands of practical illustra-
tions abound proving that profitable agriculture and productive lands
are closely connected with flocks and herds.

But if our present methods shall continue, and our exportation of
cereals increase, the time must come, unless our experience is to be
wholly unlike that of other countries, when, to increase the produc-
tion of our Jands we ‘must at last have recourse to the same methods
which have long obtained in great Britain and upon the Continent,
and in the New England, Middle, and Atlantic States of our own
country, viz., the application to our soils of those mineral constituents
which now are being so rapidly removed. When that time comes, as
come it assuredly must without some modification of our methods, it
will be found that the profitable production of the cereal crops at the
prices we now obtain for them will be an impossibility. Indeed, al-
ready in many parts of the country the continued production of corn,
as in the past, is found to be almost without profit, and there have
sprung up many factories hoping by its manufacture into other pro-
ducts to increase the profits in its production.

The manufacture and sale of commercial fertilizers has rapidly de-
veloped during the past few years in our country, and already reaches
an annual aggregate of many millions of dollars.

In Great Britain, there was imported in a single year 394,843 tons
of fertilizing materials, worth $20,049,042. Every corner of the earth
and island of the sea has been ransacked, almost, to supply her with
the means for increasing her crops. Within five years from the time
when Liebig called attention to the deposits of guano, her importation
of this most valuable fertilizer reached the enormous amount of 283,300
tons in a single year, and her consumption of superphosphate is esti-
mated annually at 250,000 tons.

But, in addition to this, her importations of cereals and breadstuffs
for consumption within her borders has added greatly to the aggregate
supply of her material for the enrichment of her farming lands. As
a result of this enrichment of the soil, we have seen the productiveness
of these farming lands of Great Britain, within the past thirty years,
enormously increased, until it appears, according to the authority of
one of their foremost agriculturists, they have reached about the last
limit of profitable production in their agriculture.

In connection with this subject of commercial fertilizers, it is inter-
esting to consider the results which have followed the chemical control
which has been maintained over this great industry. All will under-

20 .

466 SORGHUM.

stand that the determination in a commercial fertilizer of the amount
of those constituents of which our various crops are composed, is a
chemical question, and we have, in most of the states, chemists ap-
pointed, whose duty it is to analyze and report upon such fertilizers as
are offered for sale. The result of this chemical supervision gives
abundant evidence that this work of the agricultural chemists of the
country has, even in a pecuniary sense, very greatly added to the
profits of the farmer.

The following table contains the results of analyses of commercial
fertilizers, made by different chemists in different states during the
past thirteen years, and shows the improvement which has taken place
during these years, both in quality and price:

IMPROVEMENT: IN FERTILIZERS.

|
= Average | san eee | Per cent
Years. ot maar Chemist. market ppb of value
aa" 2 price. ; to cost.
NSOGS saat als erolels (aa aes 16 JOHNSON, 22. asc se fe $59 47 | $21 46 | 36
AST Aince «esses oe 15 Brocknerr? 2 <c<serce. 50 07 17 60 30
AQAA rancetnee ete 11 StOLely wees acter 56 36 36 32 64
SE a ee Chee Pree ieee 36 Collier’ =. 25. S225. 22 be Pacey al bec Sone 67
ST Sreceye. cca ee tenes 10 GoOeSSMall ys. ose Set eens is 67
nso) eae ee ae eae 36 DR DREW coc seriace eras 37 40 33 26 89
PSST create epscels ets = 57 Gent ase. seem 6 34079 32 93 95

From the above results, it will be seen that, within the past thirteen
years, the average price per ton has fallen from $59.47 t) $34.79, or
41.5 per cent, while the intrinsic value per ton has increased during
the same period from an average value of $21.56 to $52.93 per ton, or
54.2 per cent. In other words, did the same relation of value t> cost
obtain to-day which existed in 1858, the average cost of the fertilizers
analyzed by Dr. Genth would have been $91.68 per ton, whereas it
is $34.79, equal to 38 per cent only, thus showing that the purchaser
of commercial fertilizers of to-day makes an average saving of 62 per
cent.

Not only has this great saving been effected during the past few
years, but it is to be observed, also, that the basis of valuation of these
fertilizers has also been changed, and in this way increased greatly the
benefit aceruing to the purchaser and consumer of these commercial
products. For example, in 1869, the value generally given to soluble
phosphoric acid was 16} cents per pound, while now the same constitu-
ent is estimated at 12 cents per pound.

The above statement but partially represents the whole truth in this
matter—for, besides these, as one might say, legitimate products, there

IMPROVEMENT IN FERTILIZERS. 467

were sold in these earlier days, less than ten years ago, as fertilizers,
material not worth, in fact, the barrels in which the stuff was packed
for market; as, for example, the ‘‘ What is It,” as it was called, which
in reality was only the powdered gangue rock of an abandoned gold
mine. In another case, harbor mud was put up and sold as a valuable
fertilizer.

But, at the present time, owing to the careful supervision which this
matter receives, it is somewhat rare to meet with such cases of fraud;
although, within a year, my attention was directed to one of my own
analyses of one of these almost worthless products, where the results
of the analysis had been increased one hundred fold by carefully re-
moving the decimal points, in my report of the analysis, two places
to the right, so that the one-tenth of one per cent of potash present
was made to appear as ten per cent, and so throughout the entire
analysis.

Our country has not been alone in this experience, though we have
passed through it much sooner than did England and Germany. In
1855, Professor Voelcker declared *‘ that, if ever there was a time
when the agriculturist had need to exercise special caution in the pur-
chase of artificial manures, that time is the present, for the practice of
adulterating standard fertilizers, such as guanos, superphosphates, and
so forth, has reached an alarming extent.” One of our foremost agri-
culturists has recently declared that, ‘‘ I have come to the conclusion
that there is no way in which the Department of Agriculture can aid
the farmers of this country more than by a careful analysis of the com-
mercial fertilizers sold en the market. The use of these fertilizers has
become a necessity in all the older states—a necessity which is to in-
crease from year to year. There is not one farmer able to teil their
value except by actual trial, and that must be made after his money
is gone.”

In concluding this paper, we would say that, from the data pre-
sented, it appears to be established that, during the past twenty years,
the productiveness of our soil has sensibly decreased; and in those
sections where the fertility has been fully maintained, it hhs been
largely due to the fact that our farmers have resorted to the same
means which, in Great Britain and upon the continent, have abun-
dantly proved sufficient to maintain, and greatly increase, the acreage
yield of crops.

We have also called attention to another method by which further
deterioration of our lands will not only cease, but they may again in
time be restored to their original productiveness.

So long as a foreign demand for our agricultural products exists, and

468 SORGHUM.

increased prices shall be obtained, there is little doubt but that in the
future, as in the past, exportation will continue, and the results are
inevitable. So, too, the system of large farms and large crops in
the aggregate, though with scanty acreage yield, is possible now
with the comparatively scattered population of the great West. It
is more than probable that, when our population shall have increased
from 50 to 100 or 150 millions, we shall be forced to abandon methods
of farming which already are regarded with apprehension by those
who have investigated them.

But there remain other methods than those indicated for the im-
provement of our lands, the discussion of which will be reserved for
another paper at some future time.

ANALYSIS OF SORGHUM AND MAIZE—METHOD, 469

CHAPTER XV.

(a.) Method of analysis of sorghum and maize juices used by the author in
his investigations.

(b.) Comparison of analyses with polarization of juices.

(c.) Specific gravity of juices.

(d.) Tables of average composition of sorghum juices at different specific
gravities.

(e.) Tables of average composition of maize juices at different specific
gravities.

(f.) Preparation of re-agents for analysis of sorghum and maize juices.

ANALYSIS OF SORGHUM AND MAIZE—METHOD.

Since the results which have been given in this volume are practi-
cally those secured by the author, during his investigation of this sub-
ject, as the chemist of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington,
and as the conclusions are drawn from them, the accuracy of the re-
sults and methods can not be too clearly established. This will be
sufficient explanation for the insertion of the following:

At the meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, held at Philadelphia,
in November, 1881, a paper was presented by Dr. Peter Collier, on invitation,
giving, in brief, some of the points brought out in the investigation conducted
by him at the Agricultural Department at Washington, on the subject of sugar
from the sorghum and maize. After the discussion, following the reading of
this paper, a record of the meeting says:

Mr. Silliman offered the following resolution, and moved its reference to the
coun cil:

Resolved, That the subject of sorghum sugar, the experimental results on
which obtained, during the three or four years last past, by Dr. Peter Col-
lier, of the Agricultural Department, submitted in brief, by invitation, to the
Academy, at Philadelphia, in November, 1881, is, in the opinion of the Acad-
emy, of sufficient importance to be referred to a committee of chemists, mem-
bers of this Academy, with the request that they give Dr. Collier’s results and
methods a careful consideration, and report, at their earliest convenience, the
conclusions to which they come.

The resolution of Mr. Silliman was agreed to.

This resolution was favorably reported from the council, and the following
committee has been appointed by the president:

Messrs. Brewer, Chandler, Johnson, Silliman, and J. L. Smith, from the’
Academy. Experts, not members of the Academy: Dr. C. A. Goessman, Mas-
sachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst; and Dr. Gideon E. Moore. 69 Liberty
street, New York.

470 SORGHUM.

It may be well to state, for the information of those interested in
this matter, that the National Academy of Sciences, incorporated by
Congress in 1863, is, by the fundamental law of its organization, con-
stituted the adviser of the government in all matters of science referred
to it for investigation by any department of the public service, and
has often acted in this capacity. |
_ The following is taken from the unanimous report of this committee
upon the results of the above investigation :

The Analytical Methods Employed.

The committee, after a careful examination of the analytical
methods employed by the chemical division of the Department of
Agriculture, find that they are entirely sufficient for the work to be
done. The details of the processes for the volumetric determination of
sucrose and grape sugar are fully exhibited. These methods have
been skillfully adapted to the character of the proximate constituents
of the complex juices to be analyzed, and are among the best known
to science.*

These methods have been employed with precautions adapted to the
exigencies of the special problems for the solution of which the investi-
gation has been instituted. By a judicious system of checks and con-
trol, and by the reduction to the lowest limits of the personal error of
the observer, the accuracy and constancy of the results have been as-
sured as far as, in the present state of our knowledge, such end can
well be attained.

The care with which the methods for the determination of cane
sugar have been tested, and the probable error determined, enlists our
confidence. The reserve with which the chemist has refrained from
accepting the results as conclusive, until, by repetition and variation
in the methods, he had exhausted the means at his command to prove
them to be erroneous, is in the true spirit of scientific research.

The analytical work prior to 1882 comprises the enormous number
of nearly 4,500 analyses of forty varieties of sorghum and twelve varie-
ties of maize, covering all the later stages of development of the grow-
ing plant. Such an amount of analytical work as is implied in the
careful conduct of nearly five thousand quantitative analyses by the
most rigid system and subdivision of labor in the work—a system in

* The limits of error, as shown to the committee from a considerable
number of unpublished determinations, sustain the conclusion that the
method employed for the estimation of cane and grape sugars was excep-
tionally accurate, and more subject to a minus error of 0.2 per cent on a
10 per cent solution of pure sugar, than to a plus error.

ANALYSIS OF SORGHUM AND MAIZE—METHOD. 471

which each assistant was, for the time, devoted exclusively to one thing,
e. g-, determinations of density by the balance, volumetric determin-
ations of glucose and sucrose, polarizations, ash determinations, total
solids, ash analyses, analyses of the seed, quantitative determinations
of acids and other proximate constituents of the juicies at seventeen
different stages of growth of the plant and after maturity. By this
system each co-worker became thoroughly expert as a specialist in his
own duty; and it was thus possible, by this system, to test the accuracy
of the work by submitting identical samples in duplicate and separate
numbers for analysis by the same and by different co-workers—a crucial
test of verification.

The committee have critically examined the work done in this way,
and the details show a suprising agreement.

Method of Analysis.

Tt is obviously of the first importance that the results of analyses
given should have been obtained by reliable methods.

Every precaution has been taken to guard against error and to con-
trol the results.

In the first place, it may be remembered that each assistant, in the
routine work assigned him, was necessarily free from all prejudice as
to what result he was to expect, for each sample of juice, syrup, or
cane examined was known only by a number, and this was known
only to one who himself performed no analytical work.

Every questionable result was at once repeated, and many dupli-
cate samples of juice, under different numbers, and without the know-
ledge of any of those engaged in the analyses, were from time to time
analyzed. ;

Each new lot of either of the reagents employed im analysis was
carefully tested, and indeed nothing was omitted which would tend to
accuracy in work.

Those familiar with chemical methods, and considermg the vast
amount of work actually performed in these analyses, are aware that
absolute accuracy is not to be expected; but whatever errors there may
be are certainly within very narrow limits, and the general results fur-
nished in the foregoing analyses may be confidently relied upon as
being practically near approximations to the truth.

The Analytical Processes for the Examination of the Canes.

One or more stalks of the variety of sorghum to be examined were
selected in the experimental field, and, after recording the stage of de-
velopment and general appearance of the canes, a number was affixed

A472 SORGHUM.

by which they could be distinguished during the remainder of the ex-
amination. After being cut and brought to the laboratory, the
length of the stalk from butt to the extremity of the head, its entire
weight, and diameter at the butt, were taken. It was then stripped
and topped, as in the usual way of preparation for the mill, and again
weighed. The ‘‘stripped stalk” was then-expressed in a three-roll
mill, and the juice collected in a weighed flask and weighed to deter-
mine ‘‘ per cent of juice” in the stripped stalk. The specific gravity
was determined with a piknometer, after an interval of an hour to al-
low the escape of air bubbles and the subsidence of suspended starch.
For the determination of the ‘ total solids” in the juice 2°" were ac-
curately measured into a weighed porcelain dish 6 to 7°™: wide and 1. 5
to 2°: deep, the bottom of which was previously covered with coarse
sand toa depth of .75°™: to insure complete desiccation. After twelve
to fourteen hours’ drying at 85° to 90° C., there was no further loss
of water. The weight of the residue in grams, divided by twice the
specific gravity, gave the per cent of “ total solids.”

For the determination of glucose and sucrose, 100°™*- of the juice
were taken and defecated by the addition of 25°™* of solution of basic
acetate of lead in water. The filtrate from the lead precipitate,
which was perfectly clear, was, in many instances, polarized, and then
devoted to the methods of volumetric analysis. Owing to the degree
of dilution, every 10°™*: of filtrate represented 8°™*: of juice.

For the determination of glucose 10°™* of the filtrate were taken ;
for sucrose, 5°™*, The portion for glucose was diluted with about 50
to 75°™* of water, and about the same amount of Fehling’s solution
added. The porcelain dish containing the whole was placed upon a

water bath kept at such a temperature by steam, that the liquid in the
dish rose to about 75° C., but no higher. After an interval of thirty
minutes, the dish was removed and allowed to cool. The portion for su-
crose was diluted with 100°™- of water, 5°™* of hydrochloric acid (sp.
gr. 1.05) added, and the mixture heated in a porcelain dish on a steam
bath for a half hour, the temperature not rising above 90° C. The in-
version being complete, an excess of Fehling’s solution was added, de-
pending in amount on the maturity of the cane, and the liquid allowed
to remain thirty minutes longer on the bath, after which it was re-
moved. When the suboxide of copper had completely settled, in the
case of both sucrose and glucose, the supernatant liquid was decanted
into a beaker placed in front of each dish, and hot water was poured
over the suboxide. This process was repeated, pouring the first liquid
decanted into a second beaker, and so on until it could be poured away
free from any oxide, and the original dish was nearly free from alkali.

+ Yee. 7 a's ‘i =
oe. ee, ot
i a ae 7 i.
‘ ANALYSIS OF A, Sie 473

All the wash a were then passed in order through a filter, taking
care to bring as little as possible of the suboxide upon the filter.

The suboxide on the filter and in the beakers was dissolved in an
acid solution of ferric sulphate, free frem nitric acid and ferrous salt,
or more conveniently in an acid solution of ammonia ferric alum
(which is more easily obtained free from impurities), and poured upon
the suboxide in the original dish. All the copper suboxide being dis-
solved, it is brought into a liter flask, diluted with water to about 500°™*,
and acidified strongly with sulphuric acid. It is then ready to be
titrated in the usual manner for the amount of reduced iron, the num-
ber of *™*- of permanganate used giving easily the weight of glucose
represented by the suboxide of copper, as shown in report for 1879, p. 66.

This method for determining glucose depends upon the following facts:

1. That two molecules (360 parts by weight) of glucose (C,H,,0,)
will reduce from Fehling’s solution’ five molecules of cuprous oxide
(5 CuO).

2. That the five molecules of cuprous oxide thus precipitated will
reduce in acid sol. five molecules of ferric sulphate (Fe,(SO,),) to
form ten molecules (1,520 parts by weight) of ferrous sulphate
(FeSO,), as is explained by the following equation:

f5Ca,0) , f5 Fes (S O1)s) , 5 H2804) _ §10 CuSO.
VTi5 parts f * U 2,000 parts fs * | 490 ae (1,595 paris f¢
10FeSO.) , f 5H20
J

1,520 parts f 1 90 parts

The ten molecules of ferrous sulphate thus formed, will decolorize one mole-
cule (316.2 parts by weight) of potassium permanganate (K, Mn, O,), thus:

10 Fes O.\ , §K. Mn, 0,) , f8H,8 0.) , £5 Fe. (SOx)3),
1,520 parts / T3162 parts f "| 784 parts f * 2,000 parts f°
f2MnS0.,\,/ K,80, 1/5 8 8H,0
\ 302 parts f * (174-2 parts f ~ 1144 parts f

By following this explanation, it appears that two molecules of glucose are
exactly represented by one molecule of potassium permanganate, as will ap-
pear from the following, by omitting the second and third members of the
series. Thus: ,

f§2C, Hi2 0,6) = Ca, O71 __ f10FeS 0, \_/s K, Mn, 0;
(360 parts jf 715 parts ~~ (1,520 parts j ~~ (316.2 parts

In other words, 316.2 parts by weight of potassium permanganate are equiva-
lent to 360 parts of glucose, or one part of permanganate corresponds to 1.1385
parts of glucose. If, then, the amount of permanganate decolorized be multi-
plied by 1.1385, it will correctly represent the amount of glucose present. So
much for the theoretical explanation. In practice, it is found that each chem-
ist must determine for himself his titration error by estimations made upon.
sugar of known purity.

This individual error is due to the difficulty in determining the exact end re-

474. SORGHUM.

action; experience has shown, in the course of this work, that the point where
the color of the permanganate barely appears in the rapidly agitated liquid, is
nearly identical with the true end reaction. Some operators carry the titra-
tion a little further, until a faint rose tint is permanent for about two seconds.
Each man who has done this work, has carefully determined his titration error,
and all figures submitted have been corrected therefor. Theiron solution works
best if very strongly acidulated with sulphuric acid. The most convenient
strength for the permanganate solution, is 4.392 grams to the liter, equal to .005
grams glucose for each cubic centimeter.

In order to determine what errors there may have been in estimat-
ing glucose and sucrose by this method, the following experiments
were carried out. Every portion of Fehling solution used, was heated
by itself in the steam bath for an hour, to determine if it remained
unreduced in absence of sugar. In all cases it was quite unchanged.
Several solutions of dry granulated sugar, containing about .10 per cent
of impurities, were made of such a strength that every 5°: contained
.5000 grams of pure sucrose, or, on inversion, .5263 of inverted sugar.

Of solution No. 1, four portions were measured out of 5°"’- each, and
submitted to the usual course of analyses, with the following result :

re cs

Blog| &

hao (eee

; a p= =I

Experiment. a 2 = =

5 a a 2

S rs) 3) =

pS baa ead > 5}

& o o =
INOS AIS Poteet oss he see rescue ote e a Nee uc Po eae note, WEES See ouch Sere Cine rae tetera ..| 104.2] .5210) .5263] 98.99
INO ete the itis Meme Penienmch make ie hei ince Mi TRPOe oe een ater ye nsteae 103.4} .5170} .5263] 98 24
BN Op Biyaveic reer Saecsahece eee ecaretereyeae re tae s Wie Shays, oSeete SeaSS boa c MS ane etevate Ne OVAL 104 4} .5220] .5263] 99 18
EIN seis acces since retgpe sista ote eleie/e he esual) fils 0 6019.5 Sie ioeeraca apeyapete elmieteter wk sree 104.5} .5225 263} 99.28
PNR EE ONO aA GR Ode cbc) S UOC CUD SEO Aree eC Or oO Cette fate 98.93

The specific gravity was found by the piknometer to te 1.054. The
solution contained, therefore, 9.67 per cent of sugar. By titration we
find 9.57 per cent of sugar, and polarization of the solution gave 9.63
per cent of sucrose.

Of the solution No. 2, nine portions were taken of 5°°: each, to six
of which (Nos. 1-6) 5’: of the usual dilute acid were added, and to
the remaining three, 10°™:; otherwise the usual course of analysis was
pursued. The entire lot was carried through simultaneously on the
same steam bath. The results were as follows:

ANALYSIS OF SORGHUM AND MAIZE—METHOD. 475
= = | 2
3 a — ro)
- te al
Be Sy Lee
av ed _ —
z =< ° C_: noe
Experiment, - sen) wey | ae eS
483 |.o* | es
; 9 | 3 oo
° | mH een
8 a (Ss) =)
‘o) wm | a
MBO GLE ice oz a's Sc «. ou OR ee ee oe Oat dS Poe SSA RRS | weer 104.5} .5225| 99.28] 9.60
CSA AE A SIE a oa te ORO Ae bee RE” ORs Sh a ee ee ee ee 105.3] 5265 100 10) 9 67
SS ree ears ao bate eile ate Sere ae eA oh Rada a ROR SE ce ciom Sens RE cee a 106.6] .4330 101.26) _9 79
TNC ye ee ee PES Ba SE ee ala a ate iy ore pat 108 3) 4415.102-88] 9.95
TC ee ee Dicdinte Ree tl ar Ra Ripe TT 1 PRE ee ele © 107 4) .5370!102 02] 9 <6
ING Giant cab ees tein ti a. 1 Se eee es its ean _..} 108 1} .5405;102 70} 9.93
1d eee ARS Oho ee OOS GOA TOROS aii) See ASOT TARDE seca to 104 6) .5230) 99 38] 9 61
EARS ee ee Pea LRN ALS RUA ad RS gE AR foc 104 4) 5220) 99 18] 9 59
ING NODA er ks CRS Behe eee RE 2 8) ee ee ees aaa CR Hh 105.2) .5260) 99 94) 9.66
ASVOTACES HS hy Bien abe ech cck etch ener ects SoeEE Otte WeSE RSE eee. [cae 100.74) 9.74

The specific gravity was found to be 1.034, and the per cent of
sugar in the solution was therefore: By calculation, 9.67; by titra-
tion, 9.74. An estimation of total solids, gave 9.70 per cent. The
addition of the larger amount of acid, apparently, had the effect of
lowering the per cent of sucrose found. In no case was the error in
the final result sufficiently large to be of account in work on such a
large scale.

Fifteen portions of 5%: each were taken from solution No. 3. Its
specific gravity was 1.035, and the per cent of sucrose 9.66.

Submitted to analysis in the usual way, the results were:

|
119 ‘
25 |g | 3 | 2
5 rs S|
ee | eo) eos
Experiment. re Z ° 2 a 3

Pere Wee We
PAC: pein pee Os
2) Oo Dn Ay

bE ve ek ec UM RRR EERO SCS EGS via hn bonsuky aside sop meen mimes 107.0

MNS Se ke Sr Em SEM Rate n SP remain a tien ot malate arate aisle, =: PetRS A Soe Sindee ole 108.0

OTe a ees eaves snot metre RISC eens Rio ene, bro es GkS elope 2a Biaalehe vee 105.0)

BANS Aap Pe Cisco News apie erate ater een cite ie ie arate = einen sicie e miele ma eva sister otaieish ale ae 106 0

NEED) MIS 52) 5 cole eels on See ee ie ne Pc ia pes toeia e/a de Oca eee wtoe ea ees 107.0

TRG EON eas. ct CURL cine 6 eco wean Sadan se etemasesctctl 106.0

ASR n Se cc och cae me SRE hs Sk a at creas sawn oe Uaeetebors oats e mels 108 7

REGS Pere os A ee eee ee. bir Nas BONE cc RGSS Soe we Sci 106 §

RD tee Ao NC eh IER. F Cceneicaie spittin seit ss 106 3

TKO TE Deo Gar SB ease oho 0 a EAR SAR aR CRIN Te SA Bier or 106.5

BNO ae eer oes. Fok cee eae ERE cree s PER ~ ee wide de, tos Ives oie 106 §

Sta sen ES Oe ins = cn ee) Lee EIR PRIS citiarete ciele o SintstniGtt’ ain aiemwieis ofa, e"aic 106 3

in? ee A | REAR OSS 2 SOR I oe ae 106 0

Ta eee ey Se ER ise Sie eee ere recile rs aisue te eleidinaesis's\s sR wats 104 9

TITRA Re a eR Bess kets adie) 50 Aan te Bich GOR REO UC OOO IE ea ait 105.3

VTA oo ante aye se ae Pdacia shite re teins sarees cele Se oom mene e eileen eee ke
By chiculation .....:-...5 s+.5 Se aeiget Ro SEER om catiain Sbiaie'oas who fh eae a hele bm imem ims bs 325 9.66

By SAMO oaks. Saat ates ese etes vacctaltaaesests Pr ctthes Se eisseiene PESTS ER . E8 e DEI aes 9.77

476 SORGHUM.

The results of thirty determinations may be stated as follows:

Per cent.
Sugar solution containing. .......... --...--+ 21 see seeee ener piriete foce/sinte wrereter startet eter 9 67
No.1. Four determinations, by titration (average) ec cas 2 SEE Oe ter Per Ee 9.57
No. 2. Nine determinations, by (ALAN AKO LN Gr a) thes) in ier Aone Meee eOnOogSno toot 2: 9.74
No. 3. Fifteen determinations, by titration (average)..-.-....--..22.5 2.5 cece ores 9.77
No: 1 One polarization) (© 0). 2) se eat ys rage ote Ec cinisialew 22> ine eiole teeters 9 63
No. 2. One determination Of tOtAlbeOMdS,.chateonae el acions soaked hee epee ae 9.70
Th @UGWeSheLes TEE Sia ce ie aad ore cen ae ee eee a BP re ieteayetarst ch cnaie nee serayaie ate 5 eral cores 9.50
Mie mip hes resUl bays = tet nee eee pain tlele op eee e letale gb arsie.« dalgae tees 9.98

It may be assumed, therefore, that the greatest error is not more than
minus one-tenth or plus three-tenths of one per cent, which, in the work
under hand, can not be considered excessive.

In order to have a check on the process, when applied to juices as
well as pure sugar solutions, polarizations were made in a large num-
ber of cases. The following table gives a series of average results for
several years.

COMPARISON OF ANALYSIS WITH POLARIZATION OF SORGHUM JUICES.

In the examination of sorghum juices in 1882, there was taken,
for the purpose of controlling analytical results, the polarization of the
juices. In all, 855 juices from the several varieties of sorghum under
cultivation, and in every condition of development, were thus exam-
ined, and the average results are as follow:

Per cent.
Sucrose: Dye atalvsisicn sence aus esciiteu ee cers ice emt cereale sisieuqiare clo eis ort eect ete 10 938
SUCKOSE OY OLARIZALION sete cee == to ieyse fees ae eee rete see ares eaten oto aera ee 10.969

Or as 100: 100,265.
The first 548 analyses made gave even closer results, viz.:

Per cent.
GUCTOSE) DY AMAL YSIS stig feo saie Sarcia = eee wits sete heen iste he slots aves ara ce mantel oie ae 10.585
SWELOSEH DV TOOL AIZEN t LOIN oct eeu etl t= ra eerily -/ote eos eer oe nie la oo toseieteec toe ee tee ee 10.577

Or as 100.074: 100.

The above results prove that the analytical method employed in
these investigations is as accurate as could be desired, and that the re-
sults secured by this method are entitled to entire confidence in their
substantial accuracy.

In 1881, the average results of 697 analyses of sorghum and 103
of maize juices gave:

Per cent.
Sinerose by sm aly SiSee eerie risers to te clare lela tere eters eter fo iris feiate we eee 10.598
SECLOSCADN POLATIZ Bill OD a fecslayeitee lam ciate or ramsey ciate wala > neie aie) oe el ote = Sh Jasnle eueestints irre 10.161

Or as 100: 95.9.

The following table shows the results of analyses and polarizations
of the juice, arranged according to the per cent of sucrose in the
juices, from 1 to 19 per cent in the sorghums, and from 1 to 14 per
cent in the maize juices. It will be seen that the agreement is as
close between analysis of juices poor in sugar and comparatively rich-
est in glucose, as between the best juices. This is very important, as

a

COMPARISON OF ANALYSIS WITH POLARIZATION, ETC A477

indicating the absence of any optically active constituent in the normal
juice, other than sucrose.

SUMMARY OF ANALYSES AND POLARIZATION OF SORGHUM AND MAIZE JUICES.

Sorghum. Corn.
Number of Sere Sucrose by | Sucrose by | Numberof} Sucrose by | Sucrose by
analyses. Ls ‘| analysis. |polarization.| analyses analysis. |polarization.
Per cent
AiR yalw stale s 2 Lt9 22 7.00 5.17 7 Bae SES 3.24 2.7
chy S Se eae 2to 3 11.09 10.19 ap eek, 4.78 4 42
a Ros 3to 4 62.03 56.14 Me misrers ee 25.30. 22.07
18 4to 5 $2.29 (pss 1 Sten ees 59.16 56 .20
| ee oe 5to 6 222.7 220.55 7) AEA TS 114.53 110.83
Rhea TE Syke ci 6to 7 337 34 332 .25 (ee nes 45 41 43.53
41 7to 8 311.86 297 .21 dj eS 127.51 120 59
47 se epee ee 8to 9 310 02 291.40 65825. 259: 49.73 54.75
Ae te ee = 9 to 10 377 .92 393.74 Re 38 .72 34.18
i, 3 a ee See 10 to 11 451.66 443 50 5 eae ote 159 .27 | 159 47
eee lito 12 680.81 652.07 Ree 68.85 65.10
be) Ae ecroee 12 to 13 1009 14 946 99 eis agen 12.55 11.74
it) eS eee 13 to 14 1272 63 1257.19 AGAR hoe 26.40 21.68
paso a ae 14 to 15 890.76 Sap OS FAA ae Slee, terete tae ee Ss
AS Rt Pas oe ee 15 to 16 746 51 GOSEET +5 Nc Fas Aaa at sy ead eat he wos RL eee oe coe
Te SOO OCE 16 to 17 412 34 SL Se MAS (ER ee eae cal| I tei) |. paris Peer Pe Se
DO fides S site 17 to 18 436 .26 AS ahs 285 eoaieknn i oe aeton hicihehe tes Paeeeee et eee
Gus vost 18 to 19 110.53 TORO AP screenees tae ae ea eee eet eee ee
QU Re inns raibeas vixcee oe 7,732.98 7,421.16 10522 ae 745 48 707 30
BRStiOs Alc. ocr Gee G5 FOG Cam Non ace So Bae 1u0 94.87
MAIZE JUICES IN 1880.
PATETHGOE OL ONELVSES sass setae ok Dank buses cas Sin ees Cow de shiek tapes eee ue aan seen 17
AV ETHEG SUCTOSE, DY PDIALIZAGON. oer. op neice ce! seni e wcities wpe elece em Assis's'itee cee 7.48 per cent.
MVGRnEC SUCLOSE DRHHALYSIN 22-2... nal avscsm.ce hse cosa des cave ee eos coe. 7.41 per cent.
SORGHUM JUICES IN 1880.
eh OTOL AT AL YSCO yer serie eee ne soca re oe ee eee a Vasa Waar Sela seein . 40
AiVGraceCsCrose DY MOlaliZatiOM. >. 25: voc oc aurea cos dee ce cee ok count 12.68 per cent.
Average sucrose by analysis .................. Sams eae aioe yarrow a 12.85 per cent.

In 1879, this comparison was, between sorghum and sugar-cane, as
follows:

Average su-
Number of | crose by
analyses. volumetric

Average su-
crose by po-

analysis. lariscope.

Per cent. Per cent.
OIE CT occ 236d ss ash a tmetea sins one fos eelass wt 22 13.26 13.15
PSE CRITIC oo Saco onan oe eee aerate tne en sere m5 oh 6 13.30 13.09

In 1881, the number of these comparisons was very greatly in-
creased, being between 697 analyses of sorghum and 103 analyses of
maize.

478 SORGHUM.

Calling the value of the sucrose, as found by analysis, 100, the value
indicated by the polariscope was 94.87 for the maize, and 95.96 for the
sorghum, The nearly constant difference of about 4 per cent less su-
crose, as determined by these polariscope tests, than was found by cu-
prous precipitation, was, for the time, attributed to a portion of invert
sugar, and to various causes, which probably were misconceptions, see-
ing that this discrepancy disappears almost entirely in the results of
1882, viz.: Number of analyses and polarizations 517, of some forty

varieties of sorghum.

Total polarization, 5,440.76; average percentage, 10.524.

Total by analysis, 5,433.72; average percentage, 10,510.

10.510: 10.524= 100: 100.13.

Each result of the 517 is of record, but the general result given
suffices. The conclusion seems justified, that any differences existing in
the polarization and analyses with normal fresh juices, are only differ-
ences incidental to the work, and are not caused by any active rotatory
substance present other than sucrose. If the juice is abnormal, very
wide differences may exist. This was conspicuous in the mill work at
the department in 1881, both in juices and syrups.

The comparisons in 1879-1881, between large numbers of deter-
minations, by the cuprous precipitation and by polariscope, appeared
to sustain the opinion that there was a pretty constant difference in
favor of the volumetric method, 7. e., that the polariscope, for some
unknown reason, failed to detect as Lat sugar as was demonstrated
by the method of precipitation. These differences are set forth below,
together with the very satisfactory results of over five hundred similar
determinations made in 1882, from which it clearly appears that the
discrepancy formerly noticed is apparent and not real.. This conelu-
sion removes any doubt which hung over the practical value of the
optical method; and this is practically of much moment, for in the
rapid operations of the sugar plantation, during the pressure of the
crop, the polariscope is nearly the sole dependence of the superintend-
ent in judging, many times daily, how his juices are running.

The conclusions which may be drawn from our experiments are,
that, in experienced hands, the relative results are to be entirely relied
upon; and, when the conditions which have been detailed are followed,
the absolute results are also satisfactory.

7
7

5
5

Duplicate Analyses of Sorghum Juices.
For the purpose of controlling the results of analyses, there were
made, during the seasons of 1881-1882, very many analyses of sor-
ghum juices in duplicate.

COMPARISON OF ANALYSIS WITH POLARIZATION, ETC. 479

In no case did those who were engaged in the analyses have any
reason to suspect that they were at work upon duplicates, the samples
having been prepared and sent into the laboratory under their several
numbers, as being individual specimens of juice. Thus, Nos. 105 and
113 were duplicate juices, and so on; Nos. 107 and 115 being also
duplicates.

It will be observed that the agreement is quite as close as could be
expected in work of such a character, and that the average results
iven at the close of this table show that in the analytical work there
is nothing to cause doubt as to the substantial accuracy of the work
recorded.

DUPLICATE ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES, 1882.

oak | ole
$ | 5 |
Number of | & Numberof! |
analysis. ° cS) cS) analysis ° co) o |
Store| ae Ase Sleds. | 3
— : Ke — + = &
vo o M = a I oS & tas a
Baleares (oe 2/3/8123)
n GS | n Dn vi H ro) m | w rw
| | |
cL ay ee ae 1.042) 5.40) 2.72) 1.69) 3.06 Be ete 1 1 042) 5 65) 313 87] 3.20
Cl ee 1.034] 3.25) 3.73} 1.3 4 24 MD 3 2: 1 034]. 3.26] 3.83] 1.25] 38.72
AO er saa cls 1038) 327) 4.69}, 1.29) 5728 |} 114... ..- 1.038] 3 27] 4 86} 1.21) 5.24
LT Seas aoe 1.053] 3.38} 8.30) 1.14) -8.01 AIG Seer ces 1.053} 341] 7.82] 1.57] 7.90
133... 1.072) 2.10} 12.96) 3.07) 13.44 ISG. Soo, 1.073} 1.93] 12.81) 3-27] 13 53
Mise 5 sia: 1.068} 1.15] 11.79} 3.26] 12.06 160c te aick 1.069} 1 16) 11.59) 3 03} 12.14
MEME eects or 1 063) 2.79) 10.06} 2.55! 10 21 SOY 325 -| 1.063] 2 92) 10.23] 2.21] 10 28
MRT CNe ave ats 1.072 93] 13.31] 3.28) 13 60 E Lis eee es 1.073 93} 18.31] 3.54] 13 60
if Ce SSeS 1.057] 3.23) 8.37] 2°35] 8 68 5 Po eee 1.057} 3.18} 8.26) 2.29] 8 69
aS oe ero 2 = 1 056; 2 02) 8.92) 2.63) 9.36 i ES UEP eme 1 056) 2 05) 8.78} 2 45) 9.3
WG Bios = rs 2,5 1 O88} 1.57) 12.03} - 2.64] 12.44 49 ioe 1.068} 1.53) 11.96) 2.70] 12 55
Los i pe 1.057} 1.48} 8.48} 3.41) 8.54 |] 183........ 1.057} 1.49) 8 45) 3.09] 8.42
ea ets ah 1.058} 2 13] 10.41)° 2.50)..... DO2 Seo 1 059} 2 18) 9.99]......] 10 48
UST ee 4.057] *3°29)) 8.50) 2°24) 2... US bot 1.056} 3.29) 7.91) 2 75| 8 47
Ueto aS aoaaS 1.069} 2.44] 11.65) 2 79 ye 1.069) 2.41] 11.10) 2.88! 12.05
aN ca wees 1 056) 2.42) 8 86] 2.24) 9.01 205 1.056] 2.46] 8.70) 2.55).....
2 OS eee ere 1.038 67] 5.72) 2.92 yl ee 1.038 67) 5.93] 2.88)......
i Seed 1.071} 1.05] 13.15) 3.27] 13.44 2 eer 1071) 1.12] 13.37] 3 26] 18.48
oy AG See 1.069) 1.89) 12.48] 2.73) 12 91 227 |. 1.069; 1.87) 12 73] 2 58] 12 02
SAG. sos 1.073] 1.82] 12 94] 3 20) 13.68 72 ae 1.073] 1.54) 13.50) 2.76] 13.76
SY 1.071 .84] 13.39) 2.98] 15 53 Cala! Wee 1.071 89) 13.73] 2.98] 13 48
MoE aes Soe 1.071] 1.19] 12 54) 3.40) ‘13 23 7] 230........] 1.071 -93] 11.11] 5.15} 13.48
2 lh 1.061} 4.11] 8 22); 281) 8.7 78 [ERS An 1.061} 404] 8 49) 2.54] 8 64
219 -| 1.061} 1.64) 10.31} 3.24) 10.93 DS Bi aiiats os --| 1.062] 1.68] 10.95) 2.56] 11.02
1.435] 54.06/233.53) 60.43/195 34 1.439) 53.86)253.04| 60 37/194 .59
Average.. ./1.0598} 2.252! 9.729) 2.627|10/281 || Average. .|1.0600) 2.244] 9.710) 2.625)10 242

480 SORGHUM.

LIST OF DUPLICATE TESTS MADE IN SORGHUM ANALYSES, 1881.

oH uw 5 Co) oH
OF, | CEB | Sz] oS Ss
= 2 DO ~ cote C=)
goo a25 Soe BS ye iS) shee =
, oud O6n oss oro ous
Number of analysis, oo Say | Saag) Css Sch)
HOS HOd |o58] Pan HS
Ree | ges | cw & a %
7.33 7.02 2.68 1.045 2.47
Tees 25 2.75 1.047 2.54
SRTO tea ee eee 2.61 1.035 2.04
10.67 ee 2 61 1.030 2.46
16 35 15 48 0.12 1.046 —1.42
Oe 20) 0 || eer GAA Senses as i] et eeeeee ene fe5
11.48 11.95 2.05 1.064 2.26
11 75 11.06 PAT 1.063 1.84
9 55 9 00 3.95 1.061 Terje
O27 8.94 4.21 1.060 2.00
5.4 4.95 2.73 1 041 2 06
5.34 5 00 2.91 1 040 2.08
CPA 6 58 ede 1.049 Dy 2
7.05 6.59 2.84 1.047 0 71
7.59 7.25 2 03 1 O47 2.36
7.28 7.29 2.34 1.047 2 32
5.34 ’ We 6.17 1.054 PAatlie
5.88 5 36 6:22 1.054 1 75
5.62 : 3. 3.19 1 044 2.49
5.21 5.06 3.49 1.043 2.42
4.14 3.80 5 44 1.044 2.24
3.98 3.74 5.77 1.044 2.08
4.11 2.72 5.16 1.039 1.46
3.29 2.80 30.47 1.038 1.49
2.03 1.29 5.93 1.086 1.59
iy 4 12-4 6.03 1.036 1.95
9.02 9.18 3.02 1.058 2.75
9.49 9.21 2 82 1.057 2.87
4 00 7.25 2.38 1.047 5 98
7.32 7.21 2 42 1.047 2.67
6 68 6.09 2.61 1 046 2.75
6 16 6.18 2.6) 1.046 3.01
OR a eteciccttele.= 5 95 1 045 2 41
7.0 07 BR eae eae 5 86 1.045 1.3
3.13 2.76 5.36 1 010 ZN api
3.15 2 85 5 44 1.040 2.79
7 02 6.95 2 62 1 048 4 76
TOIL Wale cerst sete? t= 2.55 1.049 6.79
DESH MOR Lia sis eee 2 1 59 1.041 4 45
5.49 5.31 1.50 1 O41 4 96
3 03 2 87 3 51 1.034 3 80
3 Ol 2.93 3.39 1 08 4.03
5 64 4.32 2.34 1 048 4.29
5 94 4.40 2.25 1.048 4.27
14.53 14.15 03 1.044 —0.20
AGW ents eras Soler : PRK, Mis
5 384 otee 3.56 1.045 8.10
Lait Ife) are ? 3 69 1 043 2.92
5 92 5.71 218 1.089 2.23
5 64 we all 1 089 3.07
4 58 4.15 2.53 1.037 212
4.92 4 25 2 53 1 038 2.90
opiate) |e 8 66 1 041 3.00
4 29 5 75 3 66 1 0410 2 62
6.27 5 27 3.24 1 045 2.21
5 81 5.36 3.16 1.046 3.12
9 45 9 09 1 42 1 055 4 53
9.47 8 84 1 39 1 055 4.92
4 68 4 23 2 64 1.039 3 55
4.36 4 24 2.70 1.040 3.51
7.58 7.02 2.68 1.049 1.65
8.03 6 98 2 86 1 049 1 16
7.66 7 02 ASTI 1 050 1 76
11 41 12.21 4 03 1.069 1.63
12.06 iit sy) 415 1 069 095
12 70 10 67 2.73 1 064 0.63
12.25 10.65 2 70 1 064 155
4.43 4.01 5.14 1.044 2.49
4.19 3.72 5.21 1.043 2.58
3 84 3.02 6.24 1 045 2.31
3.88 3 1l 6.25 1 044 1 74
6 99 7 60 2.20 1.019 3.05
7.32 7.30 2.32 1.049 —1.53

COMPARISON OF ANALYSIS WITH POLARIZATION, ETC. 481

_ LIST OF DUPLICATE TESTS MADE IN SORGHUM ANALYSES, 1881.— Continued.

me =) 5 on pe
So. take (Seals. | Se
Bef | S08 | B92] Sed | Bos
Number of analysis. Sea | ose | 88s) sey | Sue
S85 | 532 [se31 a> | es*
Gat. | Gee pre be Le
PUN ers Sade = how awia s celeste edie nies ie aa 10 23 9.60 3.83 | 1.054 —0.78
EE A ae eee eee STS ee ee 95d §.93 2.17 | 1.054 2.74
= Da | SR Oe 15.065 | 14.67 | 1.04 | 2.079 272
«TE SRR i OSS Se Ea 1515 | 1482 | 110 | 1.079 2.48
DS Se SRS ee SCE OR bE Sh a ee et ee 12 44 12.14 1.98 | 1.069 2.55
G79... - e520 eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee 12,22 12.12 1.98 1 069 2.54
FCA SRR RIS AISe?) JC. 8 SES bo oe ates 12.79 12.19 2.06 1.071 2.42
He Be gobo ohio 95 Seo SNS Soe see geee TAG MS ee 2. 2.03 1.071 2.78
DI ASS 5 SA eee 12.07 10.33 1.39 1.064 1.58
10 REGAN S Fa AS GIS, Wo Dae ee 10.93 10.27 1.3) 1.064 2.90
TUS sa Ga Baggs hb [Ssh Sa Se Boss 10.15 8.88 4.29 1.062 1.60
Oe OE SSE ee ss nS poms 9.64 8.88 4.47 1.062 1.99
Os. Be aes owe sios Soha tears ssows test eek 12.15 9.73 3.63 1.065 0.51
SRNR ee rN ore ste ne es atte oS hen Oe we a 10.55 9.72 3.67 1.065 2.21
a PER hs ee = ete DN Sone Siete a bclaie 2 5.29 8.09 2.28 1.940 2.33
VED oes wba Ao Soi SES SI Se Ae eS es 5.16 4.73 2 42 1.040 2.51
Els o3 5o5SheGee eee otr ao Saneek Skere saneeng ode: Via [By ae, Sage 4.42 1.055 2.04
LU pec ES Ae OUD ORS oes nee tae 8.26 7.90 4 52 1.058 2.15
ec iseie ist aiats Beamon Mace ies eeis Rios 9.20 8.56 1.50 1.050 1.81
“EEL 5 Se Ne ER en ee oS CO rg oe 13.60 8.69 1.46 |; 1.049 —2.48?
genes ere asst? 4k pees ews de ee sto ee 2 ph OS eed eer Oe Se 1.39 1.078 6.03
PR get ieat < cts series ew wen ae os Posies a RE ad (a 1.21 1.077 4.31
Bpmepee onl caer eae Rie aac oa sie Renee ces 154% 15.14 1.69 1.082 2.54
TEES Ss ne 208 Soe aoe: Oo es Se anes 2 15.87 15.31 1.69 1.082 2.64
28S ter eS a aS Se ao oe 5 Sea eae 15.62 15.53 1.69 1.082 2.65
Peet en sth ok tase ao osimim simccbieswac ibe cls = SG OR EOS) cones 1.78 1.083 2.69
Ree es oe aera sin ade an ste pste ners SS. s ewes <2 23.66 23.15 .19 1.074 —0 39
pA Ae PR) Pe Ae ny eee (el EA pets fap Ee):
Rene oe fens dae eine Sake R See tices oe ee 11.62 11.51 2.36 1.062 1.98
Ieee a nara ot aelateinre Smettte afoot ates 11.74 11.63 2.36 1.062 1.90
Pee ees Fe Rete Sores le pee tr mats Ss Peaeet a 11.56 10.77 1.32 1.060 2.54
EEE mite = ie nae ne yore eas oe /dan so - 11.48 10.7 1.53 1.061 2.07
2h - 2 Seg CG Rea ARS Sees One a, ee eae 13.83 13.15 r21 1.077 3.14
PRR eae we Penk is oma s dagen Siew cases 14-28" [5 = : L2h 1 078 2.76
ft 4 Sg See BRO rae ee ae ae 6.10 6.37 | 3.49 1.049 4.18
2g 2 a RR Sealy ee Bile 6.48 6.49 | 3.49 1 049 3.70
8 yt OE aoe REE RO Pe a ere 7.44 6.63 2.32 1 O44 2.55
OU iasia sh cas ete tev deeb w eens eeees ace 7.28 6.66 2.3) 1.048 2.41
CLES 07 Sa OBE 6. Se Seine Secs eae 14.12 13.60 2.02 1.078 1.94
MESS ee soca ose ons RRS eR ome os ome MNS NS. cae et 1.96 1.080 3.87
Pe re ob neem as oes en See 15.29 14.21 1.56 1.076 3.42
BAN ite sases 2 Sante tw tone eneree ss, sateen 15.07 14.19 1.56 1.07 2.60
Dts to. 3000: GARE Sa rans or aE eae 16.06) 4525. L 1.87 1.078 2.61.
AE s3 iS ia SS i ear are 15.40 15.07 1.89 1.078 2.21
TES, CALE eee ca oe act ee arte 5.20 5.26 1.55 1.042 3.99
Litho agecls Aceh ar cad eRe eer are ed eee 1.61 1.042 3 62
Eee ts sei rns eee os cn eee oe ie cise lish! (ogy | Generate 1.54 1 087 3.21
EOLA S. Sess cae PG ORR A ARS A Sa IE pA OOM eee se 1.67 1.085 3.02
TEE SBS ee See She Seen) GHD Oe eens cD Ae Rares 1.76 1.061 1.03
SEAR OS SA eee ee a ear eee 11.17 10:49 2.46 1.061 1.63
“OC RE aetna co es .oo Stas San eeee 13.98 15.26 3.22 1 075 2 89
MMR et coat ats oe oe ssn oe SURE aie aso ones Fe 13.66 ce ad eae 1 074 1.90
Le ee. Son se) Sree e 15 80 14.69 ‘2 1 078 3.01
Ti ASS Se eee So oer Sr 3 Sars eee 15 SG ae 2 1.47 1.077 2.30
JIU <2 cagA SHR ARS 3 sates eee Se AD OY Wo eee 1.70 1.085 6.73
MEINERS tee nals yp clos alee me ere eee r= Sa =)co AG-Hor [eel ate ay. 1.083 6 76
te. 2 Seese BAe ARES so: ot, Sar eee 9.69 8.86 5.57 1.065 5.06
LU bet Skye, ak AE Ae ys 555 ere 9.42 9.02 5.45 1.066 5.7
LUM say, 16 tn Re Bee S75 SO eC err ee 18.05 17.10 5 ee 5 1.089 3.28
2 USE AaB eo BRO ae een oe | Fock ae eer E(B. iw leas eae 1.55 1 088 3.67
LUE A 8 eae See een Sv aye 132809. [5227-23 3.00 1 080 3.14
MUA rie Gee aniston a WE ao a we Semininteincin'als ax 14.40 aay SE ae 3.00 1.080 3.06
BABS eee ee See Ms ng con =~ anc siete Sse Sie So 16.00 15.33 1.73 1 083 2.40
Ui ie ee SE Se Se Se ect oe 15 64 15.14 1.78 1.083 2 89
UE Oe 9 hi ne Soe ae 55 Siac: ee ded, 7 Al 5.19 1.059 a-92
BURNS R a a 2S ceria ce oe seinem meer agi Rea 8.97 7.34 4.19 1.059 1.04
BUR Sik nt oa aise 4 sre pins wc Sn gem ol Bagealale=)ai- 9.54 9.03 4.93 1.065 3.41
CRM Elde 55 ae OSE oa See Opeeers er eter ac) 9.79 8.23 5.28 1.065 2.11
Sse Aa ee Ste oie ste vc sae ereetenls Seals winete o 14.27 12.92 1.41 1.073 2.51
Ne ciate x =e a ave ale wa Sins a areetelo nie w eitn.clt ws 6: - Cis 14.60 13.78 1.51 1.078 3.46

482 SORGHUM.

There was also made a series of analyses of solutions of known
quantities of commercial cane sugar and of anhydrous glucose, both
separate and mixed.

The results of these analyses are given in the following table. They
show clearly the substantial accuracy of the analytical methods em-
ployed in the work which has been recorded; but it is interesting to
observe that, while the specific gravity, polarization, and analytical
results for each constituent agree very closely in the duplicate analyses
made, there is found, as the aggregate of four of the analyses where
sucrose alone was taken, as follows:

Grams
SUcroseV taken t i 2 cin: aot ks aciaop a aac aes See eae ene eee se at ek bo tau 1 ose 17.63
SUCTOSETTOUNG) = 24 sos cepa See Oe SoBe le So aGicierat Pare ree Oe eee ane Coen I ee 17.58

Also, in those four cases where there was taken anhydrous glucose,
the following results were obtained in the aggregate:

Grams
GiNTCORS sakeris <i ey sa agctssioy bh Sioteere Recs crcl Bans Seep et AO SE ese eee Sie Pe Ns ES ioe ce 17.12
Glucose gtOuned 43 tea oe se sae ih o,0, cele eee Me eae te hehe. BOs er Lae

But in these cases, eight in all, in which both sucrose and glucose
were present in the solutions analyzed, the aggregate results were as
follows:

Taken. | Found.

Grams. | Grams.
SWCLOSO Uc cisein oe eee Pet dtm amen tae sane A OEE Re heaeoee: Boece 20.505 22.68
GUE COS Ch tre Sense wel tera ie ee tear aes Ve et ee eee ce Rae ee Ee ae ess Se 19.810 20.39

It will be seen that, while the amount of glucose taken is approxi-
mately equal to that found, as in the case of analyzing the solution of
glucose alone, still the amount of sucrose found is 10.4 per cent greater
than the amount taken. This result is, in all probability, due to the
fact, that there existed as impurity, in the anhydrous glucose taken, a
certain quantity of some product intermediate between starch and
glucose, which, while not reducing the Fehling solution in the estima-
tion of the glucose, was converted into glucose by treatment with acid
in the estimation of the sucrose:

COMPARISON OF ANALYSIS WITH POLARIZATION, ETC. 483.

TESTS OF ACCURACY.

Te eae Pee get z |
"ae = ee Se A) ie ) &
ale) a te pass fey ate
4 2A ees oe ae EN Bc a PR B=
Number of analysis. a ae a a o |‘s aa
Zz =a rs moliiera lee
= Sh te = = a | = >
Soe ol ees Ss = A CS eal R= =
m | & a |}6/@/o]/ea)]«4& / m
aed ety See ae eo
509) 00} 4.9050) 000) 5.6% 00} 4.94) 4.59)1.015
2.50) 2.50] 2.4025) 2.405) 2.43) 2.49] 5.25] 4.25/1.015
00) 5.00) .0000) 4.820 -07| 4.78) 5.02) 3.49/1.0143
5.00) .00) 49050} .000) 4.72 -00) 5.38) 4.92)1.016
2.50) 2.50| 2.4525) 2 405) 2.26) 2.38 4.96) 4 04/1 016
00) 5.00) .0000) 4.820} 11) 4-84) 496] 3.51/1 6154
2.00} 2.00! 1.9550] 1.875} 231) 1.91] 3.88) 3.13]1 013
2.00} 200) 1.9550) 1.875] 2.12) 1.96) 3.82) 3.04/1.013
4.00} 2.00) 3.9100] 1.875) 3.95) 1.90) 5.82) 4.92/1 020
4.00) 2.00) 3.9100) 1.875) 3.68) 1-99) 5.75) 5.001.020
2.00) 4.00) 1.9590) 3-750) 2.34) 3.77) 5-63) 4.65)1.020
2.00) 4.00) 1.9550) 3.750) 2.48) 3.79) 5.65) 4 51/1020
E 00} 4.00) .0000) 3.750) 49) 3 78) 3.83) 2.54/1 013
: 00) 4.09) —y000) 3.750) 64) 3.71) 3.81) 2.5$/1 013
Lies sec Shoe eo cag ae ee 4.00 00; 3.9109) 000) 382) .10) 3.86) 3.90/1 013
TS ae aS Seer 4.00] .00/ 3.9100) .000| 3.99) 10) 393) 3.92/1 013
SAA LS peer el (Sees pe RL. /
00 00) 38.1750 36.930) 40.26) 37.50) 76.49) 63 29) en

9) )

Tests of the Accuracy of the Chemical Work.

In this investigation of the author, at the Department of Agri-
culture, there was taken every reasonable precaution to secure accu-
rate results in the analytical work.

The several methods of checks and control have been such, that,
although errors may exist in individual analyses, it is impossible that
the general results recorded should be other than a very close approxi-
mation to the truth.

It will be seen in another place, that the average results in 1882 of
the analyses of 855 sorghum juices gave 10.998 per cent of sucrose by
precipitation, while the same juices gave an average of 10.966 per
cent by the polariscope; or, as 100 : 100.255, practically identical
results.

During the season of 1882 there were made, in all, analyses of 24 juices
in duplicate ; and, as has been said, none of those engaged upon these
analyses had any knowledge of the fact that duplicate juices were
present in the twenty or more samples under analysis daily.

The average results of these 24 analyses, in duplicate, are as
follows:

484 SORGHUM.

Speeisie! Srayityyews, oe. gee wlas oo tas: eter an tete ey Pye cae Mae Ravel cttel ht deter 1.0598 | 1.0600
MeMCen tiSICLOSC Pah. artes tee Rese Sates eters orate. tars ra eet ins ke otete ecco Gee 9.726 9.710
Le Girelesalieslhb coer va. vn 6 Nos awbanemonehucrobice OG0dc6 noedoocdbab saeniaano ec 2.252 2.244
PST CEM SOLIS ALO bss US AE wears ar ele red tse aetna mete eel ei etet sla ateietal stele eset t-te 2.627 2.625
Per ConbapOlarizatlon ey. teu-)2 1. ee sie aeons aa eE erie rreet te ine Seite 10.281 | 10.244

These results are practically identical.

In like manner, during 1881, there were made 72 analyses in du-
plicate; and, as will be seen by consulting the tables giving the
results, the agreement was as close as could be expected with work of
this character.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

By specific gravity is meant the relative weight of any substance,
solid, liquid, or gaseous, as compared with water (which is taken as
the standard for solids and liquids), or as compared with air (which is
taken as the standard for gases).

In the case of liquids, the determination of the specific gravity is
easy, and may be found by first filling a bottle (the weight of which is
known) with pure water, as rain-water, then finding the amount of
water, by weight, which the bottle will hold. By then filling the same
bottle with the liquid, the specific gravity of which it is desired to
know (as, sorghum juice), and weighing it, we may learn the weight
of a certain volume of the liquid, and also the weight of an equal
volume of pure water. If, now, we divide the weight of the sorghum
juice by the weight of the water, we ascertain the specific gravity
of the juice.

For convenience, it is customary to use bottles which hold a certain
definite weight of pure water, as 100 or 1,000 grams, and then it is
only necessary to weigh the bottle full of juice, and the specific gravity
is at once shown by the weight.

Such bottles are known as piknometers; but they are unnecessary.
The only precaution to be taken in the determination of the specific
gravity of sorghum juices is, that they should he allowed to stand a
sufficient length of time (from one-half an hour to an hour) after they
have been expressed by the mill, to allow the small bubbles of air
present to escape, since these would, of course, diminish the specific
gravity of the juice.

Hydrometers and Saccharometers.

Another method for readily determining the specific gravity of
liquids is by means of the hydrometer or saccharometer, of which
there are several kinds.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 485

The principle upon which all of these instrument are constructed is,
that whenever a body floats in any liquid, it displaces exactly a vol-
ume of that liquid equal in weight to the floating body.

These hydrometers are glass bulbs, with a long, slender spindle,
made by means of a little mercury at the lower end to maintain an
erect position in the liquid. The lighter the liquid the deeper the in-
strument sinks, and the heavier the liquid the more of the spindle ap-
pears above the liquid. Within the glass spindle is a scale, so that a
glance enables the operator to determine the specific gravity or density.
For convenience, the scale is such as to enable the operator to deter-
mine either the specific gravity or per cent of any substance presumed
to he present, ete.; and therefore these instruments have been prepared
with scales adapted to any special purpose. We will explain those
only which are in use for the determination of saccharine liquids.
These are:

The scale of Beaumé, which is determined by marking as 0 the
point on the spindle of the hydrometer to which it sinks when float-
ing in pure water, and as 15° the point to which it sinks in a solution
of 15 parts by weight of salt in 85 of water. The interval between
these points is divided into 15 equal parts, and the scale is continued
to any number of degrees beyond.

The scale of Brix, or Balling, as it is also called, gives the per
cent of sugar present in any given solution; for example, a solution
marking 10° Brix contains 10 per cent of sugar, ete.

The scale of Twaddle is graduated in such a manner that the num-
ber of degrees given, multiplied by 5 and added to 1000, will give the
specific gravity, as compared with water taken at 1000. Thus: 10°
Twaddle=1050 specific gravity.

To convert Beaumé degrees into specific gravity, divide 144 by 144
less the degrees of Beaumé; thus, 17° Beaumé equals 144 divided by
144 less 17—that is, 1.133.

486 SORGHUM.

Plate XLVILI.

No.1. Thermometer. No. 3. Test cup for using saccharometer.
No. 2. Saccharometer. No. 4. Proof glass.

The above represents the thermometer, saccharometer, etc., which
are generally used for the determination of temperature and spe-
cific gravity. A better form of thermometer than above repre-
sented is a plain glass stem, with bulb containing the mercury and the
scale engraved upon the glass.

Comparison of different Hydrometers.

It has been thought best to here append a table which shall show
the comparative values of the different scales. It is always preferable
to use a hydrometer which shows the actual specific gravity of the
juice, but those who have either the Beaumé or Brix hydrometers can,
by use of this table, make them answer every purpose. It will be
noticed that the specific gravity 1.066, which was recommended as the
proper indication that the juice was in a workable condition, corre-
sponds exactly with 16° Brix and 9° Beaumé. |

2
J

~~

SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 487

SPECIFIC GRAVITY EQUIVALENTS OF THE BRIX AND BEAUME SCALES.

Specific} Degree | Degree || Specific | Degree | Degree || Specific | Degree | Degree
gravity.| Brix. | Beaumé.|} gravity. Brix. | Beaumé.|| gravity. Brix. | Beaumé.
unt. / were /

1.000 0. 0.0 1.094 22.5 | {Smad Soy 1.203 44.5
.002 ei tees Se ae See -097 23. plkeaet tes -206 Aa 0M ie eae we aat
004 |e St ee .099 23.5 13.0 -208 cE ee fags ithe :
006 1-52) eee -101 NE) |S A oS 3 46. 25.0
008 2. 1.0 -103 PE AIS | eA ee 214 46.5 ee eT
-010 2. i eees. asl .106 DA MeN ee a St 216 x ee | eed Oaks on Se
.012 Bei |) Peck aes -108 25.5 14.0 219 ATA Di ert sats
.014 3.5 2.0 111 2h tg [Ete SPs 222 48. 26.0
-016 yee eee ee mi PSI AEE Ed oe 225 Ut ed (Eh ee a9
.018 pO ead (Eo ema 115 Dae 15.0 227 Gta asa aes
-020 se. Gel [he aes 118 2 [os tg (fer Bee 230 49.5 27.0
.022 5.5 3.0 .120 aie eae et eee 23 50. in
-024 GA¢ pe} eee ee .123 28.5 ee eT -236 7 BS eis Wee eee
026 C250 eae eee -125 29. 16.0 238 51. Pe ae oa
028 7. 4.0 197 ARN meets ‘on | 515 28.0
-03 Thivee fino tees. -130 + ee) (Re ee .244 BAe kf [ine tte
-032 Se Mince cet eee 132 30.5 cee .247 2s y Ue arene
.034 8.5 gt ee .134 2A 17.0 .250 See sad (Pes te
-036 9. 5.0 137 eierey Vee eee 1252, 53.5 29.0
.038 OD [Ete hes 139 B22 Meee cena .235 Ba Lind eee
.046 410c7 0 Nor-ee sss: 142 32.d a2 .258 DEB” ol Sees
.042 AD TOX Pilessh dass 144 5h 18.0 .261 TS en (RE Pen Foe
-044 a Ble 6.0 147 33.5 ore -264 55.5 30.0
‘016 es We te } 149 34. 267 7 ieee er es
.048 12. 152 34.5 19.0 .269 TB 0 Beers
.050 12.5 7.0 154 Bond wligeoees< -272 57. ae
-053 aS A ee eae 157 BOO seme e .275 57.5 31.0
-055 13.5 159 SOL, Beceit oie -278 Seren (eee
-057 4Ale” Site ee. 162 36.5 20.0 -281 i eng eee
-059 14.5 8.0 164 Ae ey een cA .284 59. Pee es soe
061 1 AR eo 167 ithe) Wie ees be .287 59.5 32.0
063 15.0 169 Ste iom we PR hen, see .290 GOS = ie ceeee a.
066 16 9.0 172 38.5 21.0 .293 GORE? 1 see
068 NG San) Siete as 174 Bos oe reese: .296 Gli fate ce eee
070 ily ieee ee sae ii SUL D ey cee a .299 61.5 33.0

‘72 17.5 shes 179 40. 22.0 .302 622 nw eee

074 18. 10.0 182 SONS Plat von seree .805 G20 ease ee
076 AS. De! |e reterkes 185 41 .308 63 34.0
079 19. 187 cL Cat Ri (Ea aloe 311 GAB iste coe
.081 19.5 | .190 42 23.0 Be ae ae a ess
083 20. 11.0 192 7 PA iad | MeN a SSL, 1) > GAB) eee
-085 20.5 .195 43 Jovtte es 320 65. 35.0
.088 21 ing | AS BOS Pes oct 323 GiB ears eas
-090 21.5 12.0 200 44 24.0 S26. ie GbO lee sees
092 2. © as eestees

Of course the reader will understand that the hydrometer, with
either of the above scales, does not indicate necessarily the presence
of sugar in a solution, but simply the relative weight of a certain
volume of any liquid, as compared with the weight of the same volume
of water. But, as will be seen by the preceding tables, in which the
analyses of a very large number of sorghum and maize juices are given,
together with the specific gravities, it is established as true, beyond
question, that the specific gravity of any freshly expresed juice of
either sorghum or maize, will enable one to tell its composition within
very narrow limits. It is to be remembered, however, that this is only
true of the freshly expressed juice. From cane, which has suffered in de-
teriuration, either from having been cut a long time before pressing or

*
°

488 SORGHUM.

from the effects of a frost and subsequent warm weather—in such
eases the specific gravity does not necessarily give any indication as to
the composition of the juice.

This is a matter of such extreme practical importance, that the fol-
lowing results may be considered with interest.

In 1881, there were received at the Department of Agriculture, at
Washington, several lots of sorghum-cane, which had been cut several
days before they were delivered. The juices from these cane proved
to be in a very surprising and abnormal condition, and their analyses
are worthy of careful consideration. They were as follows :

>

JUICES FROM SORGHUMS CUT SEVERAL DAYS BEFORE GRINDING.

Polariza- | Specific A
Dates. int Sucrose. | Glucose. gravity. Solids.

BEPLE MUSK Ain see olasets wcrc .07 3.75 10.85 1.063 2.80
.00 8 66 11.69 1.069 3.07

Septemiber/Qssre-.s| seks cea. 00 2.30 3.25 1.070 2.48
September 380 1.04 5.16 10.78 1.072 2.53
Oeponermcwerrcctie sit bies shoes ts: 1.05 2.62 10.45 1.059 2.41
OGTObEr a rowce hits csure ote ere: 70 2.57 11.94 1.067 1.51
PAV OTA Ot eh oestrus laa 48 3.3) 11.49 1.067 2.47

We have, then, as the average of the six juices, an amount of su-
crose as indicated by the polariscope only 14.3 per cent of the amount
shown to be present by analysis. We have also a specific gravity of
1.067, which indicates, as the average of a large number of analyses
of normal juices, a juice of the following composition, viz:

Per cent.
SVECHIG OTA MLE Yer. cic se ci ers «nlereiset cole sicrn Rife tideieseyeieitia sina Mine csi rttsrals eo sites 1.067
SUCIOSE S57 thort pause te ce Be eas care dhe rene) esecte encle Sotey a eee wire eee FS ae Lo ots alc he eee eee 11.80
GINGOSES fae sear seek ae PA Io RAT Gee eRe er artesian sec NOES oot usec Raha. 3, 4299
So lire CE erat Cg eat iocrte tees ter kh nd eee eer ht eck ee Bee NN Se tees ee ee ede) = 2.87

It will be seen that this composition resembles the average of the
above six, except in this, that the sucrose and glucose appear to have
changed places, the sum of the two being in one case 15.79 per cent,
in the other 14.85 per cent.

Now, in over 4,000 separate analyses of sorghum juices from canes
recently cut, there has never been found even one which approximated
the composition of the average of these six juices above given.

In no ease has the polariscope approximately differed so widely from
the results of analysis as in these, for the average results of the polari-
scope, as compared with the results of analyses of all the juices ana-
lyzed, gave 96 per cent of the analytical result, while these contain
but 14.3 per cent. The conclusion, then, is irresistible, that these
juices are wholly abnormal, and are so through the inversion of the
sucrose which existed in the plant, since the average of all the analy-

. ’
TABLES OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SORGHUM JUICES, ETC. 489

ses made have demonstrated, that if the total of glucose and sucrose
in a juice is 14 or 15 per cent of the juice, at least 12 or 13 per cent
of this had existed in the plant as sucrose. If not present upon analy-
sis, it must have suffered inversion—as in this case was easily rendered
probable by the stalks having been cut some days before they were
worked up in the mill.

TABLES OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SORGHUM JUICES AND THEIR COM-
POSITION.

In the following tables are given average results obtained by the
analysis of sorghum juices of different specific gravities, during the
years 1879, 1880, 1881, 1882.

These give the average results of all the juices analysed, being
several thousand, obtained from over one hundred distinct varieties
of sorghum, and for four successive years, so that the average results
ean not but be accepted as of almost absolute accuracy.

In 1879, the number of varieties under examination were but four,
and the number of analyses comparatively few, also the method for
the correct determination of specific gravity and composition of the
several juices not so well established as in the later years, but as con-
firming the general fact that the specific gravities will enable one to
determine the composition of his juice, the results for 1879 are also
given.

That such tables are of the greatest practical value to the matu-
facturer of sugar or syrup, is obvious.

By reference to them, the sugar-boiler can determine quite accurately
the composition of any juice of which he knows the specific gravity. Al
though the varieties differ somewhat among themselves in the com-
position of the juice for the same specific gravity, still these differences
are not so great as to be of much practical importance.

In examining these tables, it should be remembered that the re-
sults are valuable in proportion to the number of analyses from which
each figure has been derived; therefore, while the figures derived from
a small number of analyses are true for the particular canes examined,
it is probable that a larger number of determinations would somewhat
modify the results. If only those figures are examined which are
based on ten or more analyses, it will be seen that the recorded results
are very seldom exceptional.

Among other points shown by these tables, the following are im-
portant : ‘

1st. The amount of juice obtained seldom falls below 60 per cent

490 SORGHUM.

of the weight of the stripped stalks; this percentage does not vary
greatly throughout the season.
2nd. The amount of erystallizable sugar (sucrose) in the juice, is at

first little over 1 per cent, but it regularly increases with the increase
of specific gravity. No one relationship is more evident than this close
correspondence between the increase of specific gravity and percentage
of sucrose in the juice; the average increase of sucrose for an increase
of .001 in specific gravity (between 1.030 and 1.086), is 0.233 per
cent. The following shows the average increase of cane sugar corres-
ponding with an increase of .001 in specific gravity of the juice:

Between 1.030 — 1.039 = .164 per cent sucrose.

Between 1.040 — 1.049 = .167 per cent sucrose.

Between 1.050 — 1.059 = .229 per cent sucrose.

Between 1.060 — 1.069 = .250 per cent sucrose.

Between 1.070 — 1.079 .142 per cent sucrose.
Between 1.080 —1.086 = 164 per cent sucrose.

3rd. It is a noticeable fact that the ‘‘ solids not sugar” increase regu-
larly, and with almost the same rapidity that the’ glucose diminishes.
Thus, for the specific gravities between 1.030 and 1.086, the average
percentage of glucose is 2.84, and of solids not sugar 2.71, while the
actual loss of glucose is 2.76 per cent, and the actual gain of solids not:
sugar is 2.77 per cent. From the small number of ash determina-
tions (34), it appears that the average percentage of ash in sorghum
juice amounts to 1.07 per cent; hence it appears that a loss of 2.76
per cent of glucose is apparently counterbalanced by a gain of 1.70 per
cent of organic solids not sugar, the ash varying but slightly. These
figures are subject to fnture revision, when a much larger number of
ash determinations may render it possible to draw conclusions with
greater safety.

One point, however, seems to be strongly suggested, namely, that
the decrease in glucose bears a much closer relationship to the increase
of organic solids not sugar, than to the increase of crystallizable sugar.
In other words, it seems at least possible that the commonly accepted
idea that cane sugar is formed in plants only through the intervention
of glucose, may be a mistaken idea. This point is a very interesting
one, and worthy of careful study in the future.

Ath. The percentage of total solids regularly increases, with a few
exceptions, with the increase of specific gravity; the average increase
for each gain of .001 in specific gravity, is 0.17 percent of total solids.

5th. Experience has shown that the percentage of crystallizable
sugar in the total solids of the juice should exceed 70, in order that
good results may be had. See Table of Averages for 1880. .

An inspection of these tables indicates that these juices attained that

TABLES OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SORGHUM JUICES, ETc. 491

percentage (see column headed “Available sugar”) when the specific
gravity 1.066 was reached, and this per cent was maintained, and even
exceeded, until the specific gravity 1.086 was passed. After this the
per cent is somewhat variable, because specific gravities above 1.086
were not attained until quite late in the season, when the plants had
nearly or quite ceased growing; also, the number of experiments for
these higher specific gravities was smaller than for the lower figures.
It is safe to say that the profitable working period for sorghum canes
begins when the juice attains the specific gravity 1.066, and continues
until the specific gravity 1.086 is reached and frequently even longer.
During this period, the canes examined furnished on an average
61.9 per cent of juice from the stripped stalks. A good mill should
furnish not less than 60 per cent on the large scale. Several manu-
facturers are willing to contract for mills to furnish 65 per cent.

6th. On thesupposition thata good mill, yielding at least 60 per cent
of juice from the stripped stalks, is used, the amount of sugar which
should be obtained from 100 pounds of stalks, is found by referring to
the figures in the last column corresponding with the specific gravity
of the juice obtained. For example, each 100 pounds of stripped
stalks, the juice from which has the specific gravity 1.073, should actu-
ally furnish 7.7 pounds of cane sugar.

Specific Gravity Tables of Juices of Sorghum.

In these tables the average result in percentage of juice ob-
tained, the percentage of the several constituents of the juice, the
available sugar calculated as the difference between the sucrose and
the sum of the solids not sucrose, the exponent of purity, by which is
meant the percentage of sucrose in the total solids of the juices, and
the available sugar calculated from this ‘‘ exponent,” as also the num-
ber of analyses made, is shown for each degree of specific gravity:

492 SORGHUM.

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES AT DIFFERENT SPECIFIC

GRAVITIES.
1879.

w iad | A 4 m o
oy ae a 3 a ee
S 80 2 2 8b | | 2 s
a © a 3 a Sie 3 3 a a
ood a 3 S w = a S s a s om
° iS) o— a us} = 3) 3) a Ke) L Cc
heal ices Ble = Sean Shale ESAs
Zz mn o mn n <q n o n wn <q A
il 1031 3.40 2.40 DAGO! A essere 1061 4.03 8.90 96 3.91 3
1 i.) 4.10 1.80 be GFW ees. Oe 2 Lee fot ls 2.8 >) eee ene
1 3 5.90 1.00 100 ET a4 Gee: 3 5.90 5.80 42 At rt
Laie 4 MN ARS Med Bae Ee Sere N ag Geta sec 4 4.03 10.17 00 6.14 3
ee teswty. Wepyl tee mares cues fe cee Alice shore 5 6.60 6.90 1.94 i P 2

6 : SPORE PE Psa te thes eee “6 opal ey 11.75 67 7.93 2

2 rf 5.71 1.95 £40, Ut lets Sas 7 4 60 7.10 2.30 20 1
ao Bloc anaes sie hgtnee 8 1.10 11.80 3.44 7.26 2
1 9 3.70 4.60 0.90 Bre ae Te sored aoe 2 ath Sal eee Seite
1 1040 4.90 4.00 “OOM hes ae ae 1070 3.00 12.35 1.23 8.12 8
1 1 5.20 2.70 93 | Sei eas 1 2.78 9.08 5.43 | 87 4
1 2 5.00 3.40 06 Mall Ae Sate 2 2715 12.55 1.29 9.11 2
1 3 4.20 4.10 67 bl a 3 1 60 12.3 3.48 (pe? 3
2 4 o.8 4.00 Oo alice esis eee 4 1.60 14.21 1.36 11..25 rai
1 5 5.01 4.40 03 5 Bis 13.20 iP 7i5) 8.72 3
2 6 4.95 4.40 MY; tall Wnt. Sere 6 1.73 13.15 3.45 7.97 4
2 7 4.50 4.90 6 aay Ge 8 Deeyees ei 7 1.38 13.84 2.46 10.00 10
4 8 Stn 5.08 AS ts oe 8 1.538 13.79 24: 9.52 7
Te 9 ae Ree oh | AR eet EE Ps eS, feel, ree 9 Leb 13.47 Se 8.24 9
2 1050 6.00 4.40 Tess 1080 102 14.16 2.48 10 66 12
eet. a [fos pe elrtes eset rr otieete 1 1.40 13.79 3.62 8.77 15
1 2 7.10 5.40 a5 WS eee 2 1.40 14.75 We 11.03 11
Be 6 pall See aE ey she Oe Ne etter audi Loe eieis 3 1.10 15.17 3.62 10.45 3
3 4 6.79 OOD 1.03 Ot: 4 2.15 14.55 Syed lil 9 26 2
1 5 4.90 7.40 95 153) 5 1.20 15.06 3.31 10.55 5
af 6 3.50 7.90 81 3.09 6 2°30 12.05 5.46 4.24 2
5 ff 3.52 8.12 1.84 2.76 7 1.938 14.43 3.78 8.72 3
ae hae 8 Ate SecA PDR: | (hs at Ree oe Ree eee cays 8 2.30 16.80 .00 14.50 Hi:
al 9 2.90 9.40 1.01 5.59 9 ice tebe ot ORE oe
1 1060 2.40 10.60 92 7.28 TOGO es acto er eee ior ee | er
Beal ete es (eikeens ae bilo Gaeres| era, focus lope rureiree Pees oe ee. oe el el
Be Se ENR se Al ite msce nee 2 90 17.70 3.09 13 hA 1

SPECIFIC GRAVITY TABLES OF JUICES OF SORGHUM. 493

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES AT DIFFERENT SPECIFIC
GRAVITIES, 1880.

: : 2 4 Be BE
F Z PA = = So eRe

5 [S) < o > = os ofS .
kh o . n
~~ = 5 = = - a= Ae o
= e % a a8 = OTT ONS i a
5 Se = ae © 53 m saat | Pago} 4
ce rs) ° © =i S =) Vy OoaT :

= = = es ‘o 5) 2 Bey] 8

é a 8 8 Ya a = Chie aoe ae
= ° ° ° ~ ra ° banat S) mess S
2 ts 5 R == E z Sa Wenge! 2
a om Ew -¥ & = 3 < = Z
1.019 61.32 67 2.20 on L2 5.99 36.73 81 48 1
1.021 58.30 3.91 4 68 5.18 10.53 06 04 2
1.022 69 .04 3.06 1.46 cee 5.63 25 .93 3 23 1
1.023 47 36 Rea 1.15 1.29 d.71 20.14 23 14 5"
1.024 60.49 3.85 1.02 1.73 6.60 15.45 16 10 1
1.026 62.7 4.04 .98 -91 5.93 16.53 16 10 E
1.027 57 .08 3.41 2.09 1.61 {fen i | 29.40 61 37 3
1.028 46.61 3.98 1.79 yess 8.11 22.07 40 24 8
1.029 57.72 4.34 1.55 7-53 7.42 20.89 .33 -20 6
1.030 45 44 3.98 2.36 1.82 8.16 28 .92 58 .30 11
1.031 56 O01 3.82 2 66 1.58 8.06 33.00 88 .53 12
1.032 60.97 3.95 2.16 2.05 8 16 26 47 -O7 4 17
1.033 60.13 4.52 2.26 1.78 8.56 26.40 .60 36 28
1.034 66.96 4.24 2.50 1.93 8.67 28 84 .72 A3 13
1.035 60.22 4.11 3.29 1.98 9.38 39.08 y ee 1 .69 23
1.036 64.28 4.56 3-12 1.59 9.27 33.66 1.05 63 23
1.037 60.12 4.42 3.56 1.75 9.73 26.59 1.30 .78 25
1.038 61.37 4.43 3.43 1.88 9.74 30.22 Leal 73 21
1.039 61.30 4.14 4.00 1.85 9 99 40 00 1.60 96 2
1.040 62.78 3 94 4.41 RT 10.17 43 36 1.91 1.15 18
1.041 62.41 4 21 4 30 1.92 10 43 41 23 Loy 1.06 26
1.042 59.40 4.13 4.69 1.91 10.73 43.71 2.05 Lees 23
1.043 64.72 4.26 4.95 1.92 11.13 44.48 2.20 1.32 22
1 044 63 98 3.79 9.23 2.17 11.19 46.7 2.42 1.45 ily
1.045 64.54 3.87 5 51 2.19 11.47 48 04 2.65 1.59 24
1.046 64.34 3.76 5.72 2.10 11.58 49 34 2.82 1 69 30
1.047 65 03 3.43 6.28 ree bs 11 86 52.95 3.33 2.00 31
1.048 65.18 3.99 6.08 2.03 12.10 50.25 3.06 1.84 36
1.049 62.88 3.62 6.3 2.23 12.19 52.01 3.30 1.98 3
1.050 66.17 S02 6.99 2.29 12.60 55.48 3.88 2.33 48
1.051 62.81 3.12 7.18 2.26 12 56 67.17 4.10 2.46 42
1.052 64.36 3.18 7.64 2.46 13.28 57 61 4 40 2.64 | 43
1.053 63.95 3.42 7.58 2.31 3 31 56.95 4.32 2.59 43
1.054 63.33 ode 7.74 2 27 13.13 58 95 4 57 2.74 49
1 055 65.66 3.38 8.12 2.24 13.74 59 09 4.80 2.88 55
1.056 63.66 2.96 8 61 2.40 13.97 61 63 4 92 2.95 52
1.057 62.74 2.99 8 90 2 14.23 62.54 5.57 3.34 56
1.058 64.10 2.78 9.18 Zoe 14.49 63 35 5.82 3.49 76
1.059 63.93 3.05 9.28 2.44 14.77 62 90 5.84 3.50 53
1.060 63.15 2.65 9.80 2.67 15.12 64 81 6.35 3.81 100
1.061 64.86 2.73 9 88 2.75 15 36 64.32 6.36 3.82 76
1.062 63 35 2.51 10.24 re. 15 52 65 98 6.7 4.06. 73
1.063 64.74 2.65 10 16 2.95 15.7 64.47 6 55 3 93 84
1.064 63.48 2.43 10.64 De 16.02 66 .42 7 07 4.24 64
1.065 61.08 2.07 11.19 2.85 16.11 69 46 777 4.66 | 8L
1.066 63.58 2.08 11.46 272 16 26 70.48 8.08 4.85 74
1.067 60.98 1 99 11.80 2.87 16.66 70.83 8.36 5.02 69
1 068 63 .25 1.97 11.84 3.00 16 81 70 43 8.3 5.00 56
1.069 61.15 1.81 12 30 3.05 17.16 71.68 8.82 5.29 73
1.070 €3 45 1.84 12 59 3 00 17.43 72 23 9.09 5.45 82
1.071 62.37 1.81 12.54 3.26 17 61 p pleat 8.93 5 36 89
1.072 61.81 1.68 12 94 Be 4 | 17 838 72 58 9.3 5.63 §2
1.073 62.46 1.85 12 83 3.20 17.88 71.76 9 19 5.51 73
1.074 61.44 1.69 1Sve2 Bey) 18 .28 72°32 9.56 5.74 75
1 075 61.78 g a a 13.47 3.37 18.55 72.62 9.78 5.87 67

494

SORGHUM.

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES, ETC., 1880.— Continued.

P co)
= 5
£ “S,
is =
at =
S) 4
S 3)
B= 2
5
ER a
1.076 61.49
1.077 60 41
1.078 61.18
1.079 60.80
1.080 60 00
1.081 60.58
1.082 60 47
1.083 59.71
1.084 59 27
1.085 60.07
1.086 58 7:
1.087 53.68
1.088 59.08
1.089 sy fay 4
1.090 59.57

bo

Per cent of glucose.

BE HRD H EERE BH Hee
Seoror ?.

3

nm

=)

i=]

Ss

=

n

r)

=

®

)

H

)

o&
47 13.66
62 13.75
50 13.88
51 14.01
a7 14.01
43 14.24
14 15 06
50 14.71
48 14 84
22 15.14
22 15.65
1) 13.83
38 15 32
80 16.25
19 15.87
75 14.76

Per cent of solids
not sugar.

me BORER ER RR ER ER COCO COCO
w

Total solids in juice.

So | $a
om oe 2
prea oD n
Oo"? © oD A
eo aoe Oo >
A ca = “a
5 ae S2n-| &
r=] Sa Simp a
3 P=) Oo ale
a as ese oe =
x pa Pano 6
e < < Aa
73.16 9.99 5 99 68
72.56 9.98 5.99 45
71.47 9.92 5.95 52
73 01 10 23 6.14 46
72.52 10.16 6.03 41
72 03 10 26 6.16 25
74 37 11.20 6.72 25
71.97 10.459 6.35 29
72.56 19:77 6.46 17
72.37 ~ 10.96 6.58 12
72.92 11.41 6.85 14
67.26 9.30 5.58 3
71.59 10.87 6.52 os
69.53 11 30 6.78 1
72.66 11.53 6.92 3
66.45 9.81 5.89 1

SORGHUM JuIcEs, 1881.

Specific} Per cent of
gravity. juice.

et
. Se ane, OO Or OD OS pote ECE
wa
for)
a1
Ww
1

Per cent of
glucose.

PRU WO NNO WH HON WON DN NHN eee et
oH

Per ct. of
sucrose.

CUE ROR DORON OOH NON Het ee
: >
oo

on
ero
rae

Per ct. of | Per cent | Per ct. of

sugar.

WWNWNNHWWNNWNHNNWWNlW wh www WNNNNNN

ization. sugar.

=

z oe

solids not| of Polar-| available | ¢%
53

Ag

3

Out
on

56

1 Bigs oaapeaee —4 02 1
net J gene —3 92 3
ae A358 5
Cae —3 58 7
Paar Cree —4 40 8

Siew ke 3.17 5
eee —4 88 9
Pear. ae 18
NG eee =5 56 uu
a eo —4 50 7
Be ane —6 02 15
bean —5.16 1B
RP iG ae B
i Rae —399 17

Si ata —4 53 14
Ge 2 5.83 9
rar —5.19 11

1.78 —3 21 8
201 —9 93 &
215 4.70 12
2 89 —3 27 8
295 =e 13
2 92 4.37 10
1 28 | any, 10
3.02 —2 %6 8
3.83 —2 36 9
4.28 | —1 98 12
3.93 —2 07 14
4 36 ee u
4 82 —..68 12

Vor) ono
‘goskous 09 6 OY 63 00 CY eH CO ce 6 MHL Din OMAN
B Ot HOOGOM GOON AMN AMINA AANAAIARABRBAAA OA
o oD SN el es ern GS S00 EX
“i © my AP Je 7 7
osu SeRertsnesod Ho ae :
: wad (ERE RAASSHSLERRARKHGSSSGSSRSZIAS
: ga. | iitstagheh bets SBEASRIASESLASANAABRASASSSASS |
=) aa | | | | | | VcWEWWSODSSRDRAGOKGERaTSSS sa eee ) .
E bE FSSSMAN Rae eeg | |g
oO > ee
5 S44 | cassnde z
¥ 1g =H OOD et ri
7) O25 FREAK SRR SSSCHHSR Roe m7 7
; ; B38 Gaggt iesaenaeedesnagdese<AsaesnqesegessaNngsesey 3c | iS
be , rte m1 OO} Of _ ais x Te} eee . =
cS) § || asm sg ennnndllsasareeeaseaaesass Sai) f
a I oa | Oe |
‘ :
peleree : ‘
~~ :
3 & || Sas BAUSMISSASZARLSRRSRSASS
Pp S || sé sl Nope ede eet IBRSASLSATISSRSLARIIRSBKBSE i
' pas, Gh OD OLED EOD CD CD OTAGO CO a ea papi beside babe cbctlebdicbe )
; 1) Bat
| we sheave Sess ie eae es ae GD O1 Sak -
; i ES vie dette el pt ca daria
. Bal |
; Py |
ef eq Se AARRSBSRAR ROAH BS ;
_
vf gf legume secerne RAGFAGREAAQRECAAGSSRAS |
a 6 » & LRT) alebold table gb beh a cated habe tae &
0 ot : Ds
5 Ef ae | oS SHH HAISA AAS AAAS SS SSAA A
a = creas . OD BAB 1 12 | |
sina LSE =I= Ish 2 Oot
B 2g . tas | eagangesncoetenneagengrearsh I
- o8 Sa hii ok his abs chal Eee et ak chef tba che mba fechas da beh che i
Z g Ties aaaielel attri ei otic Shel 8
4 : i Kees Seeded a ta hi
é) wa | SS ee Pe ee a aE ne ae
Ey ° Is Org)
ier BOARS SSsSeSRSRRaR5 a
UP mae aul lhe felch SRSRGARBZRSSARASARA
5.9 SESSS85cs8 nchieasth bt KRAGARASSAZARS! Bb Rneer BARSSARAG :
: o5 oo BESRASASASSASSasVsRs BEBRZ SEReeeoaue IN
j SSSRRS SAREE SAREREERSEaRES | is
5 5 Oe REBSRSSRBRBS: is
ap
ann Er EEE EEA SNE
oe
ee | csagseaggs |
ays
ig | Sa8suszeadeaeeusasayesgeyeecessecssceeezaazauecest2
fib rh SS5S5555S56555 BB2332 B & z2 =3
shalt Lat Nac Ahhh

496 SORGHUM.

AVERAGE RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF SORGHUM JUICES AT DIFFERENT SPECIFIC
GRAVITIES, 1882.

E Per cent . Per cent
auaijses, | sheviey,| yuioen’| glucose | Racsoeet ] solids not] PO} | available
: : ae SS Wet ; sugars. i sugar.
1.015 59.51 0 25 0.51 Be 0 55 —2.52
20 59 26 0.26 1.41 2.89 1.26 —1.74
26 57 34 2.02 1.70 2 46 1.81 —2.78
27 62.23 1.27 2.63 2.38 2:19 —1 62
28 59.3 0.39 3.05 2.86 2.16 —0.20
1.030 51.84 Ss! 3.43 2.28 3.21 —0 22
31 71.3 1.10 3.00 2.76 3.04 —0.86
32 56.45 1.86 3.39 SOU al Gemses eee —1.77
33 61.45 1.37 4 25 2.76 3.74 —0 02
34 54.16 1.3 3.78 Qi 3.69 —0 32
385 66.45 3.36 3.03 1.81 3.10 —2.14
36 | 62.36 3.91 4.13 ES Sle eee : —1.36
37 65 60 3.49 8.55 2.12 3.55 —2 06
3 64.389 2.41 4.95 1.87 4.85 0.66
39 61.91 1.94 4 47 2.73 4.74 —0.19
1.040 67.63 3.49 4.93 1.3 4.42 0.15
41 62.35 2e19 4.84 2.42 4.11 —0.37
42 59.51 3.19 4.47 2.35 4 52 —0.93
43 50.3 ate 5.43 3 63 - *5..59 0.67
44 65 04 3.51 5.82 1.65 5.06 0.66
45 59.90 1.88 6.44 2.66 5.95 1.91
46 53 .S6 DON 6 09 2.3 5.43 0.88
47 62 80 2.98 6.22 8.15 6.29 0.09
48 60.70 2.34 7.02 2.66 7.05 2.02
49 56.16 3.00 6.57 2.76 5.99 0.81
1.050 54.94 2.45 6 86 2.83 6.64 1.59
51 57.74 2.53 7.83 2.38 7.05 3.17
52 56.16 1.69 8.23 + 2.84 7.92 3.69
53 55.58 Zaee 8.19 2.48 7.85 3.38
54 58 55 2:29 8.19 2.42 7.92 3.47
55 57.3 2.75 8 09 2.32 Ue? 3.12
56 58.19 1.99 8.58 2.78 8.54 3.80
57 57.7 1.75 8.91 2.88 8.90 4.29
58 57.70 1 98 9 31 2.65 9.3 4.68
59 56.85 1.78 9.45 3.02 9.40 4 64
1.060 51.18 2.02 9.84 2.74 9.80 5.24
61 59.3 1.98 9.75 2.83 9.95 4.53
62 55 .87 1.87 10.26 2.61 10.08 5 83
63 58 44 1.66 10.59 2.87 10.50 6.04
64 59 11 1.46 10.73 2.83 10.72 6.83
65 56.3 1.62 10 97 2791 10.96 6.44
66 56.62 1.47 11°32 2.84 11.19 67.
67 58 81 1.35 11.50 3.02 12.29 7.12
68 59 67 1.54 11.80 pat ft 11.79 7.59
69 58.3 1.50 12.19 2.73 12.06 7.95
1.070 58.13 1.40 12.23 3.03 12.13 7.94
71 57.3 1.07 12.75 3.09 12 86 8.29
72 57.08 1.40 12:76 2.87 12.57 8 50
73 58 12 1522, 13.18 AH 13.02 9.05
74 56.18 1.57 13.09 2.58 12.90 8.67
75 57.49 1.10 3.50 3.27 13.41 9.13
76 56.17 1.36 13.3 2 89 13.15 8 82
7 57 59 1712 13.76 _ 8.27 13.79 9.38
78 55.98 1.40 13.71 3.08 13.69 9.23
79 55 389 1.00 14.16 3.17 14 06 eek)
1.080 53.25 0.97 14.53 3.13 14.38 10.39
81 53.49 1.03 14.52 2.98 14.53 10.51
82 52 68 1.3: 14 64 i 13.23 10.44
83 48 45 1.55 14.24 3.15 13.88 9.56
84 52.29 1.01 15.30 3.12 14.72 11.18
85 47 94 1.63 14.29 3.47 14.06 9 .20
86 52 00 0.74 15.68 3.41 15.44 11.53
87 48 88 0.62 15.36 3.78 15.57 10 96
89 42.16 1.95 14.96 3.16 13.94 9.85
1.090 42.50 2.03 15 57 2 94 15 12 10.60
91 43 40 2.53 14.98 3.00 13.81 9 45
92 42 54 1.96 15.3 3.08 14.40 10.30
93 37.13 2.82 14.97 3.09 : 9.06
95 39.25 3.34 15.17 2.61 13.72 9.22
1.105 35.01 2.33 17.19 S267 Weitere eis 11.19

See” ii

SPECIFIC GRAVITY TABLES OF JUICES OF MAIZE. 497

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF MAIZE JUICES, AND THEIR COMPOSITION.

In the following tables, the average composition of juices of maize
stalks, at each specific gravity, and obtained from a number of varie-
ties in all, is given. It will be seen that the general results show that
the composition of these juices also may be determined by their specific

gravity.

MAIZE JUICES, 1880.

= / Per cent | Per cent “
specite | Percent | Percent | Percent | tsi | atte | .29:0f,
=~ eyes | s ; : sugars. sugar. ob
1.019 37.83 | 1.19 1.95 1.13 — .37 1
1.020 Re eS) So SR eer Cet) (aren eee) RO Oe ae, Pee ee) BO nee es
1.021 47 52 34 et Fe hae | RE Dee oo 9 Ue eee 1
1.022 97 .09 1.3 2: —1.11 1
1.033 45.96 61 1.7 2.26 —1.15 1
LITO RON) gas Be So eet al eee ees (See Penner ee en PS re td be Ae Se, eee eee
1.025 65.26 7 3.21 2.17 28 1
1.026 63 06 72 2.64 2.7 — 82 2
1.027 58.78 -85 3.71 2.10 .76 2
1.028 55.75 1.93 3.39 2.02 — 56 1
Alec pO en a aes eae Ser eel (ee peas a Bee) Per oe een | [ee Rt ct ee ee .
DEL De ot DR ae ae ea eA een eee a ee (Me Eee pene (ee se Sah (ee ee aa
1.031 64.53 1.26 3.32 ] 2.37 — 31 3
1 032 61.93 1.51 3.16 2.31 — .66 1
1.033 63.29 1.46 4.53 2.29 -78 2
1.034 64.05 1.05 4.88 2.48 1.35 cd
1.035 64.47 1.15 4.37 2.24 -98 2
CA ee a ee ae ee cree eg (amare = : be a ga OS Pe ? Est Neon
1.037 52 60 1.20 4 7. 3.00 53 3
1.038 58 65 1.99 4 79 2.23 57 j 2
1.039 67.75 42 6.16 3.00 2.74 1
1.040 61.42 1.32 6.24 2.43 2.49 3
1 041 59 57 1.45 6.20 2.59 2.16 7
1.042 57.58 1.80 5.90 2.62 1.58 a
1.0643 62.94 1.80 6.35 1 94 2.61 2
1 044 60.32 1.95 6-71 1.76 3.00 2
1.045 60 97 1.82 7.17 1.90 3.45 2
1.046 61.67 1.80 7.72 2 04 3.88 3
1 047 58 52 1.32 8.17 2.79 4.10 ri
1.048 56.55 1.81 7.08 2.80 2.47 4
1 049 63.57 1.08 7.96 2.92 3 96 3
1.050 63.63 1.02 9.18 1.74 6.42 im
wt TLL ily itn eee Ree at (eee Spe ee Sade | SUR emer ts 9 | eee og ens, [ee ee SY fey es Fe =
1.052 59.75 1.66 8.95 2.8 4 46 2
1 053 55.35 1.43 9.13 2.56 5.14 oa
1.054 57.30 iis 8.01 3.51 ry | 4
1.055 47 81 1.04 9.13 3.61 4.45 4
1 056 55.02 1.00 9.58 2.81 5.77 3
1.057 56.71 1.28 9.02 3.65 4.09 11
1.058 57.29 1.33 9.49 2.75 5.41 5
1.059 58.39 1.36 98 3.99 4 50 8
1 060 53 45 -95 9 61 4.12 434 6
1.061 | 55.60 1.27 10.02 3.73 5.02 8
1 062 56 81 1.05 10 8&7 3.54 6.28 il
1.063 53 13 -93 10 27 3.7 5.56 6
1.064 52.55 -99 11.05 3.96 6.10 8
1.065 54 $1 1.26 10.98 3.73 5.99 12
1.066 49 63 -93 10 81 4.10 5.7. 6
1.067 46 93 1.2 11.33 4.21 6.00 6
1.068 57 20 .82 12 45 3.84 7.79 7
1.069 53 87 .60 12 4 4.39 7 355 i
1.07 48.27 86 11.99 4.35 67 2
1.071 56 11 1.14 11.77 4.42 6.21 3
1.072 00.25 aid 12.14 4.43 6.94
. 1.073 49 7 1.12 12.95 3.04 8.7 3
1.074 58 .90 -91 11.49 5.83 5 75 3
1.075 47 69 1.20 11.01 5.72 4.09 2
1.076 39 47 -68 11.45 6.18 4 59 1
ees 57 .63 -71 13.99 4.91 8.37 1
MEAD) EAE < seein Desc ewe Rae seeGin wena SY hwaseemhac> Je cele cea =meserwalhcanmnisac.. «opel awanacieasscee
1.079 55.11 89 15.16 3.27 11.00 1

498

SORGHUM.

As to relative value of sorghum and maize juices of the same spe-
cific gravity, reference is made to page 443, where this point is dis-

cussed at length.

'-. Saal

is °

> ae

on q

r) ©.
o= PAGES

— Orn
EB Ay
1.014 69.10
1.015 79.79
1.016 65.70
1.017 68 .28
1.018 3 90
1.019 65 92
1.020 63.39
1 021 65. 83
1.022 66.39
1.023 62.70
1.024 65.43
1.025 65.61
1.026 66.97
1.027 57.34
1.028 60.76
1.029 60 61
1.030 56.57
1 031 57 51
1.032 59.42
1.03 58.62
1.03 60.16
1.035 51.00
1.03 56 9d
1.037 55.17
1 038 61.47
1.039 56.33
1.040 62.63
1.041 57 47
1.042 54.63
1 043 61.46
1.044 56 68
1.045 53.22
1.046 61.3
1.047 56.94
1.048 54.33
1.049 61.02
1.050 57.71
1.051 57.30
1.052 54 90
1 053 56.75
1 054 71.3
1.055 57.18
1 056 53-42
1.057 62.36
1.058 55.47
1.059 58.78
1 060 53.31
1.061 56.07
1.062 53 49
ASOHS. IE) sere
1 064 53.14
1.065 53.90
APOGGNS 0) (eae
1.067 53.11
1.068 Sco
1.069 51.47
Ue HP) Bese
1.071 50.14
1 072 See
1 073 54.89

Per cent of glu-
cose.

NWN NNNWNNNNWNHNNWWNHNNNNHWNNWWNHNRNN HEE
p=

S
—
eo)

: NE NNN NHHNHNWNN?
2 ¥)

MAIZE JUICES, 1881.

Per cent of su-
crose.

WTO MW WTOTITAROAT TP OB oR COD WN RD EDR
- oe ; ‘ ae ao
So

bo:

oo.

bN-

Per cent of sol-

SN RN NP NNNNNNN WWW NNN hw tN tere

WENH NE NRF WNNWNNNHNNNNNb

bo: Ne

ids notsugar.

° pues
a. On
Sa ee
reL oO
Zs os |
ae es
Fee Oo
Ay Ay
fae —2.22
reas —2.76
ae —3 00
aces —3 84
SOR —4.18
Bae —4 48
Pee —5.79
pyres —4 21
eae —d 62
car —5.17
aoa —3 88
Sas —4 71
sande —5 17
ats —2.99
ei —4.74
Pipi Wf —2 79
3.24 — .61
2.08 —2 .98
2 80 —2.65
2.29 —2.99
3 66 —2.15
3.45 — .99
4.538 —2.17
4.25 —1.09
Sle — .54
5.08 88
5.05 — .74
5 00 {OL
Diol 20
5.44 — V7
5.99 58
6.39 ai ty)
6.16 .97
7.42 Bien
6.48 pe SFA
751 4 30
7 204: 54 (eal
7.20 3.95
aint: 2.23
8 66 4.25
7 52 .86
6 91 4 41
9 46 5 98
10.22 toad
10.25 Dare
10.52 6.98
10.58 6.06
10.65 8.08
11°39 5.68
12.37 9.77
11.40 7.0L
ae 9.58
11.74 7.80
Rea IMS
Ras fF 9.65

No. of analy-
ses.

(atl Pee Se UW DN WN WH WH AOIWWN OCB ROTATOR OAWWRNRORWNAMTP RRO PRON

AVERAGE RESULTS OF SORGHUM JUICES. 499

Averaye Results of Analyses of Sorghum Juices during their Working
Period.

From what has been already said, it is clear that the best results in
sugar or syrup can only be secured when the seed is fully matured,
and when the specific gravity of the juices shall equal or exceed 1.066.

If now we average the results of those analyses of sorghum juices,
the specific gravity of which exceeded 1.065, we find the results given
in the following tables.

Although, for the greater part, the varieties under examination
were entirely different, and, as-will be seen by reference to the meteor-
ological data given upon page 147, the several seasons were, in their
climatic conditions, widely unlike, it will be found that the several
tables give very closely accordant results; thus fully confirming the
opinion that the character of the crop may be very closely ascertained
by the specific gravity of the juice, both as to its value for sugar and
syrup. ;

AVERAGE RESULTS FOR SORGHUM, 1879.

[Juices above 1.065 specific gravity,]

Per cent.
SRETOSE BIL UNEC ye soem on eens = a= SCR clasts oti ee ere Tee OE et oc Be eee 13.35
Glucose in juice... ........ Bs re fees pr pes tes aaa a le wr ee pte od elem eee 1H
SS RIAA TEC SURED EON STN OC ia on ee Set coun aca seks j goe ok Semen pate canon seen owe ee 2.79
JCP a gi ire epee eee eee en a ees | ee Se See § 62
BGM. = 2S SS ae See a See AP ee ne ee Pe ens Bese ee ee AS 73.8
Available sugar by exponent FOREN U uwioa sa na Ghee uate haan cae t ode abaenecn vee tas 9.85
Number of analyses, 1i7.

AVERAGE RESULTS FOR SORGHUM, 1880.
[Juices above 1.065 specific gravity.]

Per cent.
Miapenes CARETEESGN A en aad du tan te RE a a Sk a petals a ats a Wiawaw ese 60.2
TPT EW TTA LEC ee BS I ee Ss age Es Bee AC 1 Ce ye ee Ae ae A Ps os eae 13.85
Sep R MANS IESE MN RUBACHS 2 Set Ee Fee ahs Ee ae wg Sa gpa PTI Rw ie oo atahg Slee i a arc 1.64
PRUAPUGy IONE HIP TSS BEL SERN GU 222 bes eae eae nae se whan oe sweet eeebeseasaan - 3.
Vvata le RUPEE De GMereNOG canes non sce coms dg ws agen Son eee awe ae ens ncn asene one Te §.36
PSUS ARS Se ee Ee torr per a nn ee ns bp Fe ee oe eee = weed
Available sugar by exponent...-..-.-...-.....--.--- Pe che ee aire amin ta el aes 9.93
Number of analy ses, 1,127.

AVERAGE RESULTS FOR SORGHTM, 18Sl.
[Juices above 1.065 specific gravity.]

Per cent.
Pwlee OMINOUS. cua swanes soos See eos EO OER Ear pie RO Eee ae meee 58.51
SES a re pO a a ee ee ee ee 15.29
Polarization --..---.-------- ---- eee tal ee ee ta PE a ge ach ease nee oe fae 14.34
SUP OT RST DES pg Sees 2s SR ee ee nk SS a Ee A Pere 1.62
SEApR NCEE RIED URES ANE (SEIN nos eee Ue oe oe ain Scien SES ne ho aaa ese Sr Po
Pv Mnae: eer thy Camere. jo. owe 8 oe Se ee wh SEES as ret PEt. See 10 12
Bxpouent..--.--2. ---4-- 2+ -saee 34 <2-- 25 - sense a a ne ae a ae eee eae 7i7
Available sugar by xponent. ... ... Wdicwakuaicciee ao ae.a pee ena Ceres aCueNeuepeha ne os 11.2

Number of analyses, aul.

500 SORGHUM.

AVERAGE RESULTS FOR SORGHUM, 1882.

| Juices above 1.065 specific gravity. ]

: Per cent.
Af ebte wo) o[ tbh e(2\s aang eae R Ontos mam AOor ACS AO aissb 07 as aS aaa HAM PMCnG aodiidocalsscc 51.52"
SUCTOSC ALI IMCs fe Sere outa ayelaioe a ede elone eiciata ete reaptitstetenss Biorn ave mecve onset ratevovehs aes eres 14.00:
IP OLATIZATL OI Sant dos flee ais cee aceite eae hac iecseaterenete ete aceite fi svmc a's elie. oreo ene re ote 18 .54
Gilucosewn swices A Bae ek eee sala brave ete easel slate te ahale Rag Ge hae Ae Sere 1.53:
Solids MoOMmSUPATS MINA ITLCES eer es cto clnre tro reer een eteleera cheiager iat orale e/-bol a nceat Er ees 3.06
Available sugar by GitterenCe.m. 5 <cler ctisinclele «ele cteislele isle ieinies cisia solseiei= =\-1-\m eis eee 9.41
Exponent -....%. S.:- Wan RS DIS ces Seed wih Baie aie wie Sate leie Te iat ale esars sig itnyovs ohare Sielss slats ae ee 75.3
AV ailable SUC ary CR POMC UA leyoscies<laicistiiersiecietasole fo toloietota aleiais ayetustereteraie iele(d™ faetelel isha tele ea aiete 10.54
Number of analyses, 513.
AVERAGE RESULTS FOR soRGHUM, 1879, ’80, ’81, ’82.
[Juices above 1.065 specific gravity. |
Per cent..
AOU M0\ et) bele(s Hoge REN AGR ar, Fon nadae a BAL ASO ABDAGRaIen cmaod SDOUNGs Carmen ooTG wD cane 5 56 . 75>
Sucrose in juice 14.12
OL er UZatl OMl erga oe ae pepe rete e aees ole te arose cists ceo pine aeneye = mleterenete atalavote, ae vofela. eheicrele tote oe aeeN 13.94
Glucose in juice. . : 1.68.
SHON AatOle(seePh ds weka oe Sco see mean snomarnSoac cocnoselu4te snes dogooagonbescelssa+ 3 31
EX Gidl a) Seo ony (onhatss (aes AyAde Dob chopnoonsoness Oe pace osaoounSagsea Gus bon tos- 9 13.
1Ub-gof01t GIN BE. GonidetaaH? Sh AL Gee apaiods bobeadeon acd snes. peopootossooeodspeddaaads dese a>. 73.9
Available sugar by exponent...........--.- Sinise wate letisie te AP Oe ae SORA CE OS0 5 10.43

Number of analyses, 2,348.

From the above results it will be seen that, as the average of 2,348.
analyses of over 100 varieties of sorghum, and during a period of four
successive years, there was found in one ton (2,000 pounds) of sor-
ghum by exponent 118.3 pounds of sugar available, and by difference
103.6 pounds; while in the several years the results were as follows:

AVAILABLE SUGAR FROM 2,000 POUNDS STRIPPED SORGHUM STALKS.

,
By Exponent. |By Difference.

IVC eR eOADDOOOOLD OS aad DOCOTE ADOOCC OD OCOPODMOCOMDOOnOOIE Jag ue 111.7 97.8
USO eeree mee asernice aerate retort pe ate levels ntahoie le edefelet 32) =\alava's[alasn/=\nicyo/ole chaigiaialg 119.6 100.7
Ts Pipe Ae OOH Saitama OGor ADC ERA uotd ark aad octteey 133.6 118.4
Is PAUARE eae tO oe SUTE Sno SAAT SEEN TOC SOOT G 119.6 106.8
DS 7D eyelet eciais eer eyes eel sci kes/evetore fare sate. <‘ny ale Satelose delensia'e ts 118.4 103.6

It would appear, therefore, clearly established, as the result of all
these analyses of nearly every variety of sorghum known, that, with
our ordinary mills, we may secure from every ton of stalks, if worked
at the proper time, at least 110 pounds of sugar; a result fully equal
to the average secured from sugar-cane in Louisiana.

Average Results of Analyses of Maize Juices During the Working Period.
| The following tables give the average results secured by the analy-
ses of the juices of several varieties of maize in the years 1880, 1881.

If we include all the analyses of maize juices in which the specific

AVERAGE RESULTS OF MAIZE JUICES. 501

gravity exceeded 1.055 for 1880, there were made in all 118 analyses,
with the following average results:

AVERAGE RESULTS FOR MAIZE, 1880.

[Juices above 1.055 specific gravity.]

Per cent

UICS OD AIM ECan esa ees = coe eae ae nna sea ou ee atac Me Sects 53.43
Sucrose in juice.-........... iy AS ee ae eee a Se J See 5 Re 11.30
Glucose Ini jMmeeeee .— cose s aka se es ooo 3 - dane Pe oe Deagrea ae 1.01
ROLES NOL SUP MENT NIEN ICES 6 r0 oo Nee cad. ee en ee ee 4.12
Available sugar=sucrose—(glucose+solids) SOA See ce Yate Lame 6.17
HX ponent e--eceeras ee. wos s oe ys oe ee a ae OT ee ee RN a 68.8

Available sugar calculated by exponent...... pest "She dati eae a 7.77

Number of analyses, 118.
AVERAGE RESULTS FOR MAIZE, 1881.
[Juices above 1.055 specific gravity.]
Per cent.

RICE ON LANCO eso ns toe eS aes tacos epee Nee ener ee See 54.60
Sucrose im juice---. ......-..- Be EE a Ba Reo OE See OR a PCIe oe 11.72
I IRCUREREy MICE Ue Sea te... uc» ae vce las a Ae ee eee 2.27
BORIS OG SHE RES ITE, LICE ios sa Pc one oad Oe ee ne 2.39
IPOURTIAA MOR poor, Sep) 22 oa Skee oes de & oes Se ee 10.86
Available sugar=sucrose—(glucose and pers Fae Sven et tae: 7.06
LASTEST ape BE le Se ee ee oe Ee ee G0 eee ee 71.6

Available sugar calculated by exponent....... ............. RAR ae 8.3

Number of. Analyses, 28.

The available sugar from one ton (2,000 pounds) of maize stalks was,
in 1880, by exponent method of estimation, 83 pounds, a difference
between sucrose and other solids of 66 pounds; in 1881, from 2,000
pounds stalks, by exponent, 92 pounds, a difference of 77 pounds be-
tween sucrose and other solids.

The results by polarization of the above maize juices in 1881 was
92.6 per cent of the results obtained by analysis.

The Hydrometer and Ripe Seed Sufficient to Indicate the Proper Time for
Working the Crop.

It will be seen, by reference to the preceding tables, that it is within
the means of the common farmer to inform himself accurately as to
the condition ‘of his crop by simply examining the seed, and by
the hydrometer learning the specific gravity of the expressed
juice.

For each increase of .001 n specific yravity between 1048 and 1086,
in the year 1880, there was an average increase (glucose excepted) in
the several constituents of the juice of the several sorghums as fol-
lows:

Per cent.
SHIGE ONG. 6 a= ac nous mone dane erci ances ase clea a tees Seki choy coe iteake 21
Soh oo oS + ose eat unease Ee SE ee ee een .067
Available sugar. =o else tee at cc dcemece cosas susas desees coe take eodee 257
GEIGER SOS. foc cans ta ee eee eek ae cate ove se Se cu deaneetadiac minus.. .073

Number of analyses, 2,186.

502 | SORGHUM.

In 1881, the increase for each .001 specific gravity was, in the aver-
age results for specific gravity, between 1052 and 1082: i

Per cent.
SUCLOSE Foetal cs eaasild sew areca 2s enete ae Se ee eee er ISS ei een See B05
SOLIGS ype ase ek). he oe Neleade as nsoclae siete ee A er eee eee te ak eee eee -013
ANGIE SULAT! Woe ik cia ee oc Re Ieee mee eee nL are eons b i. 2 RODS
GIUCORC Ree iat 4 Miees cre accede Ee een ae ete ya minus.. 062

Number of analyses, 438.

The general average for the years 1879, 1880, and 1881, specific
gravity between 1048 and 1080, was for each increase of .001 specific
gravity:

Per cent
SITCTOSE Ske etre tele ete ese toiacs Cette Pn geass ole oes eer ie a, See 938
Solidise-een as Basen Nee. oe ESOT MS ahs steaks te Dr ole Cole ee aa eee WN .028
AVALLADIE SUSAN. falc cate bl. les cane cela ec late Meee tee eee eae 262
GCOS RE ite a he ete te Sears Bie anon foe oote ee ote CO er minus 052

For changes in specifie gravity in successive stages of development,
each increase of .001 specific gravity corresponded to the following re-
sults:

Specific gravity. Sucrose. Solids. seta Glucose. phe
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
LOIS MLOMO20 2S. tac Nee cere 066 016 — .034 | 04 146
LOPS to wlOd De eee. eects sins 2 cine .122 025 069 | 028 191
AOAZNL OCOD?) siete teierete te Bese pee .290 O11 062 017 | 129
LODQ AG BLOG TSA ase ce .299 .010 840 —.051 158
OGUSTONO TIRES AR eoet was heer ine 273 023 .B0D — 055 137
LOT TOROS 2 Se eee ace oe ces LET) O11 pypl — .065 236

From these it will appear that the sorghum juices, after they have
reached a specific gravity of about 1050, increase gradually and with
great regularity in saccharine strength and in available sugar until a
specific gravity of 1080 to 1082 is attained, and that this increase is
fully, upon the average, 0.3 per cent of the weight of the juice for
each .001 increase in specific gravity, or an average increase between
1050 and 1082 of 9.6 per cent of the weight of the juice in available
sugar.

The practical importance of this fact, which appears to be demon-
strated by the very numerous analyses made during the past three
years, can hardly be too strongly emphasized.

By reference, then, to the table given on page 493, the farmer may,
by simply taking the specific gravity of his sorghum juice, readily es-
timate the approximate value of the crop for the production of sugar
or syrup.

PREPARATION OF SOLUTIONS FOR ANALYSIS OF SORGHUM, ETC. 503

PREPARATION OF SOLUTIONS FOR ANALYSIS OF SORGHUM, MAIZE, AND
SUGAR-CANE JUICES.

Fehling’s Solution.

Weigh out the following: C,H,K NaO,.4H,0 crystallized Ro-
chelle salt, 2595 grams; powder it and put it in a large glass balloon
flask, holding at least 20 liters; add NaHO caustic soda, 820.8 grams,
and then pour over it 7 liters of water, and shake up until dissolved.

Dissolve in 8 liters of water 519.6 grams CuSO,.5H,0 crystallized
sulphate of copper, and add the solution of the copper salt to the so-
lution of Rochelle salts and caustic soda; then add water enough to
make 15 liters in all.

It is well to powder the Rochelle salts and the sulphate of copper,
to hasten the solution of them. It is of advantage to place the hy-
drate of soda upon the powdered Rochelle salts, in order that its solu-
tion may be readily effected, without allowing it to come in contact
directly with the glass.

Permanganate Solution.

131.748 grams (132.) of crystallized permanganate of potash,
K,Mn,0Og,, dissolved in 30 liters of water, gives a solution of the
proper strength.

100 c. ¢. of decinormal oxalic acid solution should equal 72 c. c. of this
permanganate solution.

Basie Acetate of Lead Solution.

4500 grams of pulverized lead acetate, Pb(C,H3;0,)., are mixed
with 2700 grams of lead oxide, PbO, and 2500 c. c. of water added to
the mixture. It is then boiled for two hours in an iron pot, with stir-
ring, the evaporated water being replaced. Filter in bottles.

Ferrie Alum Solution.
Ferric alum, 500 grams; water, H,O, 5 liters; sulphuric acid,
H,S8O,, 250 ¢.¢. Dissolve the powdered alum in the water, and then
add the sulphuric acid.

504 SORGHUM.

CHAPTER XVI.

(a.) Methods of manufacture of different sorghum sugar, and syrup makers.

(b.) Experiments in sorghum sugar manufacture, on a large scale, at the
Department of Agriculture, at Washington.

(c.) Causes of failure in the manufacture of sugar at the Department of Ag-
riculture, at Washington.

METHODS OF MANUFACTURE.

For the purpose of showing the present methods of manufacture of
sugar and syrup, and the variations possible, without endangering
success, the following briefly detailed methods are given of a few of
those manufacturers who have, thus far, been most successful. It is to
be said, that, while the methods differ greatly, they generally agree in
the importance of promptness, and in carrying forward the several op-
erations in cleanliness, and especially in the greatest care in defecation
of the juices.

It is interesting to see that all of these reports are from the more
northerly states, averaging 41° north latitude, and varying from 89°
to 44°; also, that the longitude varies from 2° E. to 14° 5’ W., cov-
ering an area of 350 by 1,200 miles; thus showing the possible area
for the successful cultivation of sorghum for sugar, while the im-
mensely larger area, extending from 39° north latitude to the gulf, and
from the Atlantic to the mountain regions of the west, is doubtless
better adapted to the growth of this plant than most of the more
northern states. Thus far this new industry has been largely limited
to the north and west, possibly through greater enterprise in northern
farmers and capitalists, and greater readiness to enter upon new indus-
tries which give promise of success.

Several of those whose methods are given were among the success-
ful competitors for prizes given by the Department of Agriculture for
those who should report the best results in sorghum sugar making in

1882.
Plan for a Cheap, Economical Home Factory.

The following plate, No. XLIX, published by J. A. Field & Co., St.
Louis, Mo., presents a plan for a small sugar or syrup works, such as
is in very general use among our farmers, and which, at very moderate
expense, will enable the farmer to manufacture his small acreage of
sorghum into excellent syrup, either for home consumption or for some
central factory.

METHODS OF MANUFACTURE.

SY SWANYRAS

ws

Plate XLIX.

PLAN FOR A CHEAP, ECONOMICAL HOME FACTORY.

A. Location of Mill. B. Pipe from Mill to Juice Vat.

at Juice Vat. E. Juice Vat. FF. Evaporators.

C. Strainer at Mill.
G. Cooling Tank for Syrup.

D.

Strainer

506 SORGHUM.

Champaign Sugar Company, Champaign, Ill.

PROFESSORS WEBER AND SCOVELL.

1. Cane passed through a3 roll mill, the bagasse saturated with
hot water, and then passed through a second 3 roll mill; the juice
from both mills received in a common tank.

2. Juice treated with milk of lime in defecators to neutralization,
as shown by litmus paper; then heated to boiling and skimmed.
After skimming, allowed to settle half an hour or more, and then the
clear juice is drawn off from the sediment.

3. Juice from defecator is evaporated in open pan to 25° Beaumé,
and the semi-syrup drawn off into settling tanks.

4, After having deposited its impurities, the semi-syrup is drawn
off from the sediment and filtered through bone-coal.

5. The semi-syrup from the bone-coal filters is evaporated t) me-
lada in vacuum pan;.and, after being purged in centrifugal, the mo-
lasses is again boiled in vacuum pan to 40° Beaumé for second sugars. °
Agricultural Department University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.

PROFESSOR SWENSON.
_1. Cane pressed as soon as possible after cutting, and the juice
strained through a straw filter (bucket filled with straw).

2. Juice heated to lukewarmness and made slightly alkaline with
lime, as shown by litmus paper, then heated to boiling as quickly as
possible, and steam turned off; then skimmed, and again heated to
slight boiling, the steam again turned off, and the fresh scum removed.
This operation is repeated two or three times, giving finally a clear
juice nearly free from sediment.

3. The defecated juice is evaporated in open pan to about 20°
Beaumé,

4. From the evaporator the semi-syrup is taken to vacuum pan,
and evaporated to about 42° Beaumé, thence emptied into tin-lined
wooden vats, each holding about 50 gallons, where it is allowed to re-
main three or four days. .

Every step hurried as much as possible, averaging about three hours
from time cane was pressed till the drawing off from the vacuum pan
into the crystallizing tanks.

This process, as will be seen, differs somewhat from the method de-
scribed by Professor Swenson, and published in the Report of the Com-
mittee of the National Academy of Science upon ‘‘ The Sorghum Su-
gar Industry,” p. 84.

The chief difference is in the method of defecation.

KD.

METHOD OF MANUFACTURE. 507

Do not allow the cane to stand stripped in the field.

Work up the cane as soon as possible after being cut.

Defecate the juice as soon as possible after leaving the mill.

For defecation use milk of lime, freed from coarse particles by straining:
add it gradually to the juice with vigorous stirring until a piece of red litmus
paper is turned to a pale purple.

Heat the juice quickly to the boiling point, as shown by the swelling and
breaking of the scum.

Remove the seum after allowing the juice to remain quiet for five minutes.

Draw off the clear juice through an aperture near the bottom of the defecator
into the evaporating pan.

And sulphurous acid to the clear juice until a piece of blue litmus paper is
reddened.*

Evaporate down until it reaches a density of 45° B., or, if boiled in an open
pan, to a boiling temperature of 234° F.

Place in a warm room to crystallize, and in about a week it will be ready to
separate.

Sterling Syrup Works, Sterling, Kansas.

1. Juice received in large tanks (500 gallons), divided by a parti-
tion, one side being filled with hay, through which the juice is filtered.

2. In the defecator, lime is added to the cold juice till blue litmus
shows only a faint tinge of red. Then the juice is heated to 180° F.
The steam is turned off, the scum removed, and the juice allowed to
settle.

3. After settling, the defecated juice is drawn into the evaporator,
heated by steam-pipes, and, with skimming, reduced to 22° Beaumé.

4. The semi-syrup is now exposed to sulphurous acid fumes as it is
drawn from the evaporator into tanks, where it remains until suffi-
ciently settled.

5. The semi-syrup is then evaporated in the “finisher,” heated by
copper coil, to 35° Beaumé, and from the finisher drawn into a cooler 12
feet long and 2 feet wide, in which it is quickly cooled by means of
manifold pipe, through which cold water is circulated.

6. After cooling, the syrup is stored in large tanks until all froth
has risen to the surface, and is then drawn into barrels.

Nelson Maltby, Geneva, Ohio.
1. Cane crushed in 3 roll mill. Juice passes through a straw
filter.
2. Juice heated in the defecator by steam to 180° F., and then

*This step may be omitted if no excess of lime has been added during defe-
cation. It will have no effect on the quantity of sugar obtained, but will make
a lighter colored molasses.

508 SORGHUM.

neutralized with milk of lime, as shown by litmus paper, after which
it is heated to the boiling point; then steam is turned off, scum re-
moved, and, as soon as the sediment settles, the clear juice is drawn by
a swing pipe into a tank where it is treated with sulphurous acid until
litmus paper is reddened.

3. The defecated juice, after addition of sulphurous acid, is concen-
trated by a Cook.evaporator to about 30° Beaumé, and is then con-
trated in a pan, heated by steam-pipes, to a boiling point of 228° F.
for syrup, and 235° F. for sugar.

The concentrated syrup is stored in room heated to from 80° to 100°
F. for from 1 to 6 days, and then purged in a centrifugal.

Drummond Brothers, Warrensburg, Missouri.

1. The expressed juice is filtered through a perforated tin strainer,
and received in a tank, in which it is allowed to settle, the juice being
drawn from the top into a Cock evaporator, where the only agent for
defecation is heat. The scum is removed, and the semi-syrup from
this first pan is still further concentrated in another Cook evaporator
to 230° F. boiling point, if syrup is intended to be made, or to 234°
F. for sugar.

2. From the second Cook pan the syrup (for the purpose of rapid
cooling) is passed through a shallow tin trough into the storage tank.

3. For sugar, the syrup is kept in shallow tanks, in a room heated
to from 80° to 90° F.

4, The molasses is drained off through sacks.

A. J. Decker, Fond du Lac, Wis.

1. Cane passed through 3 roll mill, and juice filtered through wire
gauze and straw filters.

2. Lime is added in the defecators until nearly neutral, the juice
‘remaining slightly acid, and then by steam-pipes is heated as quick as
possible to the boiling point, and the steam is turned off. The scum
is removed and the sediment allowed to settle. The clear juice is then
drawn off by a faucet near the bottom of the defecators. If the defe-
cation is good, the juice should be as clear as water.

3. The juice is evaporated in open pans heated by steam-pipes, and
the syrup is drawn into coolers of galvanized iron, with a coil of tin
pipe at the bottom, through which is pumped a stream of cold water.
From the cooler the syrup is drawn into large storage tanks, and,
after crystallizing, the sugar is purged by means of a centrifugal.

METHOD OF MANUFACTURE. 509

Oak Hill Refining Company, Edwardsville, Madison County, I.

1. The juice from the mill passes through a long perforated screen
for removing mechanical impurities, to the sulphur box, where it is
treated with sulphurous acid from the burning of sulphur, the sulphur-
ous acid passing over a water-trough 8 feet long (to take out any sul-
phuric acid) before it reaches the sulphur box and juice. From the
sulphur box the juice is received in tanks, in which some sediment
falls.

2. Milk of lime, about 12° Beaumé, is added to the juice in the
defecators before heating, and not quite to the point of neutralization,
as shown by litmus paper. Heat is now applied by means of steam
coils at bottom. When the first heavy blanket of scum is obtained,
it is skimmed, and then another scum is brought up and removed.
The juice is now boiled briskly for a few minutes, and then allowed
to settle. The juice should then be quite clear, and is drawn into
settling tanks to permit the further deposit of impurities, and then is
drawn into evaporators.

3. The defecated juice is concentrated in a cireular evaporator with
a scum trough, into which the green scum, which at first forms, is swept
as fast as it rises. When all the scum has been removed, the boil-
ing is urged, with high steam (80 pounds) pressure, till a semi-syrup
of 20° to 25° Beaumé is obtained.

4. The semi-syrup is then drawn into settling tanks, if not quite
clear, and is in a second circular evaporator brought to 35° or 36°
Beaumé; but it is desirable to complete the evaporation before the
semi-syrup is allowed to cool. The concentrated syrup is cooled as
speedily as possible. by allowing it to run over a wide surface exposed
to the air before it passes into the storage tanks.

5. Before liming, good results have been obtained by adding to the
cold juice in the defecator a small amount of superphosphate of lime.

Jefferson Sugar Company, Jefferson, Ohio.

1. Juice from 3 roll mill, heated by steam-pipes to 180° F., and
neutralized with milk of lime; then heated to boiling, skimmed, al-
lowed to settle, and the clear liquor drawn off into a settling tank,
where it is made acid with a solution of sulphurous acid or with the

2. Evaporated to semi-syrup with skimming, in open galvanized
iron pan, heated by steam, and the semi-syrup finished in a separate
pan heated with steam.

510 SORGHUM.

William Frazier, Esofea, Vernon county, Wisconsin.

1. Juice received from the mill into settling tanks, and drawn from
the sediment into a liming tank, where it is treated with milk or cream
of lime to neutralization, as shown by blue litmus paper being turned
purple.

2. A long pan, 17 x 3} feet, divided into compartments of 5, 4, and
8 feet, is used in defecation and evaporation to semi-syrup. The
limed juice is drawn into the five foot compartment next the chimney,
where it is slowly heated, but never boils, and is skimmed once in five
or six hours. From this compartment, which is higher than the rest
of the pan, it passes to the four foot compartment, where it is heated
nearly to boiling, and is skimmed as necessary, and by a gate the
clarified juice passes into the eight foot compartment, which is made
like a Cook pan, with divisions 16 inches wide. While passing through
this channel of 21 feet, it is rapidly boiled, with the removal of green
scum, and then is drawn into a semi-syrup tank, and allowed to settle
for about an hour.

5. To the semi-syrup is added a solution of porous alum, about one
pint to 100 gallons of semi-syrup. This solution contains one-half
ounce of the porous alum to the pint.

4. The semi-syrup is drawn from the sediment into a Cook pan,
where it is reduced to syrup. The finished syrup runs through a
wooden trough, 32 feet long, to a cooler.

Paul Steck, San Francisco, California.

1. Juice heated to 120 F., and then neutralized with milk of lime,
as shown by litmus test, then heating till the scum forms on surface ;
steam is shut off, and the juice freed from scum and sediment by
passing through filter presses, then through filters of bone-black, 3 feet
in diameter and 25 feet long.

2. The defecated and filtered juice was evaporated to 21° Beaumé,
in double effect apparatus, under 24 inch vacuum.

3. The semi-syrup, if not clear, is again passed through bone-black
filters, and then brought to syrup or sugar test in vacuum pan; syrup
from vacuum pan run into crystallization tanks, then purged by cen-
trifugals.

William P. Wheeler, Chittenango, New York.

1. Juice flowed from mill through straw filter into the receiving and
settling tank, thence into defecator of galvanized iron, where it was
heated to 180° F., and by milk of lime just neutralized, as shown by
litmus paper; then quickly brought to boiling point; and, before active

METHOD OF MANUFACTURE. 511

boiling began, the heat was withdrawn, the scum removed, and the
sediment allowed to subside, which required about half an hour.

2. The clear defecated juice was drawn, by means of a stop-cock
placed just above the bottom of the defecator, into a galvanized iron

an, twelve feet long and 4 feet wide, divided into three compartments,
connected by gates in the partitions. The skimming was mainly com-
pleted in the first and second compartments, and the semi-syrup from
the third was allowed to run in a continuous stream into a Cook pan,
in which concentration was completed. The syrup was stored in a
tin-lined tank until thoroughly cool.

3. The sediment from the defecator was filtered through plaited bag
filters, described on page 289, and filtered juice added to the first evap-
orator.

Rio Grande Sugar Company, Rio Grande, N. J.

1. Juice is expressed by three-roll mill, and the bagasse is again
passed through two additional rolls; the juice from both sets of rolls
being received in one tank, and thence pumped to another.

2. In this latter there is added to the juice cream of lime, com-
pletely saturated with sulphurous acid, which has been passed into it.
Enough of this sulphite of lime is added to render juice slightly turbid.

3. After settling, the juice is run into the defecating tanks proper,
where it is heated to boiling, then skimmed, and passed through the
filter press.

4. The defecated and filtered juice is drawn into the evaporators,
where it is reduced by heat from steam coils until scum ceases to rise.

5. The thin syrup is taken into a horizontal vacuum pan, resembling
a tubular boiler; where under about 25 inches of vacuum, it is
brought to pan liquor, which is brought into the vacuum pan, and
concentrated to melada. This, after storing two to five days in a warm
room, in iron tanks, passes to the mixer, and next to the centrifugals.

Results Obtained by Different Methods of Evaporation of Sugar-Cane
Juice from Louisiana Canes.

The following comparative results, obtained by different methods of
evaporation, are given by McCulloh, in his report to the government,
and are of interest in this connection.

They were prepared for publication by C. Conrad Johnson, Esq.,
an experienced sugar-boiler.

Tn the following table, comparison is made between the several dif-
ferent svstems of manufacture, as therein given, both with respect to
the amounts of sugars produced, the relative quality or grade of pro-
duct, and the total pecuniary value in a relative point of view of each

512 SORGHUM.

result, the whole being based upon an equal amount of extractable
sugar in each case.

VALUE OF A CROP OF CANE MADE INTO SUGAR BY SIX DIFFERENT PROCESSES,
INTO HOGSHEADS, WITHOUT BEING SYRUPED, AT THE PRICE EACH CLASS HAS
BEEN SOLD OR IS WORTH THIS SEASON, 1847,

[The whole quantity of dry sugar being in each case 653,367 pounds, and the boiling power re-
quired for each crop being 8,000 pounds. |

|

= 5 wad & : wn 1 SE wa nw
2 & on = z 7 5 4 = 24a Sc
Gg 4 ° a n 6 =< ooo. A tos on o
: A) a ns || Buel Po US SVEN =
SH he | oe. © & os ey og oo mss oe
° 38 SA | as r a SoS = 3
cs! wm oD as eae ne Lt} Pad nH ee poe Ea)
o = “= ae ai Ser Bt Pa alse 3
3 2 ie Mees |e, bad see a bee @a| 580 ie
P= om ie a A S = oO a ‘= a
| ———— ———
ie aes ot 33,000 414] 19,485) *43,300 2 866 00) 26,734} 18 4,812 12| 25,163 12
Deistsieai= 433,000) 424) 19,485] 153,500 234| 1,221 25) 13,857] 18 2,494 26] 26,200 51
Sins ane 433,000 5 21,650] 162,000 344] 5,265 00} 12,874; 18 2,317 32) 29,232 32
YO eee 433,000} 4 17,320} 153,500) 244] 3,837 50) 12,857) 18 2,314 26] 23,471 76
Bites setts 33,000 513} 23,815] 162,000 344] 5.670 00) 12.871] 20 2,574 20) 32,059 20
Bi ono 440,000 634} 28,600) 163,000) 434) 7,742 50; 11,949) 20 2,389 80} 88.732 30
Sopa 478,500 6 28,710} 141,000 414) 6,345 00} 10,041) 2 2,008 20} 37,063 20
COMPARATIVE EXPENSES, CONSUMPTION OF FUEL, PROFITS, ETC.
4 4 ro 3 | ag
é o ® Ou: A ie =
yy =| = Ce} to Z =
=I 3 Oa =n wy 8 5 a an
sien aS} R ae os (3) oat wd
Se | eR q Ses) 2 Ae oR
So We seo a A 9 =
fie oP 6° “a ‘a oh pe
3 5 i) a a) Cle S
Ay fea = mn A 4 <
Ms SP kore coh cyeteh ta terhererepeseye uate ore $7,000 | ..... HL toil | Breen os $18,163 12 | $13,440 43 $2,600
A CEE Ia sa res Anni ees One E0004 22s OLD il Leeeecieerasc 19,200 37 12,403 18 2,500
Sisig Mate rsraya.s hore eee See Oe ee O00) |e See 1,515 is as 22,232 32 9,371 23 4,000
ae ice PR POI eects 8,000 200 | 1,948] L. $974 25 14,477 37 17,126 18 12,000
Ditacin ease saa seems eee 8,000 200 | 1,948] L. 974 25 22,885 55 8,718 00 12,000
Biche ttoracn raceme iclente Senet 8,000 | 200 550 | S.2, 171 75 S1603i00n| eee -| 10,000
Oech orice Cree earn sn 3 8,000 | 200 500 | 8.2, 171 25} 31,034 45 569 10 10,000

(In the foregoing table, taken from McCulloh’s report, method 1
represents ‘‘ the old set of kettles;” 2. Set of kettles for syrup, strike
high pressure steam pan; 3. Set of kettles for syrup, and strike vacuum
pan; 4. Open high pressure steam pans for syrup and strike ; 5. The
same for syrup, with strike vacuum pan; 8. Rellieux’s triple and quad-
ruple effect pan apparatus, clarifiers, and filters; +8. The same, with
results obtained from high boiling.)

In the above table, we have the relative values of each of these
methods, as far as production, value of the result, and expense attend-
ing the same, are concerned, together with the relative cost of each
apparatus at the date of the compilation of this table. These results

EXPERIMENTS IN SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. 513

are alike, both with reference to the total amount of gross values pro-
duced and the relative economy of each method, with respect to cost
of production, referred to the net product. Thus, in both instances,
they stand as follows: 8, +8, 5, 3, 2,1, 4; the method 8 giving the
best and 4 the poorest, proving that the rules indicated by scientific
investigation are substantiated by the results of practical experience.
From these data we may conclude, therefore, that vacuum apparatus,
when properly combined with suitable clarifying appurtenances, will
always give the most satisfactory returns, and, in the increased value
of the product, will, in a short period, repay the original first cost.

EXPERIMENTS IN -SUGAR MANUFACTURE AT THE DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE AT WASHINGTON.

In connection with the laboratory investigations which have been
conducted upon the sorghum and maize plants during the past few
years at the Department of Agriculture, there have been made, notably,
during the seasons of 1880 and 1881, a series of experiments with ref-
erence to the production of sugar from these plants upon a scale of
commercial importance. A careful record was made of each detail of
these several experiments, and, in view of the importance, practically and
scientifically, of the results obtained, this record is worthy of very care-
ful study on the part of those contemplating any attempt at sugar
making.

This is the more important, since the results of these practical experi-
ments at Washington have been the subject of such ignorant miscon-
ception and willful representation, that it is possible the head of the
department felt himself justified in his efforts to invest with ridicule and
becloud with doubts every effort on the part of those seeking to estab-
lish an important industry.

The experiments made at the Department of Agriculture were those
of the ‘‘ small mill” and the ‘‘ large mill,” as they were for convenience
designated.

The ‘‘small mill” consisted of a ‘‘ Victor mill,” with a capacity of
from 40 to 50 gallons of juice per hour, defecator, and evaporator, the
latter being an open pan of galvanized iron without partitions. This
form was desirable, since each lot of juice defecated was converted into
syrup, collected, weighed, and analyzed. Direct heat was used in both
defecation and evaporation in the small mill.

The ‘‘large mill” consisted of mill, defecators, sulphur box, filters,
evaporators, vacuum pan, cars, mixer, and centrifugal. Steam was

used throughout in the operations of the large mill.
33

514 SORGHUM.

The crops of sorghum grown for the large mill were as follows:

At Mr. Golden’s, about one mile from Uniontown, forty-four varie-
ties of sorghum, in small lots, amounting in all to 13 acres. These
varieties were chiefly the same as those grown upon the grounds of the
department. There was also grown by him 38 acres of the Liberian
and 12 acres of the Honduras. Owing to the excessive drought, thir-
teen of the small lots failed to germinate, and these were re-planted
June 1st and 2nd.

There were also planted upon the grounds of Mr. Carlisle Patterson,
just beyond the city limits, some 65 acres of Early Amber and of —
Link’s Hybrid, and, owing to the backward season and ravages of the
wire and cut worms, this plat was re-planted three times, the last
planting being completed June 18th.

There was also planted upon the grounds of Dr. Dean, about one
mile from Benning’s Bridge, 12 acres in Honduras, 10 acres in Neea-
zana, 10 acres in Early Orange, 12 acres in Liberian, and 6 acres in
the eight varieties of maize planted upon the department grounds.
The sorghums were planted by May 23rd, and the maize by May 25th.

Dr. Dean began re-planting Honduras June 2nd, Early Orange
June 7th, Liberian June 9th, Neeazana June 13th. Dr. Dean began
second re-planting Honduras June 18th, Early Orange June 20th, Li-
berian June 21st, Neeazana June 29th.

To any one who has carefully perused this volume, it is useless to
say that this delay was fatal to success in the production of sugar, and
that failure was inevitable, unless all previous experience was to be
falsified. :

The failure of the crop to mature, as had been confidently predicted
during the summer, was fully realized. At last, with the assurance
that frosts would soon render the crop unfit even for syrup, owing to
its immature state, it was resolved to begin work, since, with the lim-
ited capacity of the mill, it would require at least two months to work
up the entire crop of 135 acres. Accordingly, the work of cutting the
cane began September 19th, and grinding began September 26th, and
was continued without any serious interruption until October 28th.
At this time, the cane still remaining on the field, through the effect
of frosts and succeeding warm weather, had become worthless. The
cane from 934 acres in all was brought to the mill, the last portions of
which had already become sour and offensive.

Those portions worked were of the earliest varieties planted, since
there was more hope of possible success with those than with the other
varieties.

In the experiments with the large mill, each load of cane was

EXPERIMENTS IN SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. 515

weighed, the juice measured in the defecator, of which the capacity
was known, and at intervals during the day samples of the freshly ex-
pressed juices were taken for analysis in the laboratory. The syrups
produced were also carefully weighed and also analyzed.

As evidence of the condition of the crop, it may be mentioned that
all the seed which had sufficiently matured to make it possible to save,
was carefully gathered, and the total product of the 934 acres was
about 150 bushels, or one and two-thirds bushels per acre. If we es-
timate 17 bushels of seed to the acre as a reasonable crop for land of
the character of that selected for growing this sorghum, it will be seen
that only 10 per cent of the crop had reached maturity. As this, un-
fortunately, was intermixed with the other nine-tenths in every condi-
tion of immaturity, a large portion not even in blossom, the resulting
syrups produced may be anticipated.

On this point, the statements of Peter Lynch, the sugar-boiler, are
conclusive, there being, as he says, but two days, October 4th and 5th,
when he received cane in even a reasonably matured state, and from
this he readily produced sugar. The report of Assistant Parsons, who
had immediate charge of the chemical and other work in the mill,
will be read with interest as a conclusive statement of the several
causes of failure made by an expert of ample experience. See tables
A B.C.

Since this matter is of such vital practical importance, in connection
with the production of sugar from sorghum, a brief review of some of
the salient points clearly established will be appropriate.

Results from Analyses of Thirty-five Varieties of Sorghum grown in 1881.

By reference to the table, page 198, giving the general results from
analyses of thirty-five varieties of sorghum in 1881, it will be seen that
the available sugar in their juices during the successive stages was as

follows:
AVAILABLE SUGAR.

Stage. Per cent.
Tis PO BEE Ed gr See Se Sea An Oe ne pe ee pat ee ones —3 82
Pan EOE ante ents Ba ca Big eke 3S Ss She oe denn Sete dence een aun SO tn 45
3. Fully headed out 92
2 oe Se eas <2 a eee eee 29
PerRIaRE -Etiee POLO) VIE ~ pam erica as ae Dae e PEERS ad thie aoe ent ar oe ee 81
Di SR ERE Aas SS st SS BR Ae eee SS oe eee i eer SEE 87
TL SEEPS OS TEL Spies Pac toh tt Oe eee Ol cone ceE eae eae ee Cee, Banat a 98
Re ee at aoe dete ale am wee <mtaials cies ce ata sm able ORG eC oa ee 64
9. Seed in dough..... e 14
10 Se: 2 86

11. Seed hard...

516 SORGHUM.

Now, a large portion of the crop was not yet in blossom, i. e., was
at about the fourth stage, while not over a tenth had matured the seed,
i. e., reached the eleventh stage. If we take an average of the fifth
to the eleventh stages, inclusive, we shall find that, while the ninth,
tenth, and eleventh stages give a total of 8.14 per cent plus, the fifth,
sixth, seventh, and eighth stages give a total of 17.51 per cent minus
available sugar, or an average for the seven stages of —1.17 per cent.
By this is meant that the per cent of sucrose was 1.17 less than the
sum of the per cents of glucose and solids in the juices. It will fol-
low, then, that the average condition of the crop was such as to abso-—
lutely forbid the hope of any sugar being produced, and that its pro-
duction, at any period during the working, was only possible when a
lot of cane might happen to be brought in which was considerably bet-
ter than the average, as indeed occurred two or three times during the
month of grinding.

The following tables represent the results of the work, and it will be
seen that these results are in entire harmony with the preceding state-

ments:
Taste A.—Canes CRUSHED.

Received from— Tons. | Pounds.
DEASH A enact Gh a leigh LUST ig 00 PLR ee, AIR Ah ieee A et Maiieriras AOR Stain en Leta hia merci 104 80
Si MYGolden ire 5 -ius. ace 3 oe chaise SRI SI ST aah otacien iotafors la roninee 99 1,304
DDT DCH Ae vacc sac ache wiciein bee are getava cietctarael SER atsiale tints ele eos cote ele eretawcrerstsreeete 25 1,060
Tot ale oe aoe ee eet Ora UAL ADT CRED sy a ET 9298 2,444

= TARLE B.—JsUICES EVAPORATED AT SUGAR MILL, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Ls)

' ‘ wv fa Y ' ' ' ' '
w go 7 w o, Cs a 7 iF) o
’ tot i) i) f 77 u
be ce "Sb I § 8 & | | 4 | 2
) ra ° =] i~] et bo & oO Oo
b hw — we bel wn o @ 8 Co] § =] ~]
& ° nt iS) uated |.° ie be 77) in
5 Date, 1 ae 4a ) 42 Ca aed we ‘ a 2 2
a) in A =| Et aa ag ag v a ; vy We) 2
; Be ew ol bat eee mike is Bel a te F Y a geo | & c
" o a8 nw 9 be uo by ju “os fa Pot A Ss ta =| So rd Fa
x ae ye ry oa qm qm ri] is) i; rs ° ga & -
: & 6 Ay fa fy fy fy fy 5 & bh a a a “4
1881 Lhe, Lba, Lba, Lbs, | Lb, —Lba,
a Sept. 27) 1,057 1,008 8 86 8.70 11,080, 7 HAS 1,822.18 245
B Ys! 1.066 1,771 9.66 None, 14,0844] 1,447 1,264.02 fis ih he TAL 60
28) 1.068 9 00 4 Nol hit ‘ ; at ae Lah
‘i 20] 1.061 1,470 6 6.24 9) re 12,517 4 665.91) 1,212.94 106.89) 1,009.08) '..... 106 89
20) 1,062 0 00 h FONG, 6.63 ‘ Pre eb.
BO] 1.065 1,788.8) 12,20 4 None, Hod 14,700,2| 1,793.42 607 16 891.08 RTT age | eieeeeet eaiarle 1,677 20
BO] 1.059 6 Bd § 0 64 i v7 Nocatee lite ;
= Oct, 1} 1.069 2) 10.43 h None, ,Ol 9,502.8 991.09) , B58 74 227.10 DUE ALE lettin 659 45
3 8] 1.075 Coe Th74 i) None, 901 7,085.8 825.94 B06 00 204.02 189.26 ee 688 87
8] 1.068 | . 8,62] 11 | 4.77 at ; ~ ; :
f ; O70 1,055.6 6 86 a | 2 86 ; 9,776.4 971.92 957.11 105 59) * 1,020 45 279 60
\ 008 i 2.78 | 8) ia : ; ed
q 4] 1,068 8.60 | 11 | 6.27 Piece BA at otsatans ea ans cid
6b] 1.074 650 8 8.84 13 | PROD ean 4,059.8 178.04 626 2! 25. GF 584.80 Mele T Wake vere
ti 6 ae 723.6 6.72 He | . 2.44 ae 6,121.7 850.16 610.95 111.42 612.78 LAO BT |itah Favs ne
6G) OBB ves 7 30 ) one, 4.18 ; raat 7, ; eens
Cle 060.) ies 5 80 ) Fes ; ai * nae er ye
7 ; on 1,522.8 4 a 6 Ree Od 12,882 .9 673 77 680 21 127.64 464.76), ..,, 121.10
0 06 4 ) ) one, Bar. |||» at : rf oy Rea Rah ovale
a i Oe 1,014.0 } Bt ) Tey ell eats sohyinine 16,446 2 639.75) 1,619.95 261.49) 1,866.81 PIB VTA) vecunes
i) et one 9 7 DESO atk 7 ; ey. Tea
i ms ; ee 1,083.2 ; 3 i | Hy sy 16,8549 765 40) 1,160.87 238.78) 1,076.15 TOBOLO tvncrays
G FA 4 } 9.25 - vi eS sae Vee Seem
3 ed 1,976.4 : a ; i ate 16,7217 730 78) 1,880.67 241.18) 1,812.66 CO an AUR kc ee
dk a ha’ ‘ qu 1d \ yn y orn. ' : ws be ‘ ta PP," es OCS. We wen peeoervne
F nae 7506.0 : 4 i pen pe VO teal eet 6,805 8 B10.19 603.84) 121.62 401.65 TU OB) avetewrenicee
4 i} ‘ F P 4 JOSE, i P ie ; ¢ we ie Pare x isheerve crundeaee
15) 1,068 1,612.0 1.85 10, 8.19 BAW IN ereist any 12,791.56 182.68) 1,875.08 446.42) 1,004.13 TED Olga Pax

——__

$$ $$$ $$

*The solids were estimated at the average from the other juices, Per cont of sucrose by pulariscopo of that by analysis, 78.16,

SORGHUM.

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518

“panuizuog —ayoLINOWovy AO LNAWLYVdaAd ‘THIN UVNOS LY GALVUOdVAG SAO0Iar—'g AAV],

EXPERIMENTS IN SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC.

Date.
1881.

Sept. 27...
27 aa

20,

Ope

80..
Oct.

oa

6..

Sis.

10
unt.
12,

MOVE
14...
14...
Wire
Wine
18...

19,,
19..

Ube
21,.
Ales

24

98...
Average...
Total...
<a ES ae Ee ee ee

Average weight per gallon
specific gravity
gallons juice for one

Average
Average
Average
Average
Average
Average

Specific
gravity.

fe

pounds stripped stalks for one gallon syrup.. breate

Gallons, fn
231 cubie ial re ta
inches, oe
7.50 90.89

120.00
128.75

120.00
127.50
116 25
112.50
75
75
25
00
25
00
25
00
00
50

75

884

1,469
1,087
h

1,
1.15
1,439.74
4
1,689.82
1,520.43
1,225.10

31,990.48

Per ct. of

TaBLe C.—sSYRUPS MADF AT SUGAR MILL, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

sone tints, Pepe 0)

Juice from the percentage of sucrose.

Rawat SS ain Yatie in de ae Sucrose Who a
Pe fe I a wc eee sucrose phat br Glucose.| Sucrose.| Solids. |by polar- Pere ES
glucose. | sucrose.| solids. by polari- sucrose, Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. pew eee --Lbs. —Lbs.
scope. Lbs.
23 50 8.98 29.24 21.36 46 28 §.16 26 58 UB Ar hewteie, teresa ys
81.60 11.86 23 451.92 586.93 162.46 DLT 00: et ve, aves 27.45
2.75 14.71 27 483 85 551.00 217.0) 46200 vate <@ 149.85
25 18 05 62 588.59 428 00 251 00 427.00 ware o's 411.59
50 12.382 40 629 .28 497 OO AAG 00 ts wiseen 819.28
10 10 62 76 551.18 555.18 416.00 }., ; 148.12
00 14.93 5382.98 414.00 855 00 ; 817.98
50 15.26 66.62 489 00 224 00 445.00 , BOL .62
50 16.25 85.85 74.14 84.01 67.87 fv coi 5.72
50 7.62 44966 893.06 90.17 BOGS Ih vermrens ens 146.77
65 9.60 280.79 848 .75 152.7% 853 04 BUD ED is cede ew e's
50 9 67 129.41 439 40 80.738 449.19 SO es liate cae nee we
65 8.59 249 . 2% 469 59 90 52 129.84 ovate
00 6.00 465.67 820 95 108.48 251.80 cece
25 8.08 418 61 611.81 114.49 555.48 WOutL |e aie are
90 9 48 818.64 517.59 118 46 481 85 50.49 fste's
00 18 20 873.84 55808 176.24 514.838 Gas | Man wet vy a0
65 12.92 414 31 665.96 208 69 611 04 MOO Were «shee aru
00 14 96 262.15 430.84 156.87 891.54 DULL 4\Pesasvetiocecs. sla
80 10.19 230.11 460 28 107.56 425.70 LZ TaD" Wren ve setres 9a
80 10.19 820.386 640.87 149.75 592.67 PON SOUS Se, ay igen
65 13.87 898 61 2938 .43 145 41 252.76 nts 250.59
00 fbrvltd 242 23 632.88 107 .25 HAS 26 SO MAUD igre, ala ese las
18 00 7.97 117.21 806 24 62.10 822 32 MOB AUB tlie s sae eos
50 OTL7 711.47 132.02 BIAS Nines wicks 661.42
85 1d 53 17.05 6 29 9.89 ‘ 11.94
85 14.53 604.75 245 46 BSOTO4 | editarns : 465 58
25 9 86 505 64 142.80 492.62 Hitt, 94.56
15 ih 442.87 393.01 2.94 og
81.02 11.88 02 — 3.68 : Firth ee ere ie oe Ee
Maden’ F re 10,983.54 | 18,897.90 | 8,815.15 | 12,387.22] 1,957.96 8,851.92
titeeceeeeeeesss pounds,. 11.75 Per cent of total sucrose in juices recovered in syrups ca ohtath 82.49
Oiiaatom srseeeeeeceees 1.411 Per cent of total glucose in juices recovered in syrups.........+. 74.64
UUPisiaofescaieta}s srerceeeees 900 Per cent of total solids in juices recovered in syrups.......... s+. . 87.58
Mafra Mari ty Wane . 11.08 Per cent of total sugars in juices recovered in ANNU Bove cianrslcee samara ee
sree sescseeeeeeseeseseeeesses 1,058 Per cent of sucrose by polariscope of that by anulysis...... ... .......92.07
Ae .soees Der cent.. 61.60 * Obtained by subtracting the sums of “glucose” and “other solids” in

520 SORGHUM.

Of the juices analyzed, nineteen gave an average per cent of avail-
able sugar of 3.643 plus, while twenty-one gave an average per cent
of 6.190 minus, or a total average of the forty equal to 1.518 minus.

Also, of the syrups analyzed, fourteen gave an average per cent of
available sugar of 12.65 plus, while fourteen gave an average per cent
of 20.03 minus, or a total average of the twenty-eight equal to 3.68
minus.

It will be observed also that, of the several lots of juice worked,
nine gave an aggregate of 3,504 pounds of available sugar, while
eleven lots gave an aggregate minus amount of 6,835 pounds; or, in
other words, had these juices been all mixed in one lot, and had there
been added 3,331 pounds of sugar, it would have been practically im-
possible to have recovered a pound of that added or of that present
originally in the juice.

The table of syrups shows that, of the twenty-nine analyzed, fifteen
gave an aggregate of 1,958 pounds of available sugar, while the re-
maining fourteen gave an aggregate of 3,152 pounds minus of avail-
able sugar; or, in other words, had these twenty-nine syrups been
thrown together in one lot, and 1,194 pounds of pure sugar added, it
would have been impossible to have recovered from this mixture a
pound of the sugar added or originally present in the syrup.

It will also be observed that during the process of manufacture there
was lost 17.5 per cent of the sucrose in the juice, 25.4 per cent of the
glucose, and 12.5 per cent of the solids.

It is noticeable that the loss of glucose was considerably greater than
that of sucrose, and this may be due to the action of lime, which ef-
fects the destruction of glucose, as has been long known to be the ease.
It is probable that this decrease in the relative amount of glucose ac-
counts for the fact that the average determinations with the polari-
scope are more nearly those of analysis in the syrups than in the juices,
they being only 8 per cent less than the analysis in the case of the
syrups, while they are nearly 22 per cent less than the results of analy-
sis in the case of the juices.

The character of the canes worked, may also be seen by the low spe-
cific gravity averaging 1.058 and the low percentage of syrup which
the juice yielded upon evaporation (11), for, as will be seen by refer-
ence to the work of the small mill, the average of twelve lots of juice
from canes grown upon the department ground gives 21 per cent of
syrup of a greater density, in the juice, or nearly double the amount of
that obtained above. The above specific gravity, is that of juice from
canes which have not attained their best condition, since, as the analyt-

EXPERIMENTS IN SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. 521

ical results show, the maximum content of both syrup and sugar was
found when the average specific gravity of the juices was 1.082.

Experiments with the Small Mill.

Near the close of the season, when some varieties had already begun
to fall off in their content of sugar, and other varieties were still improv-
ing in quality, the crop of thirty-five varieties of sorghum, grown on
the grounds of the Department of Agriculture was cut, leaving enough
of each variety standing: in order to continue and complete the daily
analyses going on in the laboratory.

The several lots were in succession cut, weighed, and the juice ob-
tained from each lot, and a sample analyzed.

The juice was defecated with milk of lime, as usual, and the defe-
cated juice evaporated in an open pan to a syrup sufficiently dense to
be kept without danger of fermentation. The syrup was weighed and
also analyzed.

The object of these experiments was to determine whether it was not
possible to prepare, with simple and inexpensive apparatus, such as
the ordinary farmer might possess, syrups of high grade, i. e., contain-
ing a large per centage of sugar. These syrups, it was intended to
further reduce and crystallize in the vacuum pan of the large mill,

and thus show the farmer that he could, with little expense, prepare

syrups from which sugar could be profitably extracted; and also con-
vinee refiners and others that they-could safely purchase these syrups
and as readily obtain from them the sugar as from similar products
from the-sugar-cane.

The experiments made at the Department of Agriculture in 1878
and 1879 had sufficiently demonstrated the ease with which crystalliz-
able sugar could be obtained even with this simple outfit, but the
practical difficulty experienced in purging it without a centrifugal
machine was such as to warrant us in recommending the farmer not to
endeavor to make sugar, but to make these high grade syrups. He
then could secure a local market for consumption as syrups, or, should
the product be very great, the refiners would become purchasers so
soon as convinced that they could safely and profitably work these
syrups for sugar. ;

As evidence that our work in previous years sufficed to warrant our
discontinuing experiments in that direction, those results are here
given. from which it will be seen that we then obtained an amount of
sugar fairly comparable with the average results from sugar-cane.
In 1878, we obtained the syrups from the juices of sorghum, maize,
and pear! millet of very excellent quality in their content of sugar, and

O22 SORGHUM.

we obtained from these syrups, sugars of a high grade when compared
with other muscovado sugars as these were. The sorghum sugar pol-
arized 94°, the maize sugar polarized 90°, and the sugar from pearl
millet 92°.

The yield of the syrup in sugar was large, the sorghum syrup giving
in its first crystallization 34.6 per cent of its weight in sugar, another
sample 31.3 per cent; the maize syrup giving in sugar 32 per cent of
its weight.

In 1879, we obtained syrups from sorghum, which in their first erys-
tallization yielded 54.7 per cent of their weight in sugar of excellent
quality ; another syrup gave 47.5 per cent, while a syrup from the
stalks of common field corn gave 39.3 per cent of sugar.

The above results fully justified the conclusion given in the report of
the work of 1878, at the Department of Agriculture, viz. :

The point which these experiments have fully settled is, that there exists no
difficulty in making, from either corn or sorghum, a first rate quality of sugar,
which will compare favorably with the best product from sugar-cane grown in
the most favorable localities.

During the past years, nothing has been done or been developed by
later investigations to necessitate any modification of the above conelu-
sion. Since then, efforts have been directed toward the determination
of those conditions which would render such production the most profit-
able, and the continued and careful study of these several plants
during their period of life has appeared most likely to throw light up-
on practical work.

Besides the experimental plat of sorghum upon the department
grounds, there were grown, as has been stated, numerous small plats of
these several varieties upon the farm of Mr. Golden, near Uniontown;
also small plats of several kinds of maize upon the farm of Dr. Dean,
near Benning’s Station; also a small plat of six varieties of sorghum
by Mr. Green upon the Potomac flats at the Virginia end of the Long
Bridge. These small plats were intended to be worked at the small
mill, for the purpose of learning their relative productiveness and

value in the production of good syrups, rich in sugar.

The number of separate experiments made with the small will was
40, and these extended from September 12th to October 22nd.

The following tables give every detail concerning these experiments,
and will repay a very careful consideration. Analyses of juices and
syrups, weights of stalk and average yield, percentages of juice and of
syrups, the time occupied in each operation, temperatures of defecation,
and in fact any detail calculated to throw light upon these results is
given.

EXPERIMENTS IN SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. 523

In reference to these results, which have proved in many respects
so surprising, many may see abundant reason for any failure which has
attended their efforts, and will be impressed with the importance of
establishing by careful experiment, points which by many would be
readily assumed as true, and even with a show of reason, but which in
fact may be far different from their preconceived ideas.

SORGHUM.

524

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EXPERIMENTS IN SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. 529

In 1879 there were made at the Department of Agriculture, with
the same, apparatus already described for the small mill, 33 experi-
ments in making sugar from cornstalks, sorghums, pearl millet, ete., in
all of which there were used over 23 tons of stalks. The result of these
experiments was to fully confirm all the experiments of the previous
year not only, but to help toward the solution of certain questions of
the highest practical importance. In every case, it was found that
the quality of the syrup obtained was precisely such as the previous
analysis in the laboratory of the juice used made probable. An
average of the nine best syrups obtained, showed a percentage of cane
sugar present equal to 92.7 of the amount originally present in the
juice, while an average of the nine poorest (7. e., containing the low-
est percentage of cane sugar), showed a percentage of cane sugar
present equal to 90.1 of the amount present in the juice.

Below are given the detailed results of the 33 experiments, and
analyses of the juices from which these syrups were made. These stalks
were obtained from neighboring farmers, and, as will be seen, were
never in the condition best suited for working—but the results cbtained
from them are, however, of great practical value, and are given in
detail.

The last column represents the relative loss of sucrose in making
syrup, as compared with the glucose present, but gives no indication
as to the absolute loss which may have been incurred; and since the
economical production of sugar largely depends upon the amount of
this loss, this matter is discussed more fully in another place.

ot

530

EXPERIMENTS WITH

Early Amber sorghum.

topped but notstripped } C

Honduras sorghum, top-
ped and stripped.

Honduras sorghum, top-
ped but not stripped.

Honduras so rg hum,
topped and stripped.

Chinese sorghum, topped
and stripped.

Chinese sorghum, top-
ped but not stripped.

Liberian sorghum, top- }
and stripped.
Pearl millet, topped
and not stripped.

4

|

Field corn, topped and
stripped.

Egyptian pueee con top-
ped and stripped.

Stowell’s Evergreen
corn, topped and ;
stripped.

Miller's sweet corn,
topped and stripped.

Miller’ssweet corn, top-
ped and not stripped.

SORGHUM.
= a Z es :
a a ig pte) a
<4 =

O(a) oe eis

sae . a. cs) a

Se Osea hoe hee

o® Be = a = =

aa [6a] 3/6] & | 8

A RY, H |e! a a
Sept. 18] 1,603 OBES 1,369
Sept. 24] 2,566}. ..... 395 Dit!
Sept. 30] 2,436 329 2.107
Octmalielea7siesaee 5c eee 1,520
Oct. 21} 891|....! 131)... 760
Oct. gl. 556| agi... 468] ...-
Oct. 25} 281 Sot () | sere 271
Nov. 1] 1,405] 231) 1,174
Nov. 3| 1,231] 117 TIME) pees
Nov. 4] 1,431} 155! LOTTA tats ale
Nov. 6] 3,368 385 OBS este
Sept. 23} 319] 76 DAS). o
Oct. 2] 296] . AD| IY ee 247
Oct. 11| 1,679] ..... Sal aee ee 1,492
Oct. 25] 1,709| .....| 245|...... 1,464
Aug. 28 Sree (Ae cea Reece
| Nov. 7| 2,544 A5AlE- 2 .|| 22090) 2...
Oct .2\\.o7slusee Sileecee 347
Oty 210)\ 437|\eoe AAS ee 393
Sepia29) | 2229 (67-8! 55). ee
Oct. 4] 1.969] 667 1,302
Oct. 7 1,519] 493 1,026
Oct. 8] 1,498] 472]. 1,026
Oct. 13 - : 1,095
sept. 1]} 621} 240 351
Oct. 16| 3,435] 1,035]....| 2,400] ......
Oct. 17| 4,185] 1,261]....] 2,924
Oct. 18! 1,968] 593)....] 1,375] .....
Sept. 17| 760} 281] .. TB note
Sept. 13] 1,407} 527]....| 880] ....
Sept. 19} 1,191} 441) .. 750). ....
Sept..20} 821] ..... lib h cc 710
Sept. 25] 1,001] ..... 154 $47

Juice expressed.

of juice.

Specific gravity

1061
1072

1060
1060
1058

1072

1047
1047

1070) :
1035} 2
1043) 25
1040} +

1038

1063} *

1042
1042

1044}

1042
1051
105i
1048
1047

Per cent of juice
- in raw stalks.

Per cent of juice
to stripped stalk.

531

EXPERIMENTS IN SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC.

SMALL MILL IN 1879.

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dnads Supyvur THOM DR OM CMON MIM 1 w ol tt
Url osoioNns arn badh oN : ; i)
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siséeun 4q COND OS LAH MON ANS CHAOTS AONANAAD
dnaidsupesoonty | (RRASS © BARBS ABR ASAANSSY : ASheaAss
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ace FSOMAIGH OO Anta OMS OM TIM AMNING Dinan aa
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dns jo spunog ARSRRS 5 S285 ACE ZAACSRSRR ABB ais Bas
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nd Jo yuo dod HOO OMA A CIDIDIDM Not hae a comet 505
‘eojnfuy ecco RARSSR si aARGSR SS MSSRFZARA aa RSS ‘3
-ny JO Jua0d dog 0 rot mt rt S ameen iw ie Og asin aie Om ome +e

Dae . SORGHUM.

The experiments of 1879 doubtless explain some of the results of the
previous year ; since it is probably true that, owing to the immaturity,
the tops had not yet attained their maximum content of sugar. A
study of the previous tables giving results of the analysis of sorghums
shows that up to a certain period the lower half of the cane is the best,
but that this does not remain true of the sorghum, as it does of the
sugar-cane in Louisiana, since the sorghum does have time to com-
pletely mature, which is not so with the sugar-cane in our country.

In the following table there have been calculated from the results
given of the experiments in the making of sugar the following :

Ist. The percentages of the sugar present in the juices operated
upon, which were obtained in the syrup.

2nd. The percentage of crystallizable sugar (sucrose) present in
the juices, which was obtained in the syrup.

3rd. The percentage of uncrystallizable sugar (glucose) present in
the juices, which was obtained in the syrup.

4th. The percentage of crystallizable sugar present in the juices,
which was inverted by the process of manufacture. ’

5th. The percentage of uncrystallizable sugar (glucose) destroyed
during the process of manufacture.

The presence of the same relative proportions of crystallizable and
uncrystallizable sugar in a syrup to those present in the juice from
which this syrup has been prepared, by no means implies that there
has been no inversion of the ecrystallizable sugar; for the destructive
action of an excess of lime upon glucose is well known, and is not
unfrequently made available 1m the production of sugar. Hence, it
often happens that the relative quantity of crystallizable sugar in the
syrup may be greatly in excess of that present in the juice, even after
a large quantity of the crystallizable sugar has been destroyed by in-
version. It is only possible, then, to determine the character of the
changes which have taken place in the sugars during the process of
manufacture, by quantitatively detetermining the amounts of sucrose
and glucose in the juices and in the syrups prepared from them.

Since, obviously, this is a question of the greatest practical im-
portance, as bearing upon the profitableness of the production of su-
gar from corn stalks or sorghum, the tables following will be studied
with interest. .

As in the previous table, there isa constant but not uniform dis-
crepancy between the polarization of the syrups and the amount of
erystallizable sugar found present by analysis.

Almost invariably the amount of sucrose found is somewhat in ex-

i

pe FA “

EXPERIMENTS IN SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. 533

cess of the amount indicated by the polariscope, and this variation is
such as to forbid any supposition that it is the result of error in ob-
servation or in analytical work.

This explanation may be found by consulting the following tables,
in which it appears that, although there is generally about the same
amount of glucose in the syrups relative to the amount present in the
juice (averaging 97.1 per cent), there is still evidence of the destrnc-
tion of an average of 35 per cent of the glucose. This destruction of
glucose appears to be compensated, in part, by the inversion of a certain
portion of the erystallizable sugar, and this inverted sugar possesses
such action upon the polarized ray as to render the results of the po-
lariscope practically worthless.

Practically, it appears that the proportion of erystallizable sugar
present in the juice, which may be obtained in the syrup, depends
greatly upon the condition of the stalks when worked. For, as will
be seen, the average amount secured in all these experiments was but
77.1 per cent, still in those syrups prepared from canes which were in
the proper condition the amount was over 90 per cent of the crystal-
lizable sugar present in the juice operated upon. (See experiments,
Nos. 6 and 7.) It is not improbable that even better results may be
secured after further experiments shall have perfected the process of
manufacture; but in view of the fact that such results have heen at-
tained with the crude and simple apparatus employed in the experi-
ments here recorded, this result is highly gratifying.

We may hope, then, to secure in syrup 90 per cent of the crystal-
lizable sugar present in the juice operated upon.

The results obtained in the experiments made with stalks from
Stowell’s Evergreen Sweet Corn are most remarkable and demand ex-
planation. The juice obtained from these stalks gave in the laboratory
excellent results, and promised a syrup of fine quality. By reference
to the tables it will be seen, however, that these syrups (see experi-
ments, Nos. 26 and 27) were wholly abnormal and very disappointing.
These stalks were cut in Frederick, Md., October 11th, packed in a
close car, and, through an oversight, allowed so to remain during op-
pressively hot weather until the 15th. They were worked up on the
16th, 17th, and 18th. Upon their arrival at Washington they were
found so heated as to render their removal from the car even difficult,
and yet the juice expressed from them appeared of excellent quality, but
every attempt to produce from it a crystallizable syrup failed. An
analysis of the syrup shewed that a very large percentage of the sugar
had been inverted (in experiments, Nos. 26 and 27), and that the de-
struction of glucose in the syrup had been unusually large, while the

534 SORGHUM.

amount of crystallizable sugar present in the juice, and recovered in

the syrup, was less than 30 per cent.

A few of the results attained appear to be only explicable upon the
supposition that there have been slight errors in analysis; but revision
of the work fails to reveal such errors, and the results are given in full,
without omission, hoping that future investigation may solve difficulties

which at present appear irreconcilable.

amount

Number of experiments.

present in juice.

Per cent of sugars in
syrup of

Per cent of sucrose in

amount

syrup of

present in juice.

amount

present in juice.

Per cent of glucose in
syrup of

verted of amount

Percent of sucrose in-
present in juice.

glucose
process

Per cent of
destroyed in
of making.

Te abiaitoe CeO M Neer oot cOoMONNanee aac ayes ptt atee He

DO NEL es aR rene ean rere Sai ae tisk 82: 66.7 138 3 33.3 0.0
Bi aocnpopoup cores adi ose nohone vices 74.7 66.1 102.1 33.9 31.8
AHR tik ee chai, Sy SPR SR ae oer te aT eS a Rate See one 76.0 106.0 24.0 18.0
Shean depo antts ons AGmaGAeeaaeinae Gara 85.1 80.2 107.8 19.8 12.0
Gate Ne gS aate seh einer setinie Sioa steretoarae oar 94.4 89.1 120.9 10.9 [ee
Ti MAS Ae hie ERE a EERO GRO a CAC 92.9 91.7 103.6 8.3 4.7
Boo aed ttecis oo sree mat Baise aes aes eae 77.4 57.7 127.7 42.3 14.6
OE i Lak a botens sl sroheoe can tercr ens rs arg he cieiale erates eee oleae 89.5 87.1 96 5 12.9 16.4
QS ar. teres Raiaia Sie ate, Teens lo ae Totere s avis fe lau fore TE 91.8 59.7 90.7 4.3 13 6
La 2 vhs pee e Gaten cor min ee he nte stews Sone 79.0 69.7 91.2 30.3 39.1
TOP Yas OR Pee are ees ay to A ose eer 82 1 79 8 91.3 20.2 28.9
BR OSA COC HONG OCDE tay ues eat ed Mckee 80.4 67.5 114.5 32.5 18.0
of OP ace aeration a4 cy Om ieeceay Hts aie 86.4 . 68.9 98 6 31.1 32.5
1G ae eee oS Bereta ar Cc OObRnEe cise ee evo me © 95.6 98.7 110.6 13) | cee
Gs Pas cccle ene e ethers £Ae cusiein 6 state uistata te ae los erate hn] eee ‘ “af : a ee ; ate
lis 8&7 4 83.3 96.7 16.7 20.0
Bie stata rat casted <cretretdtals-svavensiaret anelararnen Meme ape ae ae 75.5 68 8 103 5 381.2 Dina
GN U2hg Sfove Ushers aiebolaneie auerarabalslatctets rust ctese tania 71 8 69.7 80.4 30.3 49.9
DO Se icrsie coer a colo stew ore Charerstel ec susve re torcrecscaete 76.1 iii 71.3 22.8 51.5
A SPOS TID OBE OED Cha gC ODI IO SORGOR nese. 87.2 82.9 96.8 abr fail 20.3
Pek een Set ORAS Dov A GOCTSE Ano e 86 3 85 6 87.2 14.4 27.2
OE GSC HO bn SDS Hone OCU GC ooo On edoInT aes 90.8 69.3 98.3 30.7 32.4
Dr ERE AAA TStD Ue COCO OIE Maan as : alee Vallee Pee oy
DL eto CUTE ORO DED Te aa pOO Tao Hpeaa ees 102.2 102.7 102.0 5 Nias) nt reer
UTNE Ne OPE GORE eOmU OCOaEE onoU ep eEdoe se” 58.3 QO 25.8 70.3 144.5
2 ee Soe RATS AOD SAO OD DUUP OEP OReDUDODM 19.2 28.8 37.5 71.2 133.7
Seni ete ete cats ate ote eritetectatetes ero eaelegerac elon tented | hae Sete ihe
DR Reg aie eAeai charg vines aareiatete aisickonaroiats evel ops ere 96 1 98.5 92.8 1.5 87
21) ES Son c Aes Ae BEOAAe Icon nob oate ona eacs 85 4 79.2 96.1 20.8 24.7
BU neg eee rears cd DOMES as D ates 118.5 110.1 133.2 Bn: aoe
Ceres Sete an’ sotenhe eo dauocon eMac: ast wee ie ; See, :

BP hanna monet ssc nt neAoouCeancntad a 84.9 77.5 93.7 22.5 28.8

|
DNS GTEETe en ts iaino cides 10 Oooo DESC 85.5 Udit 97.0 24.2 34.7

The committee of the National Academy of Sciences, in their re-
port upon the ‘‘ Sorghum Sugar Industry,” p. 50, in reference to the
experiments of 1879 and ’81, the results of which have been given in

the preceding tables, reports as follows:

e * bs
. PF al .
A, ’ ,
< ~~“ o
EXPERIMENTS IN SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. 5395

Manufacture of Sugar from Sorghum.

From the numerous resulis given in Dr. Collier's reports, it is obvious that
the method of manufacture of syrup was such that nearly all of the sugar pres-
ent in the juices of the sorghum or maize could be secured in the syrup without
inversion. This point is one of especial importance, practically, and, since the
results differ so widely from those of other experimenters, they are entitled to
eareful consideration.

A single experiment of Dr. Goessmann gave, from a juice containing 8.16
per cent sucrose and 3.91 per cent glucose, a syrup containing 37.48 per cent
sucrose and 37.87 glucose, or as follows:

Juice: Per cent.
Sucrose ..-.---- eaen eae ae & De Arar. soa cane at ae ie ot ce Se REA Aa te er Pe a 69.33
Giieme’.2.=-25-2-s- Bete Bais Sea or os ite + ae Pee bas cheat eta Sei ee ee 30.67

Syrup:

Ian ARSE es oe ea a meee lacy an ee sheen eta es se Sd a a oe 7 94
Mm I As ee ee ee ea on seed oe o> Re en ee ee ee +5206

From which it appears that, supposing there was no loss of glucose in the
operation of making the syrup, 21.39 per cent of the sucrose was converted
into glucose; or, in other words, 30-85 per cent of the smcrose in the juice was
inverted. If such a result was to follow invariably, no one, we think, would
hesitate to accept the following conclusion, drawn by Dr. Goesmann from the
above experiment, viz.:

In sight of these facts, it will be quite generally conceded that the sugar production
from syrup like the above must remain a mere incidental feature in the Amber-Cane
industry in our section of the country.

In 1879, the average of 24 experiments with the juices of several varieties of
sorghum and maize, made at the Department of Agriculture (see Annual Re-
port, 1879, p. 53), showed that the relative loss of sucrose in the syrup was only
5.35 per cent of that present in the juice, instead of being, as Dr. Goessmann
found, 30.85 per cent.

But of far greater importance is the fact brought out in an average of 40 experi-
ments, including all made, that there was an actual loss of only 125 per cent
of the cane sugar; 7. e., there was secured as sugar in the syrup 87.5 per cent
of all the sugar present in the juice; thus showing that even the total loss by
defecation, by skimming, and by inversion, was no more than that usual with
sugar-cane juice, for it is estimated that only about 80 per cent of the cane su-
gar present in the tropical juices is recovered in the sugar and molasses, a little
over 20 per cent being lost in the manufacture.

In Ure’s Dictionary, Appleton’s edition, 1865, vol. I, p. 758, the writer upon
sugar says as follows:

The average quantity of grained sugar obtained from cane juice in our colonial planta-

tions* is probably not more than one-third of the quantity of crystalline sugar in the
juice which they boil.

Syrups and Sugar from the new Chinese Sorghums.
Although the new varieties of sorghum from China were far inferior

* British possessions.

536 SORGHUM.

as sugar producing plants to those received from India, Africa, or those
grown in the United States, and those sending the seed confidently as-
sured Minister Angell that there was no sugar to be obtained from these
varieties, an experiment was made with the stalks of all of the six
kinds, except No. 1 (which had been cut down), upon September 16th,
with the following results:

Stallcs swith TOpsiaNd LOAVES ase ese oath mene ne ie ewe eine pounds ... 290
Stripped SEE Wreath oe ow) Be Re ore Bde OC ero cp tiie Sah Sooo cme tne woe oa" pounds ... 160
Loss by topping and si S ecteats oie Wictels aictotaleyoteatarotetee) aes “Sd 3c S5ueSE eee percent ...44 83
Juice expressed... Be HDAC SAE OB OS Caliente aa teamed ners sh ba oe pounds ... 76
Juice in stripped Bralkaie ie asta SEE CE OOM ER OnE Be boas. wee saeeae ....per cent. ..-47.50
ICO LORDS Saige ne res aa Me PRACSE 6 rigors wate ous cease oad -e pounds... 19
Syrup made from 57 pounds ae Bah hes eras, SU ee hone eee ye aaa ones pounds ... 9
SUEUPAINU|ULCE 29 eae ore ear ene be to Rh” SOS ti Sse ws -percent... 15.79

Duplicate analyses of the above juice and syrup gave the following
results:

: -Per cent | Percent
. Specific | Per cent | Percent} Per cent :
Number of analysis. Peet: |iavcn se = es polariza- | available
gravity. | sucrose. | glucose. solids. sabia sugar.
DWICR HORS s wo ynico rete 1.057 8.48 1.48 3.41 8.54 3.59
Juicé, 183...-.- Pie suse ce 1.057 §.45 1.49 3.09 8.52 3 87
Syrup, 206. 1.038 Tye .67 2.92 Fae et Sees oe PASS:
Syrup, 207... 1.038 5.93 69 | 2.48 Soe. Bee 2.38

In the above, 40 grams of syrup was diluted with 300 c¢. ¢. of water
for the purpose of analysis.

It will be seen that, in the 57 pounds of juice used, there was, in
pounds :

EE OTT es ER SB Eee SS an a cee an aa noe e aa Aann ODO oNeenCce otros nS sn ashe oso: o~ 4.82
Pe TR ye oy eee ee tne DEO AR SR RS odin acces Ce Cec base seca ane Benue SaaAT EN Mame Saif Sn 4S 84
SOT Nn OMe ee 8 I A ee harem iF eG A sip asdiatele ae. 0 le ete. ctain vein eieharelche tala, Sette eae renee 1 8
Available sugar <3. 22: ts o2 a2. == = Be ee Be A er ae Mute aaie deta s sae Re eS

And in the 9 pounds of syrup made:

CSOT OS Crs ees ire eek ee Ie eee erecta res esiet ates fotos xis i oxao'te mc aloe al tetera toe 4.46
GLUCOSE) see neta jon aoc POE a te eee Seana nao Ne nies olale) = aterm ee ee ote eee Bee et
Arvyailable SUgar 526-2 oo. tei come ee ere niacin inlay eine tata pot twat at he Rt 1.73

Or, there was recovered in the syrup of the amount present in the
juice of :

Per cent.
SUCTOSE <-=.-. 2-2 Pete deh SOE Co CORE RE EEE OPC Oni ns nay 69 Sistalen ieee tee 84.2
GIGCOSC ie eae eee ee eee eee. SAK oe catelec aie ss ew Sac whe Meine aalje® ele keen 60.8
GPS Moke ore os eens tase Soe eis bien a aes clo apr aves, Sa crete cfalele a. oeecn ed eter le Oe at 119.8
IN Pil akor spite: i aeee sas AboGr sea se ns Node neo ec aC eatar a Osan a PR odn Fad ooo. = - 81.3

There was nothing unusual in the character of this syrup. After a
short time, it crystallized to a semi-solid mass.
It would appear, therefore, that the sole difference between these

*«

CAUSES OF FAILURE IN MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR. 537 ~

Chinese sorghums and sorghums which have been examined heretofore
is in the content of sugar and juice which these contain, and that there
is no reason to doubt but that the better varieties could be substituted
for them, care being taken to select only such varieties as would ma-
ture in the northern part of China, where, as Minister Angell informs
me, these sorghums are grown much as maize is in this country, and
for the same purpose.

It is interesting to observe that, in China, where for centuries the
sorghums have been cultivated; in Turkistan, where, as Mr. Kules-
hoff, of the Agricultural Academy of Moscow, informs me, sorghum
is one of the leading crops; and in Africa and India, where it is the
leading cereal, the chief value of this interesting plant has so long re-
mained unknown.

THE CAUSES OF FAILURE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR.

The results of these investigations and experiments conducted dur-
ing the seasons of 1879 and 1881, serve to account satisfactorily for
not only the failures at Washington, but for most of the failures of
those who have attempted the manufacture of sugar from sorghum
during the past thirty years.

As it is of vital importance that the causes of failure may be clearly
understood, they will be briefly stated.

The chief sources of failure are as follows:

1. The immaturity of the sorghum at the period when it is cut and
worked. This may be due to late planting, as in our experience in
1881, or to the selection of a variety which requires more time for its
complete maturity than the season in any given latitude may give.
The importance, then, of selecting only such varieties as will mature
sufficiently long before frosts, to give a reasonable time for working the
crop, can not be overestimated.

The time required for the several varieties to reach a good condition
for sugar from the time of planting the seed, has been found from the
results of experiments in 1880 and 1881, to be as follows:

538 SORGHUM.

ue

TIME FROM PLANTING TO MATURITY, AND NUMBER OF DAYS FOR WORKING.

1881. — 1880. Average.

~ oS 5 2) °
3 | ee 2 | g |e Saat
2leg| ao |S | 2 led| os |e | aa |
any ES Ae = hes | ssi [tee tee eS | calmed
ieti Bt Seancion A ies salt 2 Cae
Varieties. s [23/5/38 aa Bc) ost fueron ne s
So | gw] = | o So | gwl| = | o sop | eas
a | oe) BO) Re) eons | Socal ene
o | aap Py Sal\eeoue| ees al ot Ss lat |a) 3
g BS 2 ) sy gq Zo w o& | no Bl Ross
Woes Nias) yma seca: Sas | ta | as [ec
42 |A A |< 4 |A Ae ea =) Aves
Early Amber.......... A 96| 106] 10.12 80 77 99} 7.89 87| 102} 9 00
Early Golden.... .... 26 92} 110} 10.02 76 80| 104) 6.62 86| 107) 8 32
White Liberian........ 20 92 110} 10.41 39 88 101} 8.95 90} 106) 9.68
WOM aasccn se Bee eee 25 Ce PAN Apert) Pat KOe sy nes EAI ees 92| 110) 10.61
Biaek! Topics. a -aass 15) 108 76! 11.08 35 87 87| 8.41 98] 82] 11.05
ARTIC AL 6 3-4. Kenic OSE 20 117 85| 9.82 83 87 107-6290 102, 96) 8.36
White Mammoth...... 9 122 42| 10 60 32 102 83) 8.88 112) 63) 9.74
Ocmseeana .. ......- 15] 109 75| 10.76 54) 115 77| 7.60) — 112) .76) Sots
Regular Sorgho........ 7} 118 18) 9.78 all ala 93} 7 28} 110) 56] 8.53
Link’s Hybrid........ 21 96 106} 11.02 30 101 84| 9.88 98} 95) 9.95
\Dit) St atieacenoee 23 105 O97) VLG) 22.4. Spa 105) 97| 11.36
Sugar-cane............. 23 99} 103} 10.86 28} 108 77| 9.20} 104) 90) 10.03
Goose Neck 7.2. 22-2. 6 122 16] 11 34 44 111 72) 7.81 117} 44] 9.58
IBGar Rai ents 10} 109 56| 9).76| =. See lacie | ees 109} 56! 9.76
lowa, Red Top...---..-. 13} 104 70) 32) GE eee eel aust teea| eee sony LOE” 70]) Saree
New Variety..........- 19 92 Pd eo WLC) hte Ser ceg ie aime eall (eee | etre 92} 92) 11.63
Early Orange.......... t 44) 112) | 72] 10-73] 53/7] © 79) S21) © 5) Se 7eleeoeae
DO Wace e eee 19 116 SGt OO este tera) Moreton etl eens 116} 86) 9.91
Oranee (Canes. -- ‘ 4! 118 Fill), <O) 00 |aeeerees | tars a | cee seal ees 113} 71} 9.56
NeGCaZzamla yomectwe =~ --> - 20; 113 89) 6.78 38} 136 58) 8.3 125) 74) 7.659
Wolf Tail: seen... -.. 24 108 94| 9,67 21 118 56] 7 51 113} 75} 8.59
Gray Top’ 2232. #2 yesgite 21 112 90| 6.79 33 135 59} 8.02 124, 75) 7.41
Ribera cmsce- ces 7 126 38) 8.55 22 18} 38] 7.91 129] 3 8.23
MiRStOGd Ole sag ohte eee 9 123 41} 8 66 23 128 60} 6.53 126} 51) 7.60
Honduras -*.:.- Pee 7} 126 25| 6.56 27 148 29| 4.97) 1387) 27| 5.77
Sucar-cane::»..-2 =... 11 112 B2hier Bel meee nets Perey pen 112} 62) 7.82
Hybrid, Wallis ........ 4) 119 Sih OP 4b de Ratale ce mel Gens ae veo 119} 8] 9.45
White Imphee.... .... 8 108 Bel TRO O ace al acts eo opie Weniaries 108} 56) 11.90
Goose Necks v2.52. .0-- 13 112 EAP) | eee | orto | gerne eee E12). 2 ono
White African......... 20} 103 7d Nae to? ge ee ese oe seseel Pema 103) 97| 8.21
West India Sugar-cane. 8} 107 AQ TOMO erectile erase eens | ove doer 107) 49} 10.70
Sugar-cane..........-- 4) 131 31 ant ILS | poet PIERO Er acini el feeycrnce: 131] 23] 8 76
New Variety....... --- 10} 101 Sill SS oO let creel lees ote areca |leamete 101} 51) 8 30
Early Amber...- .-.- 10} 101 Ba) LON 78| |e aR Sarde ilhsoeee 101) 53} 10.78
Honey Cane........ .- Nee mils) 15| 7.68 Die Ls 3) 5.78). 186) 2416s
AV GLBEC weeeaien = ee 110 (ito) RP AIA ence 111 7V4y 7372 110} 69) 9.30

By reference to the experiments made with the small mill, and to
the explanation of the failure in making sugar in the large mill, it
will be seen that there was a difference of nearly 100 per cent between
the per cent of available sugar in the juices of the suckered and un-
suckered plats of sorghum operated upon. This difference was ob-
viously due to the presence, along with the ripe cane, of a certain
proportion of cane from suckers in different stages of immaturity, the
juices from which, as we have seen, contained a minus amount of ayail-
able sugar, and therefore diminished the yield otherwise attainable
from the mature canes. So also with the crop for the large mill, the
successive plantings of seed produced a lot of cane of almost every

CAUSES OF FAILURE IN MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR. 539
we

degree of development, except that of complete ripeness; and the
analyses of the juices and syrups showed a result which was antici-
pated. It is of importance, for the purpose of sugar production, that
the crop of cane be not only ripe, but that it should be carefully suck-
ered; or, if allowed to grow, these suckers should be carefully kept
apart, in cutting the canes for the mill, and worked for syrup, for which
alone they are suitable. It is possible that some varieties of sorghum
may be found in which this tendency to throw up suckers from the
rvots is not so strong, and, other things being equal, such varieties are
much to be preferred for sugar production.

It should be the aim, then, to secure a good stand of sorghum at the
first planting, since the replanting of portions of the field would
destroy the equality of the crop. Unless time should allow this second
planting to mature, it would be far better to leave such portions of the
field bare, unless this cane be reserved solely for syrup.

2. Another frequent cause of failure, is allowing the sorghum to
remain some time after being cut before it is worked at the mill.
That such a course may be pursued in certain seasons and localities
without producing an unfavorable result, has been established beyond
much doubt; but the climatic conditions which render such a pro-
cedure possible are imperfectly understood at present. Repeated ex-
periments have demonstrated that, after the cane is cut, the juice is
subject to chemical changes which speedily result in destruction of the
crystallizable sugar. For the present, then, the only safe course to
pursue is to work up the cane within, at most, 24 hours after it is cut up.

3. A third cause of failure exists in an imperfect method of defeca-
tion of the juice. The object of defecation, and the method by which
it is accomplished, should be carefully studied and as thoroughly
understood by the sugar-boiler as is possible. Although somewhat
complex in its details, the general principles which underlie this im-
portant step are few and easily comprehended.

The juices of sorghum or of maize, like the juice of sugar-cane or of
beets, contain, besides sugar, several other substances, the removal of
which it is the object of defecation to accomplish. The more com-
pletely removal of these other substances is effected, the greater the
percentage of the sugar present in the juice which may be obtained.

Among these impurities of the juice are certain organic acids and
organic salts, nitrogenous matters, and salts of mineral acids, together
with glucose and the mechanical impurities, as fragments of cane.

The universal practice among sugar-makers from sugar-cane is to
add to the juice an amount of lime, generally as milk of lime, sufficient

540 SORGHUM.

to neutralize the free acid found in the juice, and then to heat the
juice to boiling.

The effect of the lime is not only to neutralize the free organic acids,
but to form with certain others of these impurities insoluble lime salts.

The effect of the heat is to coagulate certain of the nitrogenous sub-
stances present in the juice.

Upon allowing the juice which has been brought to the boiling point
to stand a few moments, there will be found a heavy scum upon the
surface, consisting largely of the coagulated matters which have me-
chanically entangled and brought to the surface the fragments of cane
and other mechanical impurities of the juice. At the bottom of the
defecator will be found a sediment, more or less abundant, composed
largely of the lime salts formed, and which, generally being heavier
than the juice, will soon settle to the bottom.

If, however, the juice is very dense, it will occasionally happen that .

this sediment will remain suspended in the juice, neither rising to the
surface nor settling to the bottom. In such event, it will be found
necessary to draw the juice, after skimming, into a cooling tank, or
allow it to remain in the defecator until these impurities shall settle ;
or it may be hastened by adding to the juice, after skimming, enough
cold water to dilute the juice, and diminish its density, so that the
lime salts present may settle. By reference to the result of our experi-
ments already given, it will be seen that this method may be pursued
without loss of sugar.

After the subsidence of these impurities, the juice may be drawn
from this sediment, and it will be, if the operation has been properly
conducted, quite clear and almost colorless. It is then to be evapo-
rated to a syrup as speedily as possible, and such additional impurities
as rise to the surface, especially during the earlier stage in the evapora-
tion, are removed by skimming. :

The importance of removing all those impurities rendered insoluble
by the action of the lime and heat combined, is manifest. If allowed
to remain, it will be found that they are but imperfectly removed
during evaporation, and remain toa great extent in the syrup, causing
it to be muddy in appearance, impure in its composition, and disagree-
able in quality.

APPENDIX. 541

Ze PRNDEX.

The following statistics, as to the production of sugar, have been
furnished by the Bureau of Statistics of the Treasury Department.

Quantities of sugar and molasses produced in the state of Louisiana during the
years from 1850 to 1883, inclusive.

Year. Sugar. Molasses.

= Hogsheads. Pounds. Gallons.
REE tM oe Sees wot yo ckecch cscs. aeeeane~ bead ex 247,923 269,769,000 12,000,000
TESTES) DR Sel i ae en eee mae SLR ee 211.203} 231,194,000 10,500,000
LTS SLs ae ee os a Se Sees ere eee 236,547 257,138,000 18,300,000
Fee een ee cre eae perio Sant ie NS) ton sree oes SOS 321,934 368,129,000 25,700,000
Pis5S 2257 Lae Sint oe > ee el eo 449,324) 495,156,000 31,000,000
1S Sere | SSE Pte eee eee 5 346,635 385,227,000 23,113,620
1855-986 ...... BA! 7 ee RE ae 254,569,000 15,274, 140
Re or eS eG Fa sins RAS Gale 3,976 $1,373,000 3
TEE toe ea re es ee a ee ee 279,697 307,666,700 :
Lu 2d 2 a a ie SS ela ee eee 362,296 414,796,000 24 887" =60
lov DR Ree a ic eee ae es ine eure Oe ata 221,840 255,115,750 17,858,100
REM een ce SOE oe oe ee see 228,753 265,063,000 18,414,550
LS PLS) ee ea =, ESE ee eee ae Pee 459,410 528,321,500} a....... ..
iu SETS ye eRe ho aie aes ee a eee Gye eee a. See see
emis PEE Sent be Geen Rae. crate tind Sek Scan niin Sh 76,801 84, 500, 000 [: Re = ae
DEY Pir SRE Se See Bs ele ee eel ae ee oes 10,387 10,800,000} a.........
Ef TU Ee a ee Nl ree ner ee ele Rae pate 18,070 19,900,000} a@ See
Lit os i ee Se a eee Corre nai DON 2 oe pe Oe ae ae 41,000 42,900,000! a er
Live c. a bE ee Fg De, =. Pe Re ee aoe Ye 37,364 41,400.000} a. ..... :
Hee Rese Ess ios ie Re. Se EG ease Oe $4,256 95,051,225 5,636,920
Sr Re Ss ae eed hn gen” Serer, tS SO 87,090 99,452 940 5,724,256
EE Steere 5 Gs ee tes eee en ee te 144,881 168,878,592; 10,281,419
EW ee ees «= >. eee ae has Toe ee ce 128,461 146,906,135 10, 958
TT ZERIT Ae ee oe ee pee carte ois a ik eS Rn ee 108,520 125,346,490 8
Lig 7 Tt 1 pe SRE Eee cee eee bo ee oC 89 498 103,241,119 .
TT. TP 2 ot SOS RS Sire Sante ea Ey ail oe 116,867 134,504,691 nl. 516, S28
DTH SAT) eee aS tee, an i 8 eee 144,146 163.418,070 10,870,546
IY ist "2 Se eee ae a ee he ek oes Cae 169,331 190,672,570 12, 024, 108
LT ee oe ead Pee ee Bee RR eee ae . 127,753 Ele pol O41 42 = 37, 280
BE Ne eA ee ES an Sc eee Soot ee cece 213,271 F
De 3 eee Mg Sear Se Ree Ee ocee 169,972!
ERE Boe etch ae 2 ice A Ses te OOS 15, zs "955, 029
TSG le ie RS Ae ac BAe ins ee ae ee Oe P 9,691,104
TAL San ence ayaa aee ae ee en ae eee 24120 15,716,755

ee St BD re Ok ee ST
a No data.

NoTE.—The production of sugar and molasses in Louisiana is stated upon the au-
thority of M. Champoiner for the period prior to 1861, and for the later years upon the
authority of M. Louis Bouchereau and A. Bouchereau.

542 SORGHUM.

Quantities of sugar and molasses produced in the United States during the years
1869 and 1879, according to the census.

Sugar. Molasses.
States.
1869 1879 1869. 1879.
Hogsheads. | Hogsheads. Gallons. Gailons.

Alabama........ elas eis oe ecioaee mnie 31 94 166,009 795,169:
Arkansas........ Hee adaacionec ar ey a OD) caisek bale es 72:008|(-2- 2b Pe
ML OVIO Bertie vcr asee aoc Oe eee taeiome ss 952 1,273 314,339 1,029, 86:
Georgia...... i Seuextreadeote eit tera 644 601 553,192 1,565,784
TiQUIBISTAR ee eee ee 80,706 171,706 4,585,150 11,696,248
MASSISSIDPUwererecce omens Reitneer eves e 49 18] - 152,164 536,625
WMSRO Users wee aiasrel eels Ga waae tected eis ch ARTES Oe OEE e | OCR PREM Ie (ssn Sos = eae
INfordscu(Chy felbhit ham saeenesdasoconeuoe Salhoceneee ern 83,888) «08 eee
South Carolina: - si <---.2-- - seems 1,055 229 436,882 138,944
TENNESSEE R eres eenasso see es CBS DATO prove, zetopetien sie & 8,629) 222% sci oe
MORAG SVN nies los ae ealohe eie'sise eee eee 2,020 4,951 246,062 $10,605.

TOCA ercnis reise se sieisieieeaieislsis¥=je'< 87,043 178,872 6,593,323 16,573,273.

Production of Sugar.

Table showing the annual production of beet sugar during the last five crop years
From 1874-5 to 1878-9.

[From “Journal de la Societe de Statistique, Paris, 1880. |

Country. Pounds.
Tc) tC Rae Ee Gee >. OOM BEGoe ee CUTE SpDOD DOC Goo oOtIC COOCUeOr Oem etac scart cn: 953,709,960:
GOYAL Ye- o cain IE a lolotn ole, dale tataralsioiotain c= efniniais|o\inia=)=\n[ae © 8 vie «le n\e mie We eveietat 927,431,128
INGE oI s Gi hoted hay aet ae Sains ie aster 5 78000 060 GOOD DOU aDaOr aaa 894,847,140
RUSSIAS dee ea eee ee | 473,989,000
ISA Fabia oe eee ae arronSe bod SEE er Oana DOA dOstic COC DOOM OOCUO DOr GEDMOnO A Oma its | 154, 145,632
IN(Giaaierdtry alee ew. Wye) oF a onBag MOnMcdOSeaA dats qatinochu OS QOSOnOAgToS : 55,115,000:
Sweden, Norway, Italy : Bee 11,028,000
Total 1878-1879.......-.. BRE ete earliest ele iat eicisteteieioeinis sieeeis ere rae eeieeleiaens 5,470,260,860:
GY WPg Me ke 777 EnV ses ene aonb or Cae Bonn Gc oene ToMaD napOeeCOcECrares cic oreo luce 3,131,634,300:
Mo hia Non bey Gel hy ice DEES or a> AGnp cnoS SOL LE eoo Lr PDD eCUUnre meat SaESroacS So 2,471,764,451
Total 1875-1876....... A Bg AS OO CHIC GIO TIOUB COC aa On ReRU OI GLEN Hon 3:025,637, 182:
Total [87418 75: tee «ase eettslerero alate <. PCy Ret eee NS pee ae cit Svs Sing |2:616,948,384

For certain countries the export is given as being more exactly
known than the production.

>.

+?
APPENDIX. 548
Pounds.
EUROPE.
FSSA NR eS 5 as gee ee Fe eh ae wana cennennceneeneeeee -. | 33,069,000
ASTA.
Wrench Cochin Chima, (production): -------.-....<---qoggees-<<---- e000 -| 55,115,000
China (export) Se Re, Ke nt ne ote a ar -| 55,115,000
OO Se -=-, -- -- Ss eee 35,069,000
Siam ape Po SRA ee ee ee -| 11,023,000
Hindostan and British East Indies Ee) ee eee Seer ee E 55,115,010
(aremiues Cameamedy <5 5256.0 54~05 ee -13,196, 670,000
C07) Bee ee as eee fae naa ea ae cl cher et te ea
AFRICA.
RPE Fikl CUIRORA IMU INOTE tet eon hn en ee ae eee ain ae een eee
RE aR RG SUI Re te orl 0 ee en a ere eee eae Se
aan waded SUCHET F SPS CCoEMEERD Sons ono oS nee eee ies aie Se en
Se ir cl le ce ee eet ees as
Henaetanm tclarishe (expert): soc 2-05-2022 524. soccer aa ee een 5 2ne aes oe ee ae
2 Ee ee Ss See Bee eer eal nas Se eS ee
AMERICA.
—_s or West Indies.
Nyeihewc | OKGMAMIO RANMIB Soe ae eee a ne nn ee oneness een amen
LEP ES SEs ee eee Se a ee ee ee ened ese
Jamaica (export) ..----....-. Re an ms ee tna ie esis see BE ee
Hayti and Lucayos -.-......--......-.- Be ee ene Oe ne ee at
Wate 222 oo2 oct ee ao os ae ete ee oe ee ee '1,675,496,000
LESSER ANTILLES.
Gaudeloupe (export) frig Ee ee, en reer eer er sean
A See a en ee ere sear BOE Ee ee tS
Trinidad So tet ZOE SR ree ee ee Ser an SE Ser meee eee
Barbadoes Tet, gc ee eee es SEE Ene ee eee re en me ee eee
Antigua po see EE ce a a Ee Ree ERE - ee ee
St. Christopher sal FER SR eS PA ee cere. ee See
St. Lucia all We Sean amen ae fae aan o ow an at Saami eee
St. Vincent a ee aap en Se Er
Cthers p>) BPR CERO eR ee Tree

Grand Total America....-......... SE aS SE ee ot es a Oe SAE 3,228,415,240

544 SORGHUM.

Fl

Pounds.
Mw el nol 31 Ae 2 ee a eee ee
OcEANICA.
Java (EXPO) enn: sees oo eee eee ee na eee seer eet a seeder ese 475,091,300
Wie y eh tl bene mae 9 9° She See 5 Ae Aniene atte BSE ncn see Boe cbs babies seeree 264,552,000
PADIStT alia Ss Weep ec icia 3 44,092,000
Sandwich Islands (export) 27,557,500
OEHETS (EX POLE) IK « om viejo cei vivie ow vivleleelsjorwoin.© */w/ele nie/slals/e aie(al=]=)ea1e14\niet=inlels bie Se Sepeoe! 9,920,700
4,

aba: eRe ie ak Ta ee eo SoC ee fe oeddab sigs aap srexBa eee $21,218,500
Generalitotal AS78879 >.< se 5 cfoe adie ata cle nice elelviare’s lowered ateiaerevete a's’ s/an teletabs 7,952.874,040
(1877-1878. - 2... ccc nsec een c cee n cence dninccnaececanes +: 7,605,870,000
1876-1877.....-. Fey Kola EES wicarate pote ots e te ate etaee akan tie ole he afsrcce eras 7,475,798,600
Seasons...-....-.-+--+ LAT EASTG! Ok 25 ss0ie, , MRR 2 he a 7'374.387,000
UPB 7EETS Ti) tee set hoe eee aN Br oe ak coco ae 7,605,870,000

Sugar Crop, 1880.

The production of cane sugar throughout the world, for the crop year
ending in 1880, will certainly exceed 4,000,000 tons, or 8,960,000,000
pounds of cane sugar produced, approximately, as follows, according
to the most reliable statistics and reports:

(From ‘Concise Resumé,’’ by Henry A. Brown, 1880.)

Countries. Tons.

ne earn EnIE EnEISSESEDEST ES EEUSISS IEEE EEE

IskotiiciheKe bi nasel Ads Ba aeboso Lads Wasunsoouobsacodoos ae HuvendodCdRbe Coohnssosd5 1,550,000
(Olin Stor Kon aYC0 pee GREE On nme odsnsonerob code dose 0s deo NoOnanonony ouadtOoRac eyo: 700,000
Other Spanish PossessionS.......-.--- --e---e eect ee tee e eee eee e eee ee cee 50,000
Br Weis, Demerara. Cte: <2. ssse% oes a ane ae eis eicine = nin oieivinie\nieloininje elnino afinla clair 250,000
China, Hong Kong, eCte.... 2.00.22. ce pee eee ee tee ween cnc rene ce tenet cas an 250,000
Wutehulnds. Daves ClO. a aces lec oo oo eMMMeMe wert eo elotele sive aie Ciel e/o(eusie ivieinjoleivie\wic a aaietere 220,000
French: W. 1., Guiana... cscs: ois cM coe s) cewie cm cinsiscicilsielnieis) *serle seg Senbeos: 175,000
BR Tzid ge AS, GUC ely reece oie ates le ors clalene PIS ie teic elec iota = bole eo niateseiags <ileieloin miaietelaitnlatel 130,000
TES Clr ase Ae os Me one oane gee ea Hac Sedo tpooa toes SoCo nCagea ooouorac Musas saG soaG 125,000
WVEhii whit) son SoM es unet oon daosooosncbode crac aoc co5e I Otayeh ple cise , elyaraiaeratee 125,000
Philippine Islands............-«-.- BE eee sia odio SSO ADO IO as FOO TOTODES 00224 120,000
IDPAy OOO) 5 GemebeaoebocoauocHEoRdes caer Ga acbsncqudccd donc onc 2OUL socio nace 75,000
Te{tig VaR 0 al Cake sae p Ocoee SOOO CS UNGe OD 72 cDCrCo ns Peo guEOORGre oedeaon soCac ties 55,000
AM CIICON che ete ci ceca sla stay wisie tile Ce ee Bi Oh ae oct eon OOOO Anode 35,000
Other Countries........ Pees Ras ree eae aera stati tats tel staseiereus'e nlcisla) sfeserwte eeqeinieastete tote 140,000

MOtal Came! SUSALS ie -jatai<rs\oi= wlete erm ase e/aleseuesei= = whom ier lehe loam wien mini alateiogerafelninln a= i 4,000,000

In addition to cane sugar, it is estimated that the production of ma-
ple, palm, and sorghum sugars, in the crop year ending in 1880, will
exceed 150,000 tons, and the amount of beet root sugar produced in
Europe the present crop year is estimated at 1,670,000 tons, appor-
tioned as follows:

s .
APPENDIX. 545

Countries. Tons.

-

SDT Dis BRR Sere eeS i SS ee oe SR el eh SE pee oe 500,000
CEOs i Sy ota 6 a2 ee ne ee Be ee det ee Eo alls oe scien ie : 425,000
RIES ETER eS 2 tet es ee ie ote eed dew cinta mire emeee rad ceclddicewdee oak tee 410.000
Ree R SE CA LGR ETERS oe IA Ae non ead cole coe ehcwa Mosca e de. 225,000
Belgium, Holland, etc........- MES Foo cece eos Sakis SEATS cea Dae eae nile Be oe 110,000
Potal, DEG ee ons one weet eetew ones ~kecackuy dvcneecest eases essoes 1,670,000

Total Known Production of Sugars—Crop for Year Ending in 1880.

| Tons.
ORES = Peta oop sins y ce ke a ome eee ee Gad Meta ie ee cara a ake ea a 4,000,000
BES ee ENERO PSC ere ee ts aio os a ot a ena ee ERT oo mene eae ta en 1,670,000
Mise PEG me each eon ad chin cad dn Sot Seen y vee Sa ak ae Memes eee Ae een See el 150,000
Trey GeR MIRAE ASS Ae Mean Satan Sais ais ian a awe ding stownles Che siegieeeneneeben aewese en 5,820,000

There are, however, good reasons for believing that the world’s an-
nual production of cane and similar sugars exceeds 6,000,000 (six
millions) of tons, and that China, from whence sugar-cane first found
its way to Europe, alone produces enough more sugar than she reports
to more than justify such statement.

Sugar Crop, 1881.

[From the “Concise Resumé of Sugar Tariff Topics, in Defense of American Sugar In-
dustries,”’ etc., 1882. By H. A. Brown.]

Genuine and authentic information from sugar producing countries,
indicates that the annual cane sugar crop of the world exceeds
4,900,000 tons, and is produced, approximately, as follows:

|
Countries. Tons.

POUT ETI RTECS ER ote Era. Ae am Sere Ne 2 rahe a aisie wad mew a Soe! MoS ke Ee Se me ee ee 1.500,000
SEH ELONE DA OIE EMail on ok ro ee ow ees eta aan oN cee oe Secale leet ee 1,000,000
ibs ane Sp aninhs POSHPSSIGNS ©... osc. - 2c <-< Saad saut cc tt wep aca lade aeeteeecase 790,000
Brisa WCALANGICR. NiCMEraras CEG. s o6 26 scene nse an ee ca owas week nee canescens 250,000
Dutch India, Java, ete...........- td aa irae Rte Peele ae hae Oe re opiate es aaa oe 250,000
French West Indies, =e, ClGEee Soca etree Oe Re ee eee ee 175,000
Gye om iain. i. a, Sa et ed a eee a A oe ALE 175,000
MaRTILUS OReCUBRION CRG.) cna ss danse candeussiecs sacs ene f J eee dares 150,000
Manilla, Philippine EiitgrGh osc Gee bc Wyte See ORs lk 1 ae a ee 135,000
Louisiana, Texas, ete........... Sigh ie, 2 acer fee eee OE NAS bo SSB Pretec: eee 125,000
Ros PRUE EO) ATIC CR 2 a mn Sed orcs a LRA o NSars mae Cais le a Sv'e'm Gua eR nee 75,000
BETH es UGCA OCRIGNeK eet sims cen cee ccna) Manemanee ee ocdeccouusal wedeed se eaie 79,000
ieeeen bee ete LT eel CA eS 8 See rate ale ie ha oer a ha a Se weiacaale Vine, <del ea Semen ioe 45,000
LAPT SIE Thy ASE Ra 2S Sn ae Re Re ee Ee See re eee 35,000
All other countries.............. abigawancnaes Ce hee cee SEA errr rn: eee noe 160,000
PS LAIGCANG |SU PAR sods hee er ees he = aes ss Lk ene A pe tons....| 4,900,000

i

35

546 SORGHUM.

Added to the cane sugar crop of 1881 will be the beet sugar crop of
Europe, about 1,700,000 tons, and minor crops of maple, palm, beet,
and sorghum sugars, in this and other countries, estimated at 100,000
tons.

Total known and estimated sugar crop of 1881:

Tons.
Game@vSUpating 05 ef crimes) eave sa) resale Rea RR Et te easly 2 aed AMAT AISA Oe ae eats - 4.900,000, .
Beet sugar, Europe.....- nie ct ahsel Nee Bas a het ellaA an Asa onc S15 1,700,000
Maple, sorghum, ete. ....-..0--2---0e-ece seer ete neee semester esc csces sce r ease sensi: 100,000
Total SUGAL CTOP..-. 22... - 2 cece e eee eee eee neta teen eee ee ee ee tons....| 6,700,000

Sorghum Sugar in New South Wales.

In a letter recently received from Mr. A. Fairgrieve, President of
the Colonial Sugar Refinery Company, Sydney, New South Wales, he
gives the following data of experiments in sugar production, from two
varieties of sorghum, which he calls the ‘‘ Black” and the ‘‘ Yellow.”
He had not enough of the Yellow variety for experiments in sugar
making, but obtained a yield of 6 to 9 tons of stalks to the acre, and
of 1,200 to 1,800 pounds of seed to the acre.

From 690 pounds of stalks, “‘cut just as the seeds were beginning
to harden,” he obtained 38} gallons of juice, the mill giving, at the
first pressure, 30 gallons, and the bagasse, being again passed through
the mill, yielded 8} gallons additional. r

After defecation with lime, the juice had a density of 10° Beaumé,
at 80° F., and only 31 gallons of defecated juice were worked for
syrup and sugar.

From the 31 gallons of juice, 41 pounds of masse cuite were ob-
tained, which gave, of first sugars, 123 pounds, and, of second sugars,
54 pounds, leaving 23 pounds of molasses.

It will be seen that the mill gave only 48 per cent of the weight of
the stalks in juice, but the syrup yielded 44 per cent of sugar and 56
per cent of molasses.

The products, then, from each ton of cane, was

52.2 pounds of sugar.
5.33 gallons of molasses.
5.36 bushels of seed.

But, as the mill gave only 48 per cent of juice, while 60 should be
given by a suitable mill, and since only 80 per cent of the juice ex-
tracted was used in making syrup, the above results, with a good mill,

, APPENDIX. 547

and without such unnecessary loss of juice, would have been, for each
ton of cane worked, a product of
’ 81.6 pounds of sugar.
8.33 gallons of molasses.
5.36 bushels of seed.

The above results are very interesting, as evidence that, even in far
distant lands, the sorghum maintains its character as a sugar producing
plant. That the product of sugar would have been much increased,
by allowing still greater maturity of the crop to be attained, can
hardly be doubted, in view of the numerous results recorded.

The following analyses of the two varieties of sorghum, of the ash,
as also of the sugars, molasses, and the ash of the molasses, are fur-
nished by Mr. Fairgrieve, and are of interest in connection with the
above results:

Analyses of Six Samples of Sorghum (Dried, 212° F.)

Black Sorghum. White Sorghum.

Top. | Middle.| Bottom.| Top. Middle. Bottom.

Gane g0pertc .2 <<<. 2 a6 c= - 30.92 31.60 31.70 25.31 33.89 29.48
PMG SUPAL BS Sone 6 ou aye cbse 5.06 5.22 5.19 10 46 10 70 10 68
Dextrine and starch. ........ 8.67 $.56 8.58 1.59 2.29 289
WOGGy SIREN Joc as 6 vac aoe 43 95 44.96 44 10 53 42 44.33 46.39
Other organic matters........ 6.73 5 02 5.89 3.05 4.30 5 69
Solmne ash... 2. f52+--5s<..-5 3.26 3.19 3.14 4.10 3.49 3 59
STAT ae eae ee SiG: 1.41 1.45 1.40 2.07 1.00 1.28

The ash consisted of :

LE ELMS ETE CUE, tae a els Sie ee 1.14 1.20 air 1.60 ps) 1.24

SUR Coe Cae Ae eee eae sae 21 -20 .38 34 37
Oxygen (comb’d P. &§&.)..... 07 -08 08 12 .09 09
RTI Steet coe tl -28 26 -26 3 .28 £29
uO TESTS ty I a ee .23 21 .22 .29 .22 24
Tron and Al. phosphates...... 15 12 14 18 m3 13
Phosphoric acid = ......-.-... 381 29 29 .39 .32 38°
Sulphuric acid...--..).. .....-. 18 =i 15 18 Alyy 17
Chlorine (comb’d P. &§.).... .68 65 63 .62 69 68
STU OTS aia ae, 600 ee en ee 1.41 1.45 1.40 2 07 1.00 1.28

4.67 4.64 4.54 6.17 4.49 4.87

548 SORGHUM.

Analyses of Sugar and Molasses Obtained from Black Sorghum.

No. lsugar. | No.2 sugar. | Molasses.

CaM SUS aT atte seiner “he Ratha 2 anes Seley 87 .0G 84.20 44 40
TMA Dh Une Soh ono obedd@ast oc Std hig is eared See 2.33 3.34 12.07
Dextrine .andtstarchicce... L2202 eeem oe cee eters 2.47 89 66
OUMerIOLS ANIC WMA TICKS hes s.ttee sects siete lare ote =e letete lal 2.08 3.69 10 64
Soluble las vse nl ara cporsicus lal oneteestareleetetavareis a hetero 2. Vi. 2.95 9.23
Sand aern. PE as wai mic eie 20s ou wiet ele ele eae weiss Salons pili 03 00. a
WL OTe ieee, Haver tare wa atare evatersiascisinle rahe ate Wlalste isis pag 3.90 4.90 22.50
100.00 100.00 100.00

Analysis of Ash of Molasses.
Per cent.

Potassium...... Mog Nereis Eetee Wea eelayay ahs oetoroteva bras Bia cade ie veley aeratatets joie o'e ite ers Gye oe 3.16

-93

65

-95

aN ESta e(a se ae ins BLEU ah BeOS acaar ar Aaan inoOsbpocobeastagouEtaised Ree cceacie een 91
Ibe(Gs oj efeiapdtoles\e Se seh Aoec one sGaedddo oob ayaa adem ec au0 Sd IOs scogSongabSsarostassoocoos C6
/APRIMIOC YR eet An) ouaabaoone BAAR A OOH aM aReHOE BOSH DOA iAot iadrig oft pea aennooOos: .06
Cfeyaj KAO batO le tise GeecenEeoUde Ons0COR otseo 7 IOnnoSodCO sp po AaBGUmAS Spodoascuenaboenosds 02
IBleke sy Hava pelo. AXON Clean un ceoonode ca LHe sOORn EONS bon oe aon abe Ha coaobe DOU OOS FU0S0d zoooScd S007 87
Spa mpbsreC olde eA Sade Res ag) Spon cde enon cocuebenonD asp anoodsdnbaDEnoGUsobeanesCt 25 oo 28
Ghiorine (Gomib1dsP:&iS5) si. 5 fase escem omer ence clae siden ein wis cieic este ole isle eas ene Be
SULT G Ay. oo ie AM miccoe-c scl sencie eRe Sa wlepeternie yo wale oMaparete silels clbis lee luls sicieale alee 6a ea 07
9.23

Amabele.

In a recent letter from Leonard Wray, who first introduced the sor-
ghums from Africa into the United States, he writes: ‘The Zulu name,
‘ Imphee,’ is the sugar producing sorghum; whereas ‘ Balee,’ or ‘ Ma-ba-
lee,’ is the name for ‘ Dhura’ or Kaffir corn (Sorghum vulgare).” He
also says ‘ En-ya-ma’ means food, the grain of which makes such good
flour; and he advises that the sorghum should be sown in triple rows,
four feet from center to center, the triple rows being 8 inches apart,
and the stalks 7 inches apart in each row, equal to 55,640 canes to the
acre. ’

Sorghum Sugar produced in 1883.

According to the statement of the President of the Mississippi Valley
Cane Growers’ Association, there was produced at the Champaign, Ill.,
Sorghum Sugar Works, from 145 acres, 1,455 tons of cane; and from
2,400 tons of cane, there was obtained 160,000 pounds of sugar and
40,000 gallons of molasses.

The season is described as being the most unfavorable for thirty
years.

At Hutchinson, Kansas, some 200,000 pounds of sugar, besides a
large quantity of molasses.

*Probably from vacuum pan or battery.

*

APPENDIX. 549

At Sterling, Kansas, some 200,000 pounds of sugar, besides the
molasses. es

At Dundee, Kansas, 10,000 pounds of sugar, though their product
was mainly syrup, of which 50,000 gallons were made.

At Kinsley, Kansas, 10,000 pounds of sugar, and a large quantity of
syrup.

_ At Lawrence, Kansas, some 10,000 pounds of sugar.

At Rio Grande, N. J., 282,711 pounds of sugar, and 55,000 gallons
of molasses. A large portion of their cane failing to ripen, owing to
the unusual season.

The Secretary of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture reports the
following summary of the year 1885 for Kansas:

Acres planted in sorphunt....... .2< --~ . ..-. 2+ 220 e noe + 25 ane ewsaae sees 102,042
" Acres manufactured into syrup. ...-.....------5----------22+-s0e-- sage see 48,271
Acres planted for forage -... ... SEAS SRR Een ob SE es a ae 53,771
ins DlGane AANUGIACLRTCU:. ~~. ~~ 24-5 2.8 o.oo ho. ewe ew ee eawanmeceneneeaeusn 447,859
SEUTOICS Sia) eo Us RE ee AE ery ae nee 4,684,023
(ELST EM) Penn) Eek Ty SR SS eee eon SO ee RE AH en $2,058,127 .60

_ The entire number of counties reporting was 81, and of these,
- 32 grew from 50 to 500 acres
¥ 500: “*; 1000: -*
10 3 1000 «« 2000 “
10 $3 2000 « 3000 “
5 x 3000 « 4000 “*
as 4 4000 « 8000 <“

10 counties produced over 100,000 gallons of syrup each, and 2
counties produced over $100,000 worth of syrup each, while 17 coun-
ties produced each over $30,000 worth of syrup.

The value of syrup averaged from each acre $42.65, without count-
ing the product of seed. The yield averaged 9.3 tons of cane per
acre.

- a eas

: =

as
~
a
i.
: ¥ > a
’
)

IN DEX.

Abadie, introduction of sorghum....... 64
Aba-el-Waki, sugar mill..............---- 2380
Abyssinia, sorghum BO cae commen see 6&4
oe Ph «et ee 50
Academy of Science on Dr. Collier's pro-
cess of sugar making. ..-..-...--.-- 535
on method of analysis-..... -..-..-- 469
on need Of investigation. -..-. 10
Acetate of lead, basic, | how prepared _ -_ 508
Achard, investigation of sugar beet... -- 1B
Acidity ‘of juice “during evaporation. pelea
HOwestinabed.- Go.) .. 28-28 Wa. 33
produced in evaporation ey . 299
sorghum and maize... .---..- 253, 436
Acids. action of, on sugar solutions.... 23
in SOrE hun yUIee. = -- ~~ - 4s ---=---- 252
Acid, s sulphurous, in defecation... ....-- 305
preparation OF.” .- | ----47-<----.---- 305

Aconitic acid in sorghum juice-..-....--- 340
Acreage product of sorghum sugar
yiela of sorghum seed
yield of sugar in different countries. 27
Acre, number of stalks to the. ASS yi
Acts to promote cultivation of sorghum. 17
Adams, Mrs. Abigail, on syrup from

- 412

MARIN Wee Ohaoe oc 228 juice at different stages.... ...-..-.-- 210
African. Indian, Chinese, and American juice, duplieste-... ic. =: ..9..-<-- <- 478
sorghums compared .......--...-.. 205 juice from leaves and stalks. .- -143
African. white, | LEER ee ee ee 96 juices worked at Washington -...524,517
African sorghum, analysis of .........- 250 scum and sediments........... ---- 401
available sugarin ... .... .. -126, 538 SSS Sie eo ty es ae ee wen ae Oe 181
African sorghums, average composition 4,082 sorghum juices................- 2H
AOD eat coed Oe A ers oo sees 101 sorghum heyy Mes) ot: | eee ee ee -. -198
comparative value of......... eo. 214 and maize juices, method ........- 469
esekised =... .2 <L-s 322." e, -- 100 averages Of in 1880 and 1851. ---- 150, 197
meaning of names... 4 80 bagasses fe ay Fae Sees ea BS |
TNE SU ee a ae ee 87, ss. 89, 90, 91 Gharé fOr Ie) > fos, 2265. wee ne ene 208
two classes Of. 20252-50622) --tesee wm 78 GeSGRRBES, = evoctes. se cet =. coon 188
Africa, production of cane sugar ii ee 438 graphically shown........--..-------. 187
MOR, TU) 2 Ws 6 So 50 In 1882. -...--- <-------2--2a = -20--- 205
varieties of sorghum from._! .. 7 FUIGER =” beset ik? cone eso ee 197
Agrostographia Capensis, description of | juices during working peru =:..-- 499
Wereiaaia). 000 2 Sa Posse es ne juices of ditferent deusides........- 493
Alabama, production of sorghum i in.416, 408 eaves 4 oe ee Se .390, 392
production of sugar 1879 eee 7 ote: Eee eee an mee he pes
production of sugar and molasses. . 542 SUGCRY..) =<. he ain ite see eee
value per acre of crops in -......-.-.- 421 represented in charts ...... .... 201
yield of different crops in.......-...-- 453 stalks, bagasse, and leaves of corn. 406
Albumen in sorghum juice -......-...- 252 stalks of Pearl Millet Pee. 446
Alcohol from sorghum. eee ee 240 suear-cane «i gered ti cices 7 hes 236
Algeria, cultivation of sorghum in....-.- 65 | sugar-canes, average of ....._......- 209
Allen, G. W., report on sorghum. LE 414) Analysis and polarization compared... .476
Almony and Maxon, report on sorghum average, of bagasse..... .......-..-- 392
crop. .- Pasa poe en ene 412 average, of maize juices.......----- 440
Alum, basic, in defecation... _......-- 303 chemical, of soils ISL
ferric, solution of, how made........ 503 chemical, tests of accuracy ‘of. 483
porous, in defecation. .. ... ....---. 303 of ash of scum and sediment... .... 401
Alumina in defecation..... ..- .-.----- 392 juice, method described....... ..-- 471
Amabele, letter from Leonard Wray on Hs juices, re-agents for . 503
varieties of sorghum, plates of... 87, 88 maize juices of different densities 497
Or Sorshulns | Seieee ee ees he 78 Orange sorghum stalk...... .-.-- .. 230
plates of seed heads..... ..-.-...- 87, 88 seale from evaporators » aba CR em 340
Amber, Minnesota Early, history of. ---. 65 sorghum juice . --. 21
ecmrahed 5-1... flea nn tes 100 sorghum juices and specific graye
plate of .. -----.-+-- 2 ssece2s-=------- 92 ity ache ceae 489
time for maturity. -=~-.25-5---. 2-5. 117 sorghum juices, errorin ..... 470
arisiyned ME... 6i3352-- Sr ene _ 246, 239 | Analysis, tests of accuracy of.. -.. -.-... 474

|

America, production cf cane sugar in. 543
American Agriculturist, distributfon of

sorghum fe EE ee eon gait ney eee

American and foreign sorghums com-
PE Va rt Se mane es ewan pe Bettie Sh ore 5
sorghums, plates of ......-... .--.- _.92-97

varieties of sorghum, composition
1

Avbeumsan salts, effects of on ‘sorghum. 163

Analyses by stages of development. . Iss
deficient in valuable data............ 238
erroneous econelusion from........-- 238
mechanical, of soils: . ..........--.-- 179
SohUSE here han. h 8 5 ee Fe SAT
ash of sorghum molasses...... -. HS
bagasses from sugar-cane........ 278, 386
beet and cane molasses............-.. 369
GOEMIOGdEr, .. oo cee ne ee 393
corn stalk jnices.......-..- te ee:
different varieties of sorghum. Lae 104
diffusion juices from bagasse Ce aoe 388
dried bagasses Servs Pose< Soo
ensilage. I ee ee ee .-8293
fresh and dry j FURIGEH S .o-doen- Cates pan
Piverted juICes- se eat cee eee 485

552

Analytical pEOCe ses for examInation of

GANGS ey: sit ccs RSet pita ae oer 469
Anderson, D. H., “report on Speman . 414
on cost of making EROS Sew canis oe 417
ANGroOPOLOMACELMUS re sg cele ate eit 59
MUD ENS soto ete eee ae eee ee oes 59
BSOLSMIUM eet erate ots etree Bye
Angell, President James B., sorghum
from Clobb: Ci ppe eippanoonoon aers aon 52
on Sorghumem China). 22-2. 2..-..- 537
SOT MUP OL ta acre FeO
Antigua, export of sugar from.......... 543
Antilles, production of sugar in. 543
Antilles, Lesser, production of ‘sugar
TRE Ee eine Ae IA Oc a A OM OBS 543
Antisell, Dr. “Thomas, sugar in sor-
ghum . Soe oe Se ieee errs 4

Antiseptic property of sulphurous acid 307

Jeo ogsinihen) tiljkappoobaaspeocbtbode 50
Arduini, Pietro, Sores bun. a.2 22s se ae 57
Area for cultivation of sorghum, extent
OLE ee ty ee eee ete 504
Argentine Republic, “export of sugar
PLOTS ee ee Lee eae 543
Arizona, sorghum production ‘of. 416

Arkansas, production of sorghum in. 416, 408

production of sugar and molasses. . .542
value of crops peracrein.......... 42]
yield of different cropsin........... 453
IAS HMCTODS TOL SUEISes Seer mtern 462

Ash in crop of sorghum, amount of..... 395

Ash of corn crop, value of. .. 450
sediment and scum, analysis ‘of... .401
sorghum, analysis of.... .......--.. 547

juice, effect of fertilizers (0.0 eer ceen 172
Juices, composition of..
molasses, analysis of.
stalks, composition Of............--- 255
Asia, produe tion of cane sugarin......
sorghum in..
Atmospherie pressure ‘and boiling point.: 341

Australia, export of sugar from.......... 544
SUVS H COMS MMA SU loiter telavelelti=ca) eral 26
sugar production of ......... 26

Austro- POE SES production of beet su-

SAT) = Re erica . 28
eee CONSUME We. eee ne 26
SUPA WTOC WCh Obese eaer else ee 542

Auxiliary mills Hee eal)

Available sugar as affected by frost.. 159
aE different stagwes: ceo. 2: ile 515
average of in sorghum. 126

average per cent in 1880 and 1881.....150

defined. 1 Oe Re NET CAE OL ete . 136
from corn stalks per EWC sheet cs Quan 5 439
IN CORN) Stay }WICESie oe)o se cleo 435
mixed canes. 518
increase of by manufacture. pees a Bee
in juices and syrups..... aby;
suckered and unsuckered canes com-
DAG sys oi eee: St larers Ef Tere? dist ts)
juices at Washington....... ... 024, 518
Mere ANKE eee abe Ucopraune. 143
TIL ATZO VT ULCESs Ci ere cleo ciaierateiereierel= ine 497
maize juices, average. ........-..-- 501
OME TOMY SOOM sy niece el tetelererneyet te 500
sorghums. 3 Les clatelae ereersteteney 5a
Fondsaniiens poouecchn we neourcacsaceaden 105
sorghums, 1880, 1881 nibh) ERS
‘sorghum, average results, Tishon eee 492
olidednbooou i \uNcesy ee Shee nbasbo.corcs 13
sorghum juice, average........-- .. 499
syrups at Washington...... 519, 528
investigations needed..........-..--- 18
obtained per acre. -..-..----: 214
when at maximum... ........ 215
when present in juice 518
Average analyses of sorghum juices 197

sorghums in 1880 and
eae ae Shee 150
. 194

analyses of
1881

composition ¢ of sorghums in 1880. .

INDEX.

Aztecs, sugar made from maize by..... 427

Bagasse, absorption of juice by.......... 260
simalyses! OL... 0 2.,92oe oe beer Pees)
and coal compared as fuel...... .... 397
and wood ena atifnel %..c.-- 285808
ASMOOd 5... ; Ee Menten ost 392
as fuel, value ri MT ose 396
average anal ysisiof. ....5-0-a-.t sere 392
aried wanalyses Ol 85: tan veseeeeee 276, 383
experiments in saving sugar of.. 387
LOK papers pllpe.> «acces eee eee 400
from sugar-ecane, analyses of ns 386
PuUTrMacesplaterot... 0. 4 see 400
how used as fuel....... tf 2 OOn
importance of its disposition. . .. o94
loss of sugar in. 174, age 274, 277, 353
mineral matterin..... ....-......--. 395

money value of as food............ 894

of sorghum, And VSCS Ofmeeaa. see . 381
of sorghum and corn, analyses of.. 406
of corn and sorghum, sugar in 406

of sugar-cane, amount of sugar in. .387

of sugar-ecane, analyses of.......... 278
second presse Of) 25.) .0. ea. oe eee 259
sugar obtained from.......... neon
water presentin...... as... snes 275, 382
Bag filters, construction of.......... . 289
Bali, or sorghum. met rr 51, 78
Balling scale described sce ee 485
Barbadoes, export of sugar from....... 543

Barger’s sorghum de-
seribed.. 101
Barium sulphate, use of in defecation..301

Sugar-cane,

Barley, acreage yield of in different
states .. f chs Ree 452
average acreage value of. ....... . 420

average yield ‘and value per acre... .423
product, acreage and value in U.S » 422
Barn yard manure for sorghum.....175, 176

Barrnel and Isnard, investigation of
DEST SUGAR... 2a." Osh. seen deeper 13
Barytes, use of in defecation ....... - oun
Basic alum in defecation ... ........... 303
Bauhin, Gasper, on sorghum . aye 55
Bear Tail sorghum, analysis of.. Sno)
AVAADLEISWE AT TN 2 ater: 126, 538
Geseribed:\...0.0 ahs. Sees ee 98
Beaumé and Brix, “degrees compared. . .487

degrees and specific gravity com-
DATEG sec eee eee 337
scale dese ribed eee 485

Beauregard on securing sugar and seed.241

IBGGTSUC AT eciis lca. einer ene teen 22
annual product of.......- 5A5
annual production of by countries 545
cost'to produce at first..005 se 13

industry, development of.. es
prejudice GSA AiNShi reac women ieee
DROCUMCTION Olin... see eae 14,25
production, perfection Gi. .asse ee 257

WIMETEC PTOGUCEd ven ctrl eee teeion rae 26
Beet molasses, analysis of. Rest RAE . 869
Beets, per cent of Sugarin.............. 185

sorghum and sugar-cane compared, .423

sugar obtained from in working 257

Belgium and Holland, sugar product of 545

Be gium, production of beet SugEe Cee 542
SUCAL CONSUME linlan: wl ereineeereereneae 26
sugar production of.. we 26

Bentham, Genera Plantarum, ‘on sor-

ehum Pisa dosianiute een eae 60

Bester on SOTS MUM na eee Oe neeraee Ad

Bibliography of sorghum ........... AD

Bicolor, Holcus, or sorghum........ . 59
Sorgen) fee) Siete eee DL

Biot, M., on sugar from corn stalks . 428

Bishop, Hon. James, on sorghum in
Na AL. 418

Bisulphite of lime, composition of . 308

in defecation.
Black sorgho, from India, plate of.

¢ *
4
t
-
INDEX. 553
Black sorgho, analyses of stalks......-.. 547 | Cane sugar, annual product of.......545, 546
Black Top sorghum, available SneSt a sugar, Chinese as ape Sat oa eee 51
126, 538 sugar, composition BP SARA i 22
comparative value.................. 214 production a a A PS eee Pee oe 25
deserthed «232s ease cae tee son 69, 98 production of by countries ..... 543
Blakeley, Capt. R., on sorghum seed 380 NOHRCES OP. vse eee cee 22

Blackwell, Henry Ke on sorghum. .... 244
Bleaching property of sulphurous acid .307
Blood, Edwi in, on cost of making syrup 417
Blossoming, time cf, after planting 119
Blumen bachia halapensis, or sorghum. 60
Blymyer Manufacturing Co., Cincinnati,

O., on storing sorghum eee ee 9

time for harvesting. tb Fatt we ate 7

Boiling, advantage of in evaporation.. - +338

point at different pressures... B42
density and per cent of sugar solu-

TONS. eee oe eee 336

how changed =. 234 ot ee ee B41

in vacuum 341

in vacuum pan.. 342

Bollman, L., time for working sorghum. 6

Bone-black filters, WILE Ole oe ee 290
Bone-black, how revivified.............. 73
WHITKC OF AIDEGOMSs ace cos See. ceckes -290
Bone coal filters _. . SEE TE
Bone meal, effect of on sorghum. ees 163
Boom-vwa-na, variety of sorghum ae 65
Borneo, sorgh’ umin ane
Botanical description of sorghum. 57, 98
Botanical Sean Natal, sorghum
from AAP SAE ae ta ee 76
Botany of sorghum. eee ate egtehi
Bottles. specific gravity, described .... 484
Bouchereau on loss of sugar in manu-
facture ae te
Bourbon Islands, sugar export of ......543
Bozarth, Clinton, report on sorghum .. 414
Brazil, export of sugar from............. 43
sugar consumed in. ... ........ -
sugar product of . Se? ed ere 26
Bread millet, or Panicum.. on
Bretschneider, Dr., sorghum in China 52
Breynuis on sorghum bet 57
Bringier, S., on loss of sugar in bagasse “885
British America, sugar consumed in.... 26
colonies, sugar production (3) woe 26
India, sugar product of. ....... ..... 545
Brix and Beaumé, degrees comp: ared.. 487
degrees and Beaumé compared .. . 337
scale described. ...... ee ae Tae 485
Broom corn. AE ork Fie Eee Ee oe 62
alalyses of j juices ‘of 206

Brown, D. J., need of JR Ae science.. 9
Brown, Henry A., Statistics of sugar pro-_

due tion ...
Buckwheat, acreage yield of in different
Uy er ee ees Bes ecto Megs 452
average acreage valueiole ste: 420
average yield ‘and yalue per.acre... .423
product, acreage, and value‘in U. S§..422

Burrows, Hon. J. H., on value of sor-
ghuim.. 12
Butt, middle, ‘and top of cane compared. 218

Butts of sorghum, value of for sugar... .237
Buzah, from. sorghum Se a eet 51
GHACHCOLU A.) |) +. eee Oe 3 51

Gaffer or Caffrorum, Holeus...... 59

Caleium sulphite in defecation... 305, 308
California, export of sugar from. .. 543
sorghum production of . 416

value of farm products per acre in. 421
yield of different eropsin.. . :
Canada Aimber sorghum, analysis of... .248

exportof sugar r from. Rae ees 543
Cane delivered at mill, cost of.....,.... 415
mili plateof-.- 2 seh nace. Se we 71
mills, need of improvement in ek D5S
molasses, analysis of.......... e809
number of tons per acre. 414

Cane when cut to be worked upat once.126
ee corn and sugar from one crop. .440

Cape May Hybrid or r Early Amber. = 40
Capensis Agrostographia, description of
sorghum ae Ete RAED St 59
Causes of failurein making sugar. . RST)
Cayenne, export of sugar from .. .... A43
Cellular structure of sorghum Stalk. ... .258
Cellulosic fermentation of sorghum
GUIGG ee Oe ce tee 952
Census of U.S. sorghum statisties _... 416
statistics of sorghum. Se feat 63
of sorghum production .. . - 409, 416
Centigrade and Fahrenheit degrees com-
pared : . .83
Central America, sugar production of... 26
Central factories, advantages of... 2 ...495
Central factory system....:... ....... 4 425
Centrifugal machines, plates OR i eet 365
Cereals, average yield and value pe
acre. Ve 428
Cerosie or vegetable wax on sorghum. 259
Champaign, Mi. Sugar Co. method of
Manufacture, a4escs chase ee 506
OL SEFEP PUNE 0 Fone oe a eee eee 141
FEPOEL Of). 20a one on ee 414
SUSar Product. 225 0cesc) cake eee M48
Chapman, Geo. W. , yield of sorghum. 418

Character, agrieuliural, of sorghum... 2.'G%
Charcoal filters, action of

Char-house, kilns, etc., plate of :
Chemical action of lime on juice.. 293
analysis of juice, tests of. .......... 453
analysis of soils 181
composition of sorghum juice.. ‘251, 381
Chemistry of sugar. Sees 5 mieics RDS

Childs, David Lee, on sugar from inaize.428

China, sorghum grown in, for seed.. 537
sorghum BURA Pe otca pee Ch nee 50, 52
sugar exported or emit eaten 43

Sursn produeweks yy eovse oe tos eee 45
sugar production of ........-........ 26
varieties of sorghum from. 76

Chinese and other sorghum varieties

compared :
Chinese Evergreen Broom ‘corn, ee
VSIS OF (3S tea es, aon ree 206
Chinese sorghum, ‘analy sis of....... 243, 246
average composition of.............. i0L
introduced to US Sih ssc ee eee 64
HATO OE 8 le ee ee 76
DIAGES OFS? 5-2 sees Aone eee 85, 86
Sugar made from. ..cdi:-...-.. 62... 535
Chinese sugar-cane.... ae Re, 4 51
Chocolate corn:...2. secs ake coe be. 62
Clarifiers, open steam, plates (2) ace 344
Clark, John G., report on sorghum. 4i4
Claying of Bugars deserved = 22>. --2.-.- 363
Clay, use of in defecation..... ....... B01
Clements, Mr., on use of bagasse as
fuel . 397
Climate and soil the same for. maize and
Soren 27 ah ue ees ee 19
as affecting sorghum... of Sa eee Pec 145
at W ashington in 1882 . wae LDL
at Washington, D. C., in 1880-1-2..... 148
Climatic conditions of 1880 and ae eom-
PREGGO. ok eo coe aia ee ee eoe 148
Climate, effect of, on sugar- cane. 145
Clough Refining Co., when to cut and
“work sorghum. Aner Les 123

Clough, William, on Neeazana sorghum. 7
on prompt Ww orking of ean 9
sugar in sorghum. die

54

Clough, William, on time for harvest-

iV aif ease Be eh patch Perea PINE Eon

Coal-tar on seed to prevent worms...... 118
Cochin China, sugar production (cits ee oe 83
Coils, copper, rapidity of evaporation, . .338

Cold and neat compared in PeRLOFINE

Buh Sy Rao Caer ek 4 SURO ate haat rsteiaea cre hate

Colenso, Miss, ‘letter ‘concerning eee
phees . . 80

Collier, Dr. Peter, ‘classification of sor-

ghums S winey eae SS

and Goessmann, Drs., rere com-
pared . use 130
diffusion ‘experiments by. RES 21980

investigations by, conflicting state-
MUCUS CTOLE Goss, endear Leon eee 2
process for sugar making Fete ieee :2.080
value of his investigations.......... 10

Collins, sugar from sorghum by. .. .... 53

Colloids, properties OLA Neha oe eee 283
Colman, Col. N. W., on sorghum seed. . 379
Colorado, sorghum ‘production Oar oie 416

value of farm products per acrein. 421
Goloriof sugar, CRUSELOL.... 9... = sseeeres 327

Color of syrup increased by Witness too 200
Coloring matter in sorghum stalks. . 244
Commission of French Institute on beet

sugar... 15
Committee of National Academy of Sci-
ences.. 469
Comparison of sorghums from different
couptries, Be a eae ae ON 0
specific gravity scales........ 4385
analysis and polarization .. 476
upper and lower halves of sorghum-
GAINES iy ete ta yecte onteesees 237
Composition. chemical, of ‘sorghum
VULCE MA chs Lata rine 251, 381
Comstock, N. D., results obtained AUDY . 412
Concentration of Mee Be gs Me te OS: 5 325
by freezing. . Asthibishhida eee er tees 361
when completed. BAe eee ee 304
Concretors, description of....... 360

Conflicting opinions on essential points. 2
Congress, ‘appropriations for sorghum 14
Connecticut, corn stalk molasses made
in
sorghum production of.. ..416
value of farm products per acre in. .421
yield of different crops in.. ». 452
Consumption of molasses in U. S. since

iis) eee ek eNO
sugar by different countries......... 26
sucarin) U.S: simceil790) -... a. ..2--- 31
SUSATADCT Captain ee ysads-e oa 26
Cook pan, construction of.. : 329
WLAtES Ol. oh sere stcy= . 380, 331, : 332
Cook, Prof. G. HL, analy ses of | sor-
‘ghum.. Rene Pete ace? fo)
experiments in feeding SCE0 mAs toes 395
fertilizers ii sorzhum......-.-.-- a 6}
on loss of sugar in bagasse. Sana 277, 385
QnesonehwMm Seeder aur nee nee ee 379
Cook, D. M., on premph working of sor-
‘chum |
Copper coils and_ open pans, evapora-
AICO Oh Gers Base decimate Meee use. 8A8
Copper wall, evaporation IDWiaeeat 3828

Corn, acreage yield of in different states. 452

aggregate product of U.S. .. . 458
and sorghum seed com pared Sooo 377
average acreage vale of. ..........- 420
average acreage value of in U.S..... 450
average acreage yield of U.S. ...... 455
average yield and value per acre... .425
crop of in) Uss., LS7L to isl. ase. = 450
fAttenin es vV.ahiievOke.n. ee eweri ns] sees 450
foddersanalysestOt-. oes eer ee eee 393
fodder, money valve of as food... . .894
for canning, stalks for sugar.....-. 440

INDEX.

Cornilliere, A. De La, on loss of sugar in
DABASSET c-) Sos haat pee ee easier 386.
Corn in Iowa, acreage value ‘Of ta 420
TSSaETRITEY = |. ami) wicela/a) oe? cel Saks Se ie ee eee 51
total value of crop ins Us Sik scare eee 458.
varieties of tested for sugar......... 429
White Dent, analysis of juices of..... 432

Yellow Dent, analysis of juices of. ..433

Corn stalks, alcohol from. ... .......... 246
analysis’ of leaves "of. 45.2.) snseeee 406
and bagasse, analysis of............ 406.
and sorghum juices compared...... 443.
available;sugar.in..- 3-. 06 eecesee 497
butts and tops compared. oe eee 235
further investigations of.... ....... 444

height and weight of stalks......... 431

juices, acidity. of.. ese 436
juices, analysis of by stages epi oenee 435
juices, average analysis of. .... 431, 440
WOSSTOMMSUSAR NII. 4.015 5 a ee -._. 442
AYE value of different varie-
DUR erat bette sn Se athe eae . 4389
ees of development of:.........- 430:
SILO heave Gri stonds 8. (one neniee eee 22
sugar and grain from). o-.. 284 ee 442
sugar, history () eRe ere enee co, AST
sugar in bagasse STOMA... oc Cee 275.
sugar made at Washington .... ....521
susar made irom. .....0s fe-see eee 441
SUSar Present 1M... 6. ewes bene 197
weight of crop peracre... ........- 439°
Corn, varieties of, tested for sugar..... 429
Cost of cultivation of sorghum.......... 414
Makine SVCUp. seas Sons ce om AIT
producing sorghum.... -415

Cotton product, acreage and value in
WMS. hos eee tout nthe le 422:

Countries producing sugar as ZEROS 26

supplying sugar to U.S... .....- Pere)

Cracking of scum in Ae ation Mee 3. 294

Cream otf lime, how prepared.. ......... 292,

Creole cane, and analVsisiole | os aheeneee 208

Crop, length of time for working.. 538.

of cane as affected by line ......... 183

oi sorhum, ash dm . 22.5.5 4... 395

of sorghums per acre ...... 2.75.18
Crops, acreage yield of in different

States). 'edni wo. oss dele ee 452

farm, average yield and value...... 423

of east and west compared ........ 61

of sorghum, weight of.... ...... 179

of the U. S., diminished yield. ae

of U.S., total weight of...... 462:
percentage yield of in different
states . ..... 464
total loss in U.S. by diminished... 459
Crop to be worked at once after cut-
LIS e5 Aires ene iol geet a ee
Geushiie. ‘double hee eee 280°
Crystallization a purifying process...... 326
OLisugu@s) (2. (3. Gases eee . 24
of sugar, how prevented. espns Rheneas 826
of sugar, how promoted............ 362
of sugar, time required. ....... sor
not effected in open pan............ 354
when effected). .s:.2.).0 aa) ple eee 825
why produced in vacuum pan....... 3855:
G@rystallizing LOOM. 6-2 une eens 356
Cry stalloids, proper tleSiOL 5 ce eee 283.
Crystals of sugar built up in vacuum
pan.. 305
Cuba and Porto Rico, sugar ‘product of. 544
Cuba. production of sugarin........... 43
sugar production of.... 26
Culbertson, Prof., on bagasse as fuel... .397
on food value of se im, kG... 402
Cultivation, hill and level.:e cece eels
object and importance Of ..........-. 113
Of SOTA Wine se een eee . 108, 113
COSTE Ofek « ccctmctarscrewldcntye oie te eters 414, 415.

INDEX.

Cultivationin Japan. ......... Soe ghante 419
Customs paid on molasses imported

Tye Teh ss Rigas Ra es Sao Se ee 34

paid on sugars in U.S. since 1790.... 30

REPECEVOU EI TOGLE: cNe wots come e ss eece 42

Saiome Cane, COStOr. .5.-- .. <%= =<.) << 415

Dakota, production of sorghum in. 408, 416
Dalmatia, sorghum in 50
Dalzell, Dr., Natal, sorghums from .. ..
Danish colonies, sugar production of..
Days from planting to maturity of sor-
ghum.
number of, for working sorghum. .
Dean, Dr., sorghum grown by Dep. ot

126

BLS eee PRE oe wer = ata on 514
Decker, A. = ‘Wisconsin method of
SEAN Ste ot eS ae ea aee 508
report on sorghum crop . : i 414
Defecated juice, appearance of.... 295, 316
effect of Keeping ..-.-.. -- ~------- 300
Defecation arresting fermentation ..... 300
by lime, how effected ......... 293
by lime, temperature of - 295
experiments. ...._- 296, 308, 316, 324
experiments, average Tesults of.. .. 309
importance of a good eso eS eaceet 539
lime sucrate method.................-. 304
mechanical means of .......-.....--- 301
phenomena pmendine Fee ettoaet- aoe cae 294
ST POMICH Wi) ice os Sie eis ate ewe. aol 287
MEOOROL Ri OOGU 2 cb 2... xe ween oe 293
scum and sediments, value of.. ..401
sediment formed by ......- .--.----- 295
superphosphate of lime in.......... 302
use Of alumina......... . ...-..----- 302
TPR A RCE ES fk el Eg Se ne 301
various substances usedin.........., 301
Whe Completed 2 <<... sccee es sin. 2 = 296
Defecator, EpasecuTlions Rete gris Poko ns 2 293
Defecators, open steam, plates of.......-: 344
Delaware, acreage value of farm Saag
ductsin. ... : --421
sorghum produe Oe BEL noes te - 416
yield of differentcropsin |. ....... 452
Demerara (Berbice), export of sugar
FOI. =. -. 545
Demerara sugar- cane soil, analysis of.. 182
sugar productof. . 543
yield of sugar per acre. what
Denmark, sugar consumed in.. . 26
Densities and degrees Beaumé com-
pared...... 337

Density, boiling point, and strength ‘of

sugar solutions.. Baten sea ae ae 336
BE CGEN Stalk. JUICES =. © “2.2. 2 5~ Saa2-. 435
of different sugar solutions ......... 335

of diffusion juices from bagasse.... 388
of ae and composition, relation_

of juice, how determined . 22 “S72
of sorghum juice, how determined 484

Dept. of Agric., failure explained... . 520
sugar making SEG ees ee oe ee cis 513
Depth of planting SOTSHUM =; ....¢2- -112
Description of sorghums. a 57, 58, 98
i ge ss table of varieties ‘of sor- .
UME os. nee - 98
Vovelopaiekt of plant, time to reach... -119
stages of, explained .......... -...-- 197
Dextro- glucose defined: <4! 22.<2235-5 =: 22
Je es ee eee ke a eee 22
Deyeux, investigation of sugar beet.. 13
Diabetic sugar... ...........-.-s.0+0--- 22
Dialysis @xplaivea@s.... f22) 22: So. .<.- 282
Diffusion, action explained -:.......-... 259
CX PEEMMENUSE | SU bas ies ee tris eee as 284
experiments, conclusions Beptiees 2-2 286
experiments inIndia ............. 285
experiments in West Indies.. ....... 285
experiments with bagasse.. ... .... 387

Diffusion, juices, analyses of......... F
juices from bagasse, analyses of..... 388
38

leach, construction of .. ..........-. 7
leach, estimate for a...............-.. 390
DTUCCHS 200 © oh eee es tnce kee ROMS 282
Disintegration of SO SEE ek 281
Dioscorides on sorghum.................- 55
Panicum, or sorghum... ............. 55
Dodtsvor. sore amy, 2.) nce coc bo. oe cae 55
Double crushing mills................ ...-280
Double effect evaporators......... ..... 356

Dough state of seed not time for har-

vesting Sa ee ae Roh nes 239
DLs ty eee ee tee Fetigsezemasea, CSS 51
brown, analysis of juice of ......... 206
corn, analyses of juices of...-........ 206
white, analysis of juice of..... .....-. 206
Draining of sugar, how effected... .... ..362
Drappiez, investigation of sugar beet... 13
Dreen on sormhwinst to. fess eeeet- cw 58
CDP ULI T Es hs | ee 111
PURO seese he eee net eC ane 112
Drought, ability of sorghum to with-
‘stand... Saige aati Reece iciee ege 149
effect-of, on sorghtmm..-....-.... ..45 149
HG GBVINLEE . Snceeo~ <p eeeeee. Nee eee 109
Drummond, Bros., Mo., process em-
UO, Hee oo week ecieee eee 5
report er HOM. ee | 414
Drying apparatus TOD SUSAT 5. eae: sous h 352
Drying up of cane not before frost.. .. 218

of. pliant during later stages not

shown by analyses... .......... 218
Dundee, Kan., Sugar W orks, sugar made

Be ES ak es ery CEE 549
a a analyses of juices. x. eee 478
SUE ERS et Bee = a eR ee Cee 51
Thro fy, Cae ean Sain a ee oe ey!
Dutch colonies, sugar production Or =. 26

Dutch Indies and Jav a, Sugar product of.544
Duties on sugar compared with other
Imports... - 42
paid on molasses imported since
1790 . 34
paid on sugars imported since 1790. of
eee in 1881...
Dyer, T. Thiselton,
erik a2
Eanamoodee, variety of sorghum..

sorghum seed —

ra

Early Amber sorghum, analy ses of. .226, 234
detailed analyses Ge ce haste 189
HISUOPE OL nec os se Ete Swe teeta 65
WIGS Gire wt te ete coc Re eee 92
SNGUVNOS Oh ache © Katies ne soe ee ee 242
available sugar ee Bt eee 126, 538
ae de peda Walue ti. 26254 Seee 214
described...... See Pin oe eee te. ae
REL ROSLOD Ss to nee eee nce es 244
loss of sugar in bagasse . ia ep okn at 75
time for maturity Bice ocecs hae sObs Nerek 117
working period for............ .. ... 186

Barly. Goldea sorghum, available ue
desstibed EN pete, AME Rng SEG ee st See 100

Early Orange apseks tr comparative

WHINE OEE. ee ks os . 214
HnaelpsesOnw 45S" ce ceo. reek 242, 243
available sugarin........ .....- 126. 538

East India sorghums, plates of. . 83, 84

East Indies, sugar produced and ex-

ported. 548
| Ebothla, variety of sorghum. .... 66
Edwards, J. M., on yield of seed ‘per
acre.. - . 380
E-en-gha, variety ‘of sorghum . nh et a Ss 65
RO UP MART ATED 5 <o e eee ce gpg ok eal eck 61
Egyptian, or rice corn, analysis of juice. 206
described... 99
Egyptian sugar corn, ‘analysis of juice
1) Reap RA ais SBR SR EGE ele 431

556

Egyptian sugar corn, sugar in bagasse.
Egypt, production OIZS UP ae tech eee Ee 543

SONS DAML asia penta ease ea ae ul
SUSAN PLOGUCHOLAy. sce eee 26
Ensilage, average ANaIYSESIGL, Aa a-cecian = 393
money value of as'food... ......... 394
En-ya-ma sorghum desecribed,......... 69

Er Chiu Hung Liang, from China, plate
OL ens eee 86

Erickson, Evan report on ‘sorghum
CLO) Unga Seiten re Prine ack bacya Acs ores 412
Erni, Prof. Henry, time tor working sor-
SMU Saye we ate de ote ye eS oi 6
Error in analysis, limit of 200/100 . 470
Errors of analysis, how determined... .474
Europe, production of cane sugar in... 543
SOLSITUME eee ero aa eae hiie wee: 50
Evaporation, action of lime during.... .298
aud Ineezing compared: oi ee... 261
byeO tw ater s. Fracs i se a Apaches pate: 854
by steam and open pan............... 338
byatriplevetiect mate osace eras ae 356
Capacity of open pans........... 22. 808
ATOM ISUPIACE Spe science eet eee ere Ss 339
how inereasedi tts | wee eee. ee fenasts
in open pan, when finished)... ...... 354
in vacuum, description of........... 349
phenomena attending............. . .299
power of bagasse as fuel............. 397
MUCUN OOS TO leet n iak ap POAT 327
ORR UMUC CS pee 8-51 eae eeepahs ae opts epee 325
Evaporators, ‘open “steam, plates ‘Olena 345
STCAMM ADA Olmmsqceh-e aonep ere 346
test of their rapidity On aWOL Kare aeen 338
Evergreen Broom corn, analysis of
TUOKEXeN piace eke. iend «om aie te crete ola =e 206
Exhaustion of central grain belt of U.S.459
of east and west compared eee 2 461
OERSOUS ae tale fo onc Oa kh aeoetcioe eres 451
of soil by crowing ‘sorghum.. 447
of soils, how prevented Sees ie 464
not caused by sugar growing..... . 394
Expansion of steam in vacuum.... ....348
Expense of growing and working sor-
PUTIN ws aches Beate aeriee 415

Experiments at W ashington, result of. 520

Experiments in defecation. 296, 316, 324
GUTRUSTOM sc ah aaa iret eB oie eee 81
Saving sugar of bagasse Sea tphe aay
sugar making at W ashington. 513, 522,

Te cathe iwtviic da ecg RSH Le To eects ...029, 534
on sorghum desired _ ea eig a 2 64

Exponent as indicating available sugar. 216
of juice of different sorghums....... 214
of maize juices, average
of sorghum juices, average..

Export of domestic molasses from U. 8.

Sineeul 7905... 222 ot nan anes 34
of domestic sugar from U. 8. since
ALTSU cusses 3

of molasses from U. 8. ‘since 1790.... 34

of sugar from U.S. since 1790 ....... 30
Factories, central system.........::...... 425
Factory, plate of cheap home.... ...... 505
Failure, cause of at Washington Pertti 514

in sugar making, causes of... ....- 37

of experiments. explained Nene 520

of sorghum crop at Washington..... 514
to make sugar by Dr. Goessmann...535
Fairgrieve, A , onsorghum in New South

Wales Re ree ens Ptomae 546
False grain, danger. from...-...,-:.:,.---- 364
EXP LAM ACLO MP OMe ese eee eet aed 855
NOW REMOVE Ascent ere reels 364

Fahrenheit and peotiomde: degrees com-

pared .... airoae
Farm products, average acreage “value

Onna e a eD)
Feeding experiments “with sorghum

seed.. RE ee Sh aL Nine pene 2A)

.275 | Feeding

INDEX.

alue of sorghum leaves.
Fehling’ s solution, how prepared.. ....803

Fermentation arrested by defecation... 3800
arrested by sulphurous acid........ 307
how prevented.. Byes 284.

of sorghum juice, , products of.. 2... .252

of sugars, products of.. Peters oe 3
Ferrie alum solution, how made........ 503
Fertility of soil maintained by sugar

production... cit «35s epichs ate ae 49
Fertilization of soil for sorghum..'...... 447
Fertilizers, amount consumed in Great

Bap eui Ny ace ets OL. se 465

as affecting glucose in sorghum......168
as affecting solidsin jnices...... Sila

as affecting sugar in sorghums... . 166

averseenvalueiof.-).car eee oan 411

effect of on ash of sorghum......... 172

effect of on sorghum............ 162, 184

effect of upon sugar in sorghum © ..172

LOMSOneh wim Nn) PAP an... eee 419

PL AUUGUSMUN serie 2 cle «Sistema ne 467

improvements AUD i soit eget nee erent Peer: (oil!

on sorghum, experiments by Dr. G.

EUG ote: eo ee 173

on sorghum, Prof. Swenson on...... 175

Valuevor. how fixed)... tec eee 462
Fiber in bagasse, per cent of..:.......... 278
Field crops of sorghum, analysis of..... 247
Field, J. A., statistics of sorghum 1882. .411
Figi, yield of SUCHE Per aere. oa. 27
Film orsurface evaporators.............. 33)
Finings, Howard’s, in defecation........ 3802
Filtering of juice, how effected.:.....-.° 289
Filters, bag, construction of. .. 289

bone coal, construction and use. . 374

for juice, construction of..... hate ee 289
Filtration by bone-black..,....<......... 372

Florida, production of sugar 1879..... ee

production of sugar and molasses. . .542
sorghum production of...........-..- 416

value per acre of crops in........... 421
yield of different crops in.. ........- 453

Flour from sorghum seed . 319
Fodder corn, money value of as food...394
from sorghum, value of

Folger, Mr., on skimmings for feed-
ATMO Ae se ties Ure eee. sue = oa eee yeti) pel Ie 402
Food constituents of bagasse ddyaed walt ete 392
for man, plants used as....... . 50
Value Of DALASSE: =)... ne. seen eee 392
CNISTIARES oc te on. ccc ore ane ae 393
seum and sediments. sreka tye eee 401
Sone humo le siviesen pa ere eee neee 392
Forage, value of sorghum {OT}. 33a 406
Fragus, Jerome, on sorghum. .... . 55
France, analysis of sorghum grown in 240
cultivation of sorghum in........ seals
production of beet sugar.......... rar
SOMA MGT UILG are peat teensy alee Seer ert Panera
sugar consumed in............-.: 26
sugar product of...-...........-. 542, 545
Hraudsautertilizersess.ases eee . 467

Frazier, William, method of Workine: Al)

report on sorghum.. : . 414
Freezing, concentration of juice by. 361
French Institute on beet sugar investi-

gations.... 13
Frost, effeet of on mature and immature
‘sorghum . edi pied oe eee 157

ONSOrehwmMs 2. Geneae= ce ce eee 154

UDPOM SUSAL-CANC ee 161
Frosts, occurence of at “Washington, D.

COS S80 S128 rae en set ee Rr 17)

time of in 1881 and (S80: See ee 158
BRU SUPA a cee cee eee ine = lee 22
Fuechius on sorghum Pos argc 54
Fuel, how bagasse is used as........ .397

value of bagasse FON cic ho eee 396
Furnace for burning bagasse, Diatensen 400

INDEX.

Further investigation of sorghum de-
Tite or ie lc(e Ge ae Ghana AS hae em 9, 14

Future prospects ‘of ‘sorghum industry 19

Gelatinous silica in defecation. 303

Genera Plantarum of Bentham, on sor-
“TANT Ai epee ee Jet 0 oe et 60

Georgia, production of sorghum in. 416, aug
production of sugar 1879 .

production of sugar and molasses. . 549
value per acre OlseCrOpSHOY so oac- ys ae
yield of different crops in............ 453
Werarde Ol SOrehUmMy yo: oe ween aoc: 55
German centriiug SUN cE R Ie 3 Se Aero nome 366
Germany, production of beet sugar.. 28
sugar consumed in.... .......... oy8
sugar product obs. |. 2s. _ 542, 545
Gesner, Conrad, on sorghum See 55

Gill, F. N., analyses top, middle, and
butt of sugar-vanes. 1. .236
Glucose, amount destroyed in manufac-

CUE ER hae ee Reto oe iee ar sla ae hem 032
and sucrose, development Gis 185
analysis of explained . ......... . 473
average of at different stages........ 194
average in sorghums 1879. ’80, $1. 198

average in 39 varieties of sorghum. 2197
average per cent in eulce 1880 and

1881. PPS SAS, eRe oe. Toe etek 150
Hasyaesiarol erin = Shoe SAY Vamsi 22
crystallization of.. Se ane
decrease of graphically ‘shown . 187
decrease of in sorghums.........-... 243,
SHechoL MMe Upons..25.-6-.4 0-8. = 297

effect of on crystallization..... eee

Grain and sugar from corn crop.... ...
Grain, false, how produced.............. 395

product, area and value of crop.... 423
Granulation of sugar, how promoted.. . 362
NOLMYAOUCH PAM ee eat. tee cae ei 354
Granulator, Hersey, plate Gf ets .802

Srencea! chart of sorghum analyses,
1879. .. 201
showing analy sis of sorghums.. see POL
results of analysis of sorghum, 1879.187
Grass compared with sorghum leaves... .391

sugar, or shaloo.. : 51
Gray Top sorghum, analysis Of. ...243, 250
available s sugar in ee ae 126, 53
comparative WallwerOl.....8 oaee 214
(OIG Ciert ayeva LE a eo ead oe SER ee a 68, 99
Great Bend, Kansas, analy ses soils. -179

Great Britain, consumption, of fertilizers

Thi Se Bee tee ek Se ree ake oes 465
sugar consumedin.. ........- Bice 26
Greece, sugar consumed in.......... 6
Griesbach, Flora of West Indies, on sor-
ghum . Lotuans . 60

Guadeloupe and Martinique, sugar pro-
duction of. 2
export of sugar from..... : 543
Guano Peruvian, effect of on sorghum. 183

Guiana, export of s sugar from..... . 543
French, sugar product ¢ Ole lacie Soe 545
Guinea Corn. Fo oe te 61
SOC Ta too oe a ee ee 51
Gulf States, value of sorghum LOCC 11
Gum in sorghum juice, not present..... 19

in syrups a product of manufacture. 19

HOW GQ ELEnMaIMeOG: 7c fe eso cine« sejetse= ae 472 product of fermentation.. ...... 252
in corn stalk juices ......... 435) Gussub, fromi\sorehuim), <2 -) eee 51
in juice as affected by frost.......... 159 | Gypsum, effect of, on sorghum. SaaS ae 163
decrease of in plants. . 490 use of, in defecation.. 301
in maize juices, average. 501 Halapense andropogon. .... marie
in juices of different densities. . 497 | Halapensis Blumenbachia, or sorghum 60
in sorghum, effect of fertilizers on..168| Hammond, J. H., time for harvesting
PIMA OS oho wate Se chink ns seater Seope ...104 SOrOnMMTO ae ee ae tae aan, A oe sap tt
at different stages sem aos SSeS ..210} Hand centrifugal, plate Sibi Sia swe alae 365
PEVOTELE Gi sr ole ores Sac hag aca 8 Seca sia se 499 | Hanging centrifug al, plate. .367
average results 1879........... -..492| Hanson, W., report on sorghum crop. . 412
in juices of different densities... .. .493 Harvesting, diversity of gee as to
loss of, during manufacture. ...299, 322 time “for. 3 E cai es 122
of juice obtained in syrup.......... 532 loss in, by leaving Bitte eee ieee 237
per cent in juice of crop. 134 time for. TRAE Aer he ke Cerda Be 122
per cent of in different sorghums. . 214 when and how to work ............. 123
per cent of, in leaf juice.............. 143 | Harvey, William Henry, on iepkasieer ts 57
sorghum GEGOOES sce lear 380 | Havana sugar, clayed.. . . (363
Glycerine in fermentation of sorghum .252| Hay, acreage yield of, ‘in ‘different
Goessmann, Dr. C. A., analysis sugar states. : 452
beets... . Ne t=) an exhausting crop. Shoe ee ee 464
and Collier’s results compared. 130 average acreage value Gi: deere 420
as to time for harvesting. ee oe compared w ith sorghum leaves..... .391
experiments in sugar making.. ie errs 129 product, acreage and wiles of in
failure in sugar making............. 539 ay Cie eee 429
ONUSOL ENA Fy ee. ee a a oe seta 186 | Heads of sorghum, plates Oh here int oie 83
time for working sorghum. ....-..-. 7] Heatand light, effect of on sorghum ...111
sugar in sorghum Shee ree 4,3 CHeCHOM LN CGd nee rk pene 291
Gold and silver, - production of, in 1881... 41 Hedges, I. A., storing sorghum after cut-
Golden Imphee sorghum, analy sis of... .242 ting SME SEW Sh ah. Matas
Golden, sorghum grown by, for Depart- Height and weight of sorghums bg ie ae 7A
mentof Agriculture.. ‘ ..ol4 maximum, time toreach ........... 120
Golden Syrup poreBuan, comparative GESOLeUDIS!...... caveat 105
ValUeOL is 5e5 20 tee Sac ae ...214 from different countries ...... .- 103
described. ... 100 varieties of maize ......-..-- . 431
Goose Neck sorghum, analysis of...248, 250} Henry and Swenson on loss of sugar
available sugar in.. ........ $58 538 Biter Gane 18 Cultiee eee soc e-ink = 127
comparative value BET a ..214 sorghum analysis! Dye J: <2. <= es 241
described..+...:...... , 100 cost of sorghum sugar.. ......... . 417
Gordon Memorial Mission, ‘sorghum on product OLsSue an peels te eee 419
LO 130) sige eager age ed 76 on skimmings for feeding, : 402
Gould, J. Stauton, on need of investiga- on sorghum product of Wisconsin... .409
tion.. EO Shas waa a ei eae 10 on sorghum seed.......... 380
time to work sorghum......... 6, 123 report on production of sorghum. 412
Government, relations of, to sorghum. 16 | Hersey granulator, plate of......... .. B52
Grain, appearance of, in vacuum pan.. B55 Herman, sorghum....... eoeeiee et eects 57

558

Hervey, Mr., of France, sugar in sor-

shim... ... ie Geena: sheeitee Perot 3
Hild culture of sorghum..... .... ....... - 113
PANNE ew eel ae eer ae eine 111
Hindostan, sugar produced and CmPOnY
CG oan cet oe chars et Se cena cea 543
Hinman, R. S&., on corn stalk molasses. .428
History of beet sugar industry....... 12
Sorahuman@eac. ts «a ee ree 50, 52
Hlogonde sorghum, plate Okc eae ees 91
Hoeing sorghum. cost Of. ......---.....- 415
Holeus bicolor; or sorghum...--.....-= =: 59
Caffer or Caffrorum.................- 59
. (Choad NUT ee el ated SiGe eth Momeni oats 51
Holand, sugar consumedin....... ....- 26
sugar productiOniOf.:...5.-e- ie. - 26

Honduras sorghum, aualye sis of. .232, 234,

SEE At de Paptoie Cone Col eae adic 243, 250
available sugar ne AACS ea 126, 538
comparative value Gre see ane ee 214
Geseribedy ay cass: See ee es . 68, 100
loss of sugar in bagasse... Sehecaeren ee 275
plateiol gr = oe ‘Frontispiece.
time for maturity. teres 116
working period for. ........... 186

18 Cop aVeN Roe nae ees og ACC ea ee ee oe, Be or aos eee 2

Honey Cane sorghum, available sugar

116 Nearer aoe ar Deters eta sen ag eae 126, 538
comparative value of.... ............214
Geseribedinivn 2. seer kets acs -100

Honey Top sorghum, compamaiive value oa
Ree ate ley Sa aia kine nacre hebetes 214
deacnibeal BE ed oee cote ae Ue emcee 100
Honey sorghum, analy sis Of....... 243, 250
GeRCTIDEG SS Maes Ht ota st ate 68
Honolulu, sugar production of..... .... 26
Horizontal mill, plate of................ . 264
Howard’s finings in defecation...... . B02
Hungary, sorghum in Be ee ee eat 50
Hutchinson, Kansas, soil analysis. Sergesets 179
sugar madein 1889). cr ick ee eee 548
Hwang-mi, or sorghum seed... ..... 52
Hybridization of sorghum............... 69
important. ............-...---..2--+-- 18
Hybrid, Link’s. described........... -100
Moore’s, described. ................. 100
Wallis desertbed:s.sceceecee 100
Hydrate of alumina in defecation. ..... 802

Hydrometer, a test of composition of
guicer. Soe yh Serine oe . .489
zood juice AAS Atactea tees ote Rate dena 501
Hy drometers described.............-. 484
different ones compared............ 486
Idaho, sorghum produc frOntOhea= .aene: 416
Identification of varieties of sorghum.. 98
Illinois Amber sorghum, analysis of.. - 243

Ill. Ind. Uniy. report on sorghum ast 414
sorghum experiments .
Illinois. analysis of sorghums in
production of sorghum in........ 408, 416

sorghum products, TS79 ASO ss 411
value of farm products per acre in..4¥1
yield of different crops in.. -........ 545
Immature sorghum best for sugar.. 7
worthless for sugar..... . 217, “516
Immaturity of crop at Ww ashington,
CRUISEi i Reet cmmerareit ents Sl STA
Guise Of MAUUre-a ee. ceca. ee 537
Imphee........ er
Imphees, average composition Ot ree 101
different varieties described......... 66
INtTLOCUCH ON Of tOuUonie- ead near 64
letter on, from Leonard W ray.. 548
WADNE SOL. sey Ue ao ete neers 66
plates of seed heads . 89, 90, 91
sorghums, letter of Miss Colenso.... 80
sorghuis, names of.... ..... 76

varieties of sorghum, plates of. 89, 90, 91
Importations of sugar into U. S..... - 26
Imports of molasses in U. S. since 1790.

INDEX.

Imports of sugar in U. S. since 1790...... 30
Impurities of juice, nature of and re-
ATU OVAL «2% ses 'o cal Se eo ei Ce eee 288
Increase of sugar not due to drying..... 218
India, East, sorghums, analyses of ..... 243
sugar cane, ‘analy S@S\ O08 1 .2et. ee 208

Indiana, analyses of sorghums in....... 249
production of sorghum in. 408, 416
value of farm products per acre in. 421
yield of different crops in. sien 453

Indian and other varieties of sorghum

COMmparedl.. 5)... joker een nee 205
Indian corn and sorghum, cultivation
PHesamM Ges. 5 5..: ener Baer 1
and sorghum seed compared ee Sa 377
land in ia: S. devoted! to: v=. penne 19

product, acreage, and value in U. §..422

sugariin the stalks:of'.25:45--- ose 427
varieties tested for sugar......... 429
Indian millet. ce. eg: | Cae 51
sorghums, average composition of 101
sorghums, plates’ Of... o2acseassee , ot
India, sorghum PLOW ..5 5.5 2 oe ole eee 55
SOTE: NUMA UM es «<2 rae ee ee 50
varieties of sorghum from........... 76
yield of sugar per acre...:.<:4-.. PA
Indies, East, sugar produced and ex-
ported. (2a: sha eee 543
sugar product Oh ey. ay Fh, 543
Indies, West, production of sugar in... 543

Internal revenne rec eipts for 1881.......: 42

Introduction of sorghum ...........- : 53
of sorghum by M. L’Abadie.......... 64
ofssors hum in {UsS She eee 64

Inversion of sugar after defecation.... 300
by not working cane soon............ 126
in Gut sorghum =...5..---. . 131, 488, a

products of
Inverted sugar, amount in manufacture, ae

Gefinedes 2%. c.c2 oe eee 23
effect of on ery ‘stallization..... _ 326
Tusubrum sorehiml + 202 o-eo 8s eee 5d
Investigation of sorghum. demanded,
9, 14, 64, 123
errors in. PE Ee nei rani Ge Gc - 15
import: ince to country. BG Aon: 11
Iowa, average value of ¢ rops in. 419
production of sorghum in 408, 416
Red Top sorghum, available sugar
1c eae pee oye 7300". eee . 126
sorghum described...) ues 98
sorghum products, 18% 58 to. 19s eee All
value of farm products per aere in. .42L
yield of different crops in...... 453

Isnard and Barruel, investesiies of beet

SUPAar: oe: vi. 1. neers eee eale
Dialy, Sorghum is 2 2.4 50, 54
sugar consumed in. +.) -).... eee 26
Jaekson, Dr. C. T.,sugarin sorghum.... 3
time for working sorghum......:.... 5
Jacobs Brothers on time for cutting sor-
PUM. 508 bless oS Oa 2
storing of ‘sorghum after cutting. . Phat!)
time for working sorchum.........225 Ui
Jamaica, export of sugar from ........- 543
rain, CONStrUCHON- OL... oa. seas eee 327
how operated)......o..8-ce. sso eee 354
improvements upon...... .......... 328
sugar cane soil, analysis of.......... 182
yield of Sugan per ACE): :=0..-seeeee 27
Japanese cane, analysis Giochi om J ePeUS
Japan, sorghum sugar produced ine 418
sugar exportea from......1.....- one sepse
Java, export of sugar from....... oes: 544
sugar production of..........-....... 26
yield of sugar per acre............... 27
Jefferson, O., sugar works, method of
working, ..:c..0+.. dirs. . e 509
WENO Ne bemoremearoncnc om sten eee 414
JOaT! SOLSDUMH. «cna. especies Eee 61

INDEX.

Johnson, ©. J., methods of sugar mak-
rt) eet BR EE ata e At 90 36005 o0e a sees d11

Johnson, C. Conrad, on sorghum sugar
industry... WAI o AS ae eens safe shot. 23
Johnson, Thos., report on sorghum.. 414
Jovari, sorghum ahs ahs aie Renee See ena bid orite 51
Jowaree, SOSH: coe tele ee elds» ee 251
Juba, on sorghum Eee ee 54

Judd, Orange, introduction ‘of sorghum. 64

Juice, absorption of by bagasse.. ....... 260
acidity of during ev aporation ....... 317
action: of limlexuponwes-. 5. .k. Less 291
after defecation, appearance of ..... 316
average expressed in 1879, 80, 81... ..199

amount evaporated per hour in open
PAl.c 25
amount expressed by mills...
amount per acre from ,sorghums
as abundant in late as early stages.
average in 35 varieties of sorghum.
average per cent obtained by mill..
average per cent secured in 1880 and
1881.

104, 260

214
220
197
48S

150
composition of in defecation experi:

IPC TNE ots ett ays, ..ol1
composition of shown by density -489
composition shown by hy drometer.. 501
defecated, appearance of. See aly
effect of heat on . 291
effect of standing after defecation. 300
SETDOMTAU TOS 0) bo Wg ASB aes a aoe 325
extraction of, methods)... Loss 257
from maize, average per cent ‘of... 501
from sorghum, average per cent of. .499
mechanical impurities and their re-

TINS VEU eee Lien ee. See hates 288
method of analysis described....... 471
Lossiof, cases tot.) |... 4.2202. .-....260
mills for expressing .. . .289
of leaves and stalks, analyses of.....142
of maize, sugar presentin............ 197
of sorghum at different stages. 194
composition graphically shown 201
mMethOdlOL Aanalysisy,—o... Goes. 469
proximate analysis). ccs cach ss. <7 252

ercentage obtained.. ..... 175, 210, 248
POW Oelenmined sc: sors, as scee ee ee.
obtained from different sorghums. . 214
Gpiained OL Crops. <:--- cmos.) . 134
of, as affected by REGS HG epee 159
GL MNUCORNIStAl kate as ey vases, cas ton 437
OLSyrnpyreldeds “hese le lacoste 322
puriacation by filters: .-..250:.- 2. 289
settling tanks for. eg
specific gravity of when workable... .213
various methods of extraction..... 280
when evaporation is finished ...... 354
when suitabie for sugar making..... 491

Juices, analyses of fresh and dry.. 223

duplicate analyses of. ...
from bagasse by diffusion, density of.388

from corn stalks, analyses of 435
from sorghums, specific viaase of. 134
inverted “analyses Olen ke ues. 488 |

of maize, relative purity Gti
of maize, specific gravity and analy-

SIS Res thar eee, eae tte 497
of sorghum, analyses i: i 238, 381
and maize, ACLATEVIG INS: = shoe taeda 253
and maize compared............. .. 443
average’analysisio&. $<... 5d. on 197, 500
average OL ANS OY eee eee . 204
in 1882, average results............... 205
average composition of.... ..... 309, 310
specific gravity and analysis ; ert)

worked at Washington, analyses of. .517

Jyangentombi, plate of... =.......-.0-04-- 89
ULE CORI .!.ay ot A ge een aay ey. . 51
Kuinite, effect of on sorghum... ee 163
Kansas, analyses of sorghum soils... 179

559

Kansas Orange sorghum, analysis of .. 243,
production of sorghum in. . 408, 416
sorghum products, 1872 to 1380h osha: 411
sorghum sugar made in 1883..... . 548

value of farm products per acre in. 421
yield of different crops in me
Keit, William, sorghum seed from ..... 76

Kenney, S. H., on fattening value of
skimmings.. pe Ne
Kentucky, production. of ‘sorghum in,
416, "408

value of farm products per acre in. .421
yield of different cropsin ...... . 453
Kilns for bone charcoal......... .872

Kinsley, Kan., sugar works, sugar made
in 1883 bake 49
Kloeden, Prof. Gustave Adolph, history

of sorghum GO aot tas etndn eI, A 5 al
Koom-ba-na, description of...... ....... 68
variety of sorphum) 2... 402 .0.c.25...- 51

' Kuleshoff, Mr., on sorghum in Turkes-
[Ree eae LAME Ie, Ses och POLAT: anes Meee 537
Kuntz on sorghum Eas Ar eee 57
Lactic acid, how produced. ............. 24

Lactic fermentation of sorghum juice. .252
Lactose, crystallization of.............2. 25
ODI SUSHT kate eas eae see 24
La Grange on av ailable sugar. La ingaeinseee. 216
Laevo-glucose defined....... oe setettys: Sekar 22
Bag eviillosecse tt ie eye eee 22
Large mill experiments, at W ashington 516
Lawrence, Kan., sorghum sugar made
INU ASS oR see SEL tee 549
Lead, basic acetate, solution of how
IMAM oy he ee een ot eee 503
Leaves and stalks of maize, W eights of 443
and tops, per cent of in cane. ....... 142
juice Of. anal ySision, .« @. o.. 2 ech e 142
of sorghum, analysis of..... 390, 392
and corn, analysis of.. Pa ek
BSD. UENO prow aeere ieee yale eee. 399
compared with hay.......... : B91
for cattle ~. ATR te ochre oh ares SSCS 51
percentage of in crop............... 392
mouey value of as food.. .. ....... 394
percent Gf in stalks 2.2/2.2. 5:2. 143
percent of juice from):.:-.. ... -... 143
Legislation to promote cultivation of
SOrSIUM es: SF ates te os eee 17
Length and weight of varieties of sor-
| STS sae. Cxeis hokey cen eee 7:
Length of time for working sorghum _ .214
Lesser Antilles. production of sugar in..543
Level culture of sorghum......... ..... 113
| Liang sorghum, or millet... ......... 53
Liberian sorghum, plate of 94
analysis “of. ot tale 231, 234, 243, 246
available sugar in sate ee 126, 538
comparative value of............... 214
GESERIDERP Ac no. Heine oe Sees 98
tinier ior migtUriby, sas q 5s 2 <ciaenidemeve ee 117
White: described 7.20 s.).-eataoe 101
Workin period fOT...- 0 oes seen: 186
' Life of seed, how tested... ............. 117
3| Light and heat, effect of on sorghum. Aili hi
Lime, action of on glucose. errs Wi
action of on sugar solutions. 24
amount added in defecation expert:
ments Cd LG
amount of in ‘crop of sorghum . 896
and magnesia in soils, relation of . 182
and sulphite of lime in defecation. 308
chemical effeets of on juice . 293,
eream of, how prepared ..... 292
defecation by, how done. .......... 293

effect of during evaporation........ 298

eect ol OM UGE. tee seo 291
excess of, action on sugar...... .... 300
milk of, how prepared............. 292
sucrate, composition of.............. 370

560 INDEX.

Lime sucrate method of defecation......304| Maize for sugar, further inyesnenticn
sulphate, effect of on sorghum.,...... 163 Meeded. M25 cease iecevecead see ee
sulphite, composition of............. 308 height and weight of stalks.......... 431
sulphite in defecation........... 308, 305 VMICES: ACLGITY Ob.>>..-cheewesen eee 436
superphosphate in defecation....... 302 analyses of by Stnges.... .........- 435
water, use of in vacuum pan...... 356 average allalySisiOl.--....... 22. . sane 431

Lindley, Henry, on stripping cane. 141 TUCIMA SUS AL. Heenec laser a eon 197°
value of skimmings for food......... 403 specific gravity and ‘analyses. . 5 ages 497

Link, ote as letter from about hy- SUPA OLESEN i Ne kar sae eee 197

Bie ee aiarctalcns, Wunpadte Mvalteheehae 71 land in United States devoted to... 19

Link’s Hy brid sorghum, analysis of. ...243 stages of development ol........... 420°
AMAL SISKOUN ie neneee : .190, 247, 250 stalks and bagasse, analyses of ..... 406

Link’s Hybrid, available sugar in. ..126, 538 butts and tops compared............. 235
comparative value of........:......-. 214 comparative value for sugar....... 439
sorm@hium described... ..... tela e esos 99 LOSS Of SUPAPUN:.-... 2+ (pees eee 442
DIATC Olas clei aa ects lei eeniye ai aclae 3 stripped stalks, yield. per: CTC eee ee 439
Sportiot Oomsecanac..-. 2... ..00---- 69 SUP OT Gaye sectoh crs a ace ee ee 22

Ababa S vi LOMUcOygsl ape Poh An seneostnootee 56 Histonyioteer aoa. eee 427

Listing, when important. fore neeok 114 made at Washington......... 521

Litmus paper, properties and use..... 292 made mnom’ stalks Ole 3-5 ose 441

MobelWon sone hime. ele eeioiee 55 total value of crop in United States ..458

Lonicer on sorghum. Bt Sue ntores 5a ValieoL inetatleniie.....-uy ase 450

Loss by diminished yield of crops in varieties tested for sugar........- 429

United States.. | 458 | Malate of lime from maple sap ..... B41
in not working cane promptly... 126 | Maltby, Nelson, inethod of manufac-
of glucose in manufacture. 534 CUTE Ophea Mites ota ee eee 507
JULCE) (CAMISeSiOL! ce ete apne 260 on sugar from sorghum us a eee 419
sucrose in manufacture.......... .. 53 TEPOLL.OM) SONSMUIN 2 =. tee 414
sugar, actual, in manufacture....... 322 sugar from cornstalla. +... eee 441
sugar by methods of manufacture... 17 | Mammoth, White, plate of......... ...... 97
sugar by poor harvesting ............ 237 | Manilla, exponhiOk SUMAN TLOM-- areeree 544
sugar by suckers.. eet eater 33 sugar. production tof... <a 26
sugar in bagasse.....174, 274, ! elie 383,406 | Mannite in fermentation ‘of sorghum.. See,
sugar in drying sore ham Le 596 | Manufacture of sorghum, cost 6L ee 415
sugar in manufacture.... ..... _ 258 SD tet Benen ene eerie ROR Maas 51555 bo 5 - 245
sugar in stalks of TEEN (ae ee ah 442 sugar, cost Siete ee bo Ears 21
sugar necessary in manufacture.... 309 SYUUp; COStsOf.. 6-05 ea eee 20
sugar present in sugar-cane...... 5385 sugar, comparison of methods Pein 511

total, by diminished crops of
United States
Louisiana and Texas, value of sorghum

Loss,
.459

to. ete rel
Louisiana e ane, analysis of juice of.....207
export of sugar from. ......... 543
production of sorghum in 416, 408

o7

production of sugar in 1879
production of sugar and molasses . adl

sugar-cane, per cent of sugarin... .185
sugar, produe t of. : Ponte he 207
value per acre of cropsin.. .-...... 421
yield of different cropsin....... Woe
yield of sugar pee acre. .. 27
Lynch, Peter, on cause of failure at
Washington. Se Aan RES SOA oe 515
WE OPUNNE Operated Nib Ma Aeela oan oe oOoeaone 51, 78
Maceration, cease Ole ete hoe net 282
OL CANCE scien seni on sue Son ost 281
Madags ascar, sugar export PS ogtaete MONG
Madras sugar-cane, analyses of 208
Magnesia, amount of in crop of sor-
Ede bans es - ae, 596
and lime in soils, relation of . . 18%
Maine, value of farm products per 1 aie '
ST Oe eee ra oe ie Ee Sree cre ee ey Bis 2
AY ield of different crops in. 452
Maize. analyses of leaves of......... 406
and sorghum, cultivation Of, the
same / 19
and sorghum juices compared. 443
and sorghum, same conaiaons a ne-
quired 19
and sorghum seed ‘compared. Mey cane peaia7
and sorghum seed, same composi-
GLO The yh areata eros Ceara ec, coe eee a 2
average acreage yield of in United
States / ADT
average analyses of juices from. .. 197
average yield of in different states...452
fodder, analyses of...... 393
crop of sugar and grain pO por 442

from sorghum and beets compete
4

from sorghum, cost of............. 17
methods employ Cdl btckce te canee ee 506
WerlOd TOT: inca Mel when heel eee 3
syrup at Washington, method.,... . 621
various methods. . ‘ us toes hema ee
IVDO IM AY ees ec ehcp badness te ots Lacon tice ees i ene . 106
Manure, effect of, on sorghum Svar 175, 176
from stables, value of ....... 464

Maple molasses, a in U. S. since

FOO seid hears frees tte Rud ersieah ee ee ee 38
Maple sugar. dis gua Xt ad sos ee eee 22
annual production OTT Gee Vine co eA
annual production since 1861........ 27
Pa: SCale:. Zoe Somes ote eee 841
production of.............-...-+:s2+% 25
Mareraff, investigations of beet sugar.. 12

Marketing of s sorghum syrup and sugar..424
Marking ‘the land for plantings. 1-252 112
Marschall on available sugar......-....- 216
Marshilla, or sorghum... 51
Martinique and Guadeloupe, sugar pro- |
GUCTONNOT aati eee 26
Export/oL SuUparir OM) coerce eee 543
Maryland, production of sorghum in

408, 416
value of farm products per acre in. 421
- ield of different crops in. - 452

Massachusetts, act to promote cultiva-
tion of sorghum. Pa LY

Agric. Coll., experiments in sugar
MiAkinfsy tee eee 26
early efforts in sugar making in. 2. 428
forehum, analysis;ol. essen 244
sorghum production of... ......... 416

value of farm products per acre in. .421
yield of different crops in...... iccnedoe
Masse cuite, analysis of.....
Mastodon sorghum, available sugar in,

126, 538
comparative value of.........-..- 214
CoKev(shiallolclo INEM et Etiotia Sic Rcgc 4 68, 100

INDEX. 561

Matthioli on sorghum.................. . 5 ane Early Amber, history of...... 65
Mature sorghum affected by frost......-.- --157 DIRE see Bog Sos ce Bee coh oa poten oe 92
Maturity as dependent on seed.........-.. 115 ppacundicn of sorghum in........ 408, 416
days required for, by sorghum....... 214 sorghum products, 1868 to 1880. . . 410

of crop, shown by hydrometer....... 501 value of farm products per acre in 421

of sorghum, time required for....... 538 yield of different cropsin........ 453

time from planting to..........-..-.. 114 | Mississippi, production of sorghum in,

time of shortened by removing seed.140

time required for.......... -....... - 247
Mme £0-YCRCH 2p eeeasa tia -=-o <= 105, 120
Mauritius, sugar exported from........-. 543
sugar production of................-- 26
Bupar product Oba =. -+~-) ~- -p28% se5~s- 545
yield of sugar per acre.....-........-- 27
Mayberry, Dr., on bagasse as fuel........ 399
on food value of RETIH MORE 5 ear a 402
Mayotta Nossi Bé, sugar export Cee 543
Maximum content of sugar in crop...... 122

re and Almony, report on Sere
TOP. -- = - 2-2 e ee eee eee eee eee eee
MeColloh s comparison of processes of

sugar making

impurities of juice, how spe . .288
means of defecation ---301
Merrill, N. C., on sorghum as forage
PED ho SUES SS ee eee eee 407
Meteorological data of sorghum experi-
ments 147
Meteorology of isso and 1881, compared. .145
Method and object of experiments at
Winkihineton xo. 55 28 550-9 521
Method of analyses of sorghum juice... .469

Method of sugar manufacture detailed. .506
Mexico, export of sugar from............ 543
SUP an Production: Of a= - 2227-3). .-5.- 26
SUPRE-progueg Gr. . =o) one: oso 545
Michigan, maple sugar produced i ri) eae 28
production of sorghum in... ... . .408, 416
value of farm products per acre in. .421
yield of different crops in. 453
Middle, top, and butt of cane compared. 218
Milk of lime: how made: 22-024. + --.. 292 |
Milk sugar, or lactose .. 5.-.--.-...5..-..- 24.
Miller on southern grown seed.......-- 115 |
Miller’s sorghum, analysis of....... 243. 250
Millet and sorghum confounded ....... 53
Mee Mouriaht.: 60°22... --s2.--.- 61 |
pearl, sugar from juice GET ot. 445 |
oe Se ce RE en nn ene 50
spiked. Fe ne UTR a 61

Mill and diffusion juices, analysis of..
horizontal, plate of... 2. 5-..--=-.:-:
importance Of @ PONE. 42.28: 2: 272
importance of a good.

Bia

large, experiments at ‘ol aire aria 516
of Khedive of pyc o5) =: . -280
WIRIECH LO SGIECKS Mette ses e8 oe took 261
with power below, plate.. . 268
Mills amount of juice expressed b by.. . -260
BIERTNBE Ys tee ee ee ee te 280
cost, and sizes of..... 262 '
for cane, need of improvement. . Ane 258
for expressing ii ark s Aas ee eee 259
for testing cane, plates of............ 272
DIStes OP: 2 eect Seeder ees cess 262
prmeiple OF: ie 2e ess a See seis as ee 259
yoller, described.) 222523... ..55.6-2-- 261
vertical, Piakel a see hee te ee 262
Mineral matter of corn crop, value of... . 450
effect of, on crystallization 3
in crop of sorghum..........
in crops of thar US eee
AIPA Y, VAlOC Ol 9 os ees ee

in sorghum juice and stalk
of scum and sediment, Siar of. .401
_ action of, in syrups.._2.---.--.--.---- 6

408, 416

production of sugar, 1879.

production of sugar ‘and Mmolasses.. wre
value per acre, of crops | 111 Mebeeaee Seige 421
yield of different crops in............ 453

Missouri, production of sorghum in. 408, 416
production of sugar and molasses.. .542
value of Iarm products per acre in. .421

yield of different cropsin ...... ....453
Mohr, Dr. Charles, on sorghum.......... 58
Molasses, amount ‘produced Tih) ts pee 26

and sugar, value of imported in 1879. 41

cane, produced i in U. S. since 1790.... 38
COMPOSIMOR. OF jo2- 205 asics wacsons ee -.369
consumed in U.S. since 1790. ........ 34
AUSTLII) eee ee ee ae ee 369

domestic, consumed in U.

1790 . 34
foreign, consumed in U. S. since 1790 34
how produced
how separated from sugar...... ..... 362
Ba” gt exports, consumption in

imports of into U.
increased by salts ¢s
maple, produced in U. S. since 1790 . 38
production of, in Louisiana 54

separation of, from sugar
sorghum, analysis ys Jeet Scns ae

Bat ea produced in U. S. since

TOF ee a a ee
SUPREIOR iss See eso ee ee 274
SHERI Pee ee se ee 369
to sugar produced, ratio of......... 418
value of, consumed in U. S. since

1790.. 34
Montigny, introduction of sorghum. "53, 64
Moore's hybrid sorghum, described..... 100
Moorish millet. -. BGE
Mucous fermentation of sorghum juice..252

| Multiple effects, evaporation by......... 356
Moliplerollmilis #7. oe 230
Muscovado sugar, how prepared.. . B28, 362

| Myrick, M. O., Teport on sorghum........ 415
Names, botanical, of sorghum = fee se 57

of sorghums, significance 1 eee ae,

Pagid sorghum varieties, confusion in. 73
Napoleon, appropriation for sugar beet

13, 14

| Nason, S., report on sorghum crop --412
Natal, Botanical Jone. sorghum

PROD Cio ec ae ee 7

SUPar Gx POL Obs. as atte ee ee d45

sugar production of.................. 26

vield of SUSar PCr ACC. >= a -a- see 27

National Academy of Sciences......-..- 52

advisers oi government 2 bwin ine mich Stade 470

eommrtice of: . oo) ah eo eee 469

on Dr. Collier’s investigations....... 10

ou method of analysis............... 469

on need of investigation Selina See 10

OWSORe RUN. -) yo. seach esate oe 17, 61

on sugar in sorghum............. 195, 423

on sugar making at eed ieee te thee 535

Nebraska, analysis sorghum ROWS As o5, - 179

production of sorghum in. 416, 408

value of farm products per acre in. 421
yield of different crops in. 453

Neeazana sorghum, analysis cate 243, 250
available sugarin.. ............. 126, 538
comparative value of................. 214
deseribed -- <5. .c2o— ~ a ER Ene <iae o 99
plate or. <7-5.- 5 eves Sevas ee neticdane 95

562 INDEX.
Neeazana variety of sorghum............ 66 | Panicum Dioscorides, or sorghum...... 55
. Need of further research on sorghum... Be) orBread | Millet/izae soe. eee 55
Weesi\on sorghum sy ahh s fee ee 58 | Panicle, average Jength of......... - -- 108
Netherlands, production of ‘beet sugar. .542 average weight OL) De ae ee 108
Nevada, sorghum production of........ 416 Teneth-ofsk2. tt 20 ia. So: ie eee 105
value of farm products per acre in. .421 WELT WOE HAS tial: oN ete eee eee 105
New Hampshire, value of farm products of sorghum, Plates Of. .crn cree 83
DEL AChR Ea seen oc, A neers 421 plucked off, to increase sugar....... 241
yield of different cropsin.......... 452 | Pan scale, composition Of s.2 iGse ee eee 340
New Jersey, act to promote cultivation howremoved’.._.,...s:s.eoah, eee 340
Oe sonal vail pedotsogacan boot ascnogS: 17|| Pao Liang, onsorghum.!4").3--n eens 54
analysis of sorghumsin............. 248 | Paper, litmus, properties and use....... 292
production of sorghum in....... 416, 408 | Paper pulp, amount of, in crop of sor-
Rio Grande method of working..... 511 SHUM eo el eet Ree 400
Rio Grande soils, analysis of..... ... 178 FrOMEDAMASSE HAsO! Saws eRe eee 400
sorghum sugar made in 1883......... 549 | Paper, tumeriec, properties and uses..... 292
Sugar Works, cost of working cane.417 | Parson, H. B., report of work at Wash-
value oi farm products per acre in. .421 INGtON. Pe. | dik ee eee 515
yield of different cropsin...... ..... 452 | Patterson farm, sorghum grown upon.,..514
New South Wales, sorghum sugar in....546 | Pearl Horizontal Mill, plate of.......... 265
New York, maple sugar produced in... 28| Pearl Millet, sugar from juice ofan 445
production of sorghum in....... 416, 408 sugar made at W ashington. Boke 521
value of farm products per acre Pech. ¥., on sorehumy:. 4) face eee wear 55
PID ore eet alee ele pie ett ..421 table for identification of sorghum.... 98
y ield of different CLOPS iD Leeete ees 452 | Peligot, analyses of sugar-cane bagasses. 387
New Mexico, sorghum production of....416 Penang, sugar production Of.5. 2.8 eee 26
Niles Sugar Mill, plate of....... ... » 268 Pennsylvania, production of sorghum
Nitrate of potash in sorghum juice..... 252 LIN Salta e ten etek eR otk tae ERE Om 416, 408
Nitrogenous fertilizers, effect on sor- value of farm produCts per acre in. .421
day bhas lta ek Aan POR comers aaese tn eras 163 vield of different crops im............ 452
matters in SOLE MUM JUICE ce sea ae. 252 | Period during which corn stalks may be
Nitrogen manure for sorghum.. 175 Worked ed. ccel od Une eee eee 439
North Carolina, acreage value of farm of working crop, length Ofteceee | ee 538
products in) 2]. 2 A 421 | Permanganate process for the estima-
production of sorghum in. 416, 408 tion Of SuparS in) jULCeSs:.. aeeeeeee 471
production of sugar and molasses. .542 solutions, how prepared.): 2 ace. sit ee OUS
Norway, sugar consumedin. .... ...... 26 | Persoon on sorghum oh eae ees 56, 57
North Carolina, yield of different crops Peru, export of Supar from. eee eee 543
DLs cys gee tes eee GR asa e eae ween 452 sugar consumed In, =... 40... seen 26
Nubia, sorghum Th Og dee eae arctan alo 51 Sugar produchoh sss see see - 26
Number of stalks per acre. ae 111 Philippine Islands, production of sugar
a aera ratio sorghum leaves and ba- M50 a SG cree ee 544
SASSOI A, Mia ean ee be Re 392 sugar-cane soil, analyses Of 7a eee 182
Oak Hill, [ll., Sugar Works, methods of yield of sugar per acre..............- 27
working tank, Maven thay chia cde sae aise eee .509 | Phillips, Hollister S., on sorghum seed .378
TO DODGE? se stids chore ohn athe eae Aad See 414 | Phipson, Dr. T. L., analyses sugar-cane
Oats, acreage yield of, in different SOUS eH hak. ae ee, eee . 182
Slates Si see Ve cee ee ee eee 452 | Phosphate of aluminain defecation... .302
average acreage value of. eee 20) of lime in defecation....... ......... 302
average yield and value per acre... .423 | Phosphates, effect of, on sorghum..... 163
in low a, acreage value of:........... 420 | Phosphorie acid, amount of, in crop of
product, acreage and valuein U. S. .422 sorghum... J 4 7P ese pee
Oceanica, export of sugar from.........544 in) corn cropiol We Seeaae asec eeeeeeee 450
Ohio, maple sugar producedin ......... 28 In Grops oft S. i 2. et eee 462
production of sorghum in . 416, 408 In Crops‘oOL Ui) iS), valuelole-.-e eeeeee
sorghum products, 1862 to 1878. -. 410 in sorghum juice and cane
value of farm products per acre in..421 | Piknometers for specific gravity..
yield of different crops in.. «i453)| Piutelsugar:. © 20 - SOR eS oe eae
Oomseeana sorghum, comparative val- Plant cane, analy CM ee
MCROL case foe a eee sites 914) (Planter) plate Of-oasc1s-c. | seen
available sugar LI ASO eee coe 126. 538 Planting, amount of seed for............
describedy, 279 eee eee 98, 99 and cultivation, Cost Ov... -m semen
variety of sorghum SA 51, 66 a second time undesirable..........
Open and vacuum pan methods com- CiOSe; TEASONS LOL. + .,.n120 cies See
DALCAN A. Lee Ce ee Fock eas lee ee 512 COSE Per ACTE | oie ee eel alee eneleree 112
Open Panlevaporalonysn 4.2). os sees 327 importance of good shyachae oe eee 109
TADLGUGY OF ee ee ee oes 338 methodol, “-a0ianase ease eee 111
when completed........... ..... . .B04 method of pin Japan = tis... .aneereee 419
Orange Cane, available sugar in... .126, 538 number Of stalks peracre............ 111
COM positionGiwe eee sess ee 250 preparation of seed for...... . .. 68, 118
Orange sorghum, analysis of.. 239, 246, 250 proper depth of. .. ....... 112
Oregon, sorghum production of. . 416 selection and preparation of ground. re
value of farm products per acre in. .421 tim ec fOD a. Stoo. eae ee 110
yield of different crops in. 453 to certain development of plant.... 119
Osborn, Joseph H., report on “sorghum to maturity of sorghum, time.. 105, 538
CFOD AY Un eit a OS Sele oe eee -412 plants used as food for man. A aw)
Osmosis ‘explained. ie el ase 230)" Plates of sorahuml ne. fs ee asec eee ae
Otaheitan sorghum, time for working.. 7] Plate of steam evaporators.. -.- 846
Palm Sugars? yor: f22at hstodeacs cone: 22| Plaster of Paris. effect of on sorghum. 168
amount produced........ Lieto Steere & 25 | Plaster, use of in defecation....... dred as 301

INDEX. 563
Plowing./e0st Of. . .c2.25228 eis ss = 5 415 | Rain-fall, effect of on sorghum.......... 145
RH for SOTSHUM Goce oes the t's 109 | Ransom, B. V., report on sorghum...... 414
Pliny, mastory Of. SOE Nise ae Se ee 50 | Rattoon sugar-cane, analysis of.......... 208
on sorehuam = °- Soe et ee 54, 57 | Re-agents for analysis of juices........- 503
Polarization and analysis ‘compared... 476 | Red Cane, analysis of juice of........ .. 207
of maize juices, average...-... .- “1.0L plant, analysis of......-..........---- 208
of sorghum juices........ -- eth pide 105 | Red eolor in sorghum stalks..........-.. -244
of sorghum juices, average..... ..-.- 500 | Red Sorgho from India, plate of......... $4
Of SUCAES,U. ~ 22s eee es <2 iso 22 | Refining of sugar by bone-black......... 72
Polarized light, effect of sugars on_..... = Regular sorghum, analysis of......:..-. 250
Population of United States since 1790.. available sugarin.... ...........126,538
Porcher, on sugar from _maize.... -...-- “439 comparative Sey NS See es Dae 214
Porous:alum in defecation............... 3 CESGrIDGH eet iN ra a 88 99
Porto Rico, export of sugar from.......- 543 | Rellieux’s triple effect, compared with
sugar production Or Te a es 26 otheraetnods (2325220 we fe 512
Portugal, SOTEH DWE 85. scene 22. 50 | Replanting, danger of .................. 118
sugar consumed in. ... ~......-. 26 in of crop unfavorable. ...........-... s

Potatoes, acreage yield “of it in different _

BERteS.< Soo ign asiese wn 4 oo Pee cnt 2
average acreage value of. - -420
in Iow: a, acreage value of......-..-.. 420
product, acreage, and value in
United: States 2. 2 -.5:2 2-2 2 5.822 - 422

Potash, amount of in crop of sorghum ..396
in corn crop of United States . 450
in crops of United States, amount of.462
in crops of United States, value of. ..463
in sorghum juice and cane........... 256
salts, effect of on sorghum........... 163

Potassium, nitrate, in sorghum juice... .252

Powell, O. S., on ‘food value of scum,

BEG o oe eis nd tin ins ce eee ses ani "402
on vinegar from skimmings eae tar 403
report on sorghum crop......-..- oe, 414
Preliminary remarks. LAS we 1
Precipitate formed in defecation........ 295
Prescott on sugar from maize............ 427
Pressure and temperature in vacuum —
Paes: 2, -ce ee ee test)

of atmosphere and boiling point .
upon the vacuum pan .. .
Prince, Wm. R., introduction of sor-

_ 341
342

ghum.. .
Problems concerning ‘sorghum ‘yet un-
ROLVOR > 24.c— ee oe oer ere 17
Production, acreage, and value of cere-
. alsin United States. ...... ........ 423
of soil, decrease in. ............-... 417

of sorghum in different states....... 416
in United States, statistics of. .
sugar peracre.. .
of sugar from sorghum, “cost of.....- 417
in different countries. ... 26
of syrup in United States in 1860and =
Pips ws oad 4
Products of farm, acreage value of. .... .420
of fermentation of sorghum juice. . .252
of sorghum, beets, and cane com-

TOI ee ane BSey oe eee eee 424
Profit of growing sorghum. whe 408, 414, 2
sorghum GEOD) 255255. 5-- Pfs a st oon 426
sorghum DLOWUCHGHIS st. 5235-5055 ~- 412

sorgh um and other crops compared .42)
sorghum, beets, and cane compared .424
Prompt working of sorghum, conflict-
BYP OMINIGHS Series cto aas cece eo 8
Prompt working of sorghum necessary.126
Proof glass for juices and syrups, plate..486
Pulp for paper from bagasse. 400

Purging by centrifugal, how done.... .. 363

of sorghum SUSHESs 5 es cee es 18

of sugar, how effected.......... sae 362

Queensland. yield of sugar per acre...... 27
Questions concerning sorghum unan-

Bwered (55. scores eee woe al?

Rain, effect on sorghum juices. -151
Rain-fall after drought, effect on sor-

EN), Soe = ok tee, VERE Sa eels 151
and temperature at Washington, 1882.151
at Washington, D. C., 1880-1-2........ 147

Research on sorghum still demanded...

Resolution of National Academy of ie
ences on sorghum 469
Results of sugar making at Washington.516
Reunion, sugar production of.......... 26

Revenue from receipts and customs,
1881.. .. 2
Rhode Island, sorghum production of ...416
value of farm ‘products per acre in. .421
yield of different crops in............ 452
Rhodes, J. H., report on sorghum crop..412
Ribbon Cane, ‘analysis ha ee ae 208
plant, analy SIS ORG ee eee ae 207
rattoon. analysis of............
Rice or Egyptian corn, analysis of juice. 206
99

deseribieds i s6252 eee. ea
Richards, Henry B., on perennial char-
acter of sorghi WHS Kose eee 12
Ridge culture of sorghum...... HSS 114
Rio Grande, N. J., analysis SOs. 22kk 178
sugar made in 1883..... ...........-.. 549
sugar works, method.:............... 511
sugar W orks’ on stripping RE it ie 141
on cost of manufacturing....:...... 417
Rio Janeiro, vield of sugar peracre.. .. 27
Ripe cane only fit for sugar making.....516
Ripeness of seed, time to fenehe! =F" 120
Ripening of seed does not diminish
SHO cae tee att ag eee ee 241
sorghum, time required for. ....247, 538
Ripe seed a test for working crop........ 501

Rising City, Nebraska, analy sis of soil. .179
River Platte states, sugar consumed in. 26
Roll mills deseribed...............-..---. 261

olism) fipletn =.= ere ee oe 280

speed GET aN eS dee lS 279
Rotation of polarized light by sugars. . « 22
Bunene SoOrehume sc.) oy. 2. Sa. soe 59

Rural New Yorker on loss of sugar in
PAP ASKES = 352703 386
Russell, A. J., sugar from sorghum, by 417
Russia and Poland, sugar consumed in. 26
sugar product of 545
Russia, production of beet sugar .... 28
Rye, acreage yield of in different states.452
average acreage, value of . 420
average yield ‘and value per acre. i
product, acreage and value in U. S..422

Saccharatum sorghum. .............-... BL
Saccharometers described........ Choe 484

py ES SET A a8 pk eS 486
DHACGhaATse:. Sse cope erence toe cee Pay.
Saccharum of Dioscorides. 56

officinarum, botanical description. . 60

Salts, effects of on crystallization. ....... 326
mineral, action of in Syrups ssa: -5-- 216
sugar diminished IDG A 2 ers -216

Sandwich Islands, export of sugar from.d44
sugar production Of-.. 25.2; - 2... '.-:.< 26
yield of sugar per acre............-.. 27

Reus = Regield M., analysis of pga

San Sui E Pai Liang, from China, plate of. 55

564

Saracens Millets nc cptetactas sleeves tle vinvpleonteye eters 50

Seale from evaporators, composition of .340

how removed 340

Sealiger on sorghum... 54

Scheibler’s, Prof., strontia sucrate pro- if
SS hesitate ecetieds stefan pee alma oe 3

of investigation
Seott, N. H., report on sorghum........
Scovell and Weber, analysis of Creme.

Cane re nae aerate 2
analyses of sorghum............-. 239, 246
loss of sugar after cutting............ 127
on climate as affecting sorghum..... 153
on prompt working of crop ... .... 9
on soils forsorghum. .............-- 184

on time for cutting sorghum......... 123

on tops and butts, value of........... 236
time for working sorghum........... 8
Scum and sediment, value of............ 401
Scum, appearance of in defecation ex-
WELLES: oe omer eee errr ee 316
formed in defecation. ............... 294
from defecator, analysis of........... 401
removal of in defecation .........«..295
Seasoning of sorghnm by storage........ 8
Seasons of 1880 and ’81 at Washington
(Copenh oy: 0216 ee Pre eens te are ner 148
Second and third sugars.......-.......-- 369

Sediments and skimmings, value of.....401
Sediment, character of in defecation ex-

DeLiINte nts ene see Pa eeeeeer 316
formed in defecation........... ....- 295
from defecator, analysis of........... 401
in defecation, how to settle..........296
in defecation, when down..... ..... 296
or scale on evaporators.............--340

Seed, amount matured at Washington. .515
amount of for planting..:........-..- 110
and sugar from sorghum............. 20

average acreage yield of sorghum.. 412

choice of .. Pak. Bes Se eae eA tice 115

condition of in time of working sor-
SUI Asan nage bee aie eee 128

expense of gathering............-.--- 415

growth of, effect on sugar....
heads, increase of sugar by removal

Gites ost GAS Seiiacio sk tas ee be ea ee 241
heads of sorghum, plate............ 83
importance of testing....»....---..--: 117
method of testing vitality..... ......117
WMuMbeMOL AM pOUNG)- 4-6-2) ce 110
of sorghum and maize compared... .377
SSHANICTOPIOL seh 2 ia aerial a ey ayer tel 395
COM POSIULON Ole een epee te eee 377
GLOps Produced secs =a 414
FOO0 LOM MAN eee och ete eterseeare 51

FOL AOD US eRe eee eee ee 379

FOLAHOTSECSi ca Al eee atee eee eames 51
production Of....-......--.s+-------- 378
value for feeding......... . 3895
Vales Obogs eta - cess voto peer ne eereeaes 377
Yield Per ACLs). cer ate casero eae 380
pays expense of sorghum crop...... 416
per acre, product Of... - -<t-ciss 175
preparation of for planting....... 68, 118
removal of, effect on sugar........-- 138

removalof, effect on time of maturity.138
ripening of, does not diminish sugar.241
selection and preparation of 114
sorghum, described..............- .. 58
sorghum grown solely for, in China.537
sorghum mainly grown for 20

southern grown, value of.........--- 115
used for fattening hogs..........---.- 415
variety for any locality...........-..- 114
Senegambia sorghum in.............---- 51
Separation of sugar from molasses....-. 362
Settling in defecation, how effected..... 296

Settling tanks and sulphurous acid...... 306

INDEX.

Settling tanks for juice...... fi
Shaffer, Dr. J

Sec weeee

. M., on need of further in-

vestigation settle: ccm ree 10
Shaloo, orisugar erass. o> Toes c eee 51
Shanghai, China, sorghum from. ... ... 64
Sharpless, Prof. 8S. P., analysis sorghu

JIC ee. 22> is ae eee eee 244

Shepstone, J., letter concerning Imphees 80
Varieties of lmphees < - ::s scenes 76
Sherwood, J. D., report on sorghum

6
Shla-goon-dee, variety of sorghum...51, 66

Shoemacker, Mr., on stripping cane..... 141
Shorghi, or soreshum:. 226. ee ee 56.
Shu, meaning of term.,................. 52
Siam, sugar exported from .............. 543
Silica, gelatinous, in defecation.......... 303
Silo, value of bagasse for ............,.- 393

.. for preserving bagasse.. ........_....396
Silver and gold, production of in 1881... 41

Skimming at defecation, how done......295

sugar lostiDyes. 2.202. csle- cee een 274

value of for fattening hogs.......... 402

vinegar made from... 2... 2:.ccss<) e028 403
Skinner, E. W., time for working sor-
SVM ogee oi wean. cele ee eee

on storage of sorghum 9
Small mill experiments at Washington..521
Smith, Captain John, on sugar in maize.427
Smith, Dr. J. Lawrence, on need of in-

vestigation... ........ Iisa taxa eee 9

on prompt working of cane.......... 8
SUPAT In SOTSHUM: ©: 2/425). 2 se eee 3
Smith, J. H , on varieties of sorghum... 67
on prompt working of sorghum..... 8

Smith, J. N., time for working sorghum. 6
Soaking seed before planting............ 118
Soda salts, effect on sorghum
Soda, silicate of, in defecation
Sodium chloride, effect of on sorghum..163
Soil and climate the same for maize and ~
SOPreHUM 5 ky ees Acree) oe eee
at Washington, D. C., analysis of ...162
best adapted to sorghum, resolution. 15:

decrease in production of............ 417
demand of sorghum upon. ......... 255
exhaustion, how prevented.......... 464

exhaustion, Of-k.. 9744-6. eee ee 451
exhaustion of by growing sorghum .447
for sorghum, experiments by Scovell

and. Weber: 347.0.0) esate ee 184

for sorghum, selection of ............ 108
not exhausted by sugar growing.... 594
not exhausted by sugar production. .449
Soils,ansalyses of scceeklecs oor ee ees teil
composition of as affecting sorghum.177
for sugar-cane, composition of. ..-... 182
how produced. .5 ewe, 180°
importance of ime.... ........... .182
mechanical analyses............- Pa Wyo
of what composed...... 180

Solids, average in sorghums, 1879, °80,
81

SUAS Sine ceelde oe lee irs eee 194
in juice, average per cent of..... .. 234
in juice, how determined.......... 472
in juice, increase of in plant........ 490

1879 cost ies ais ee eee 492
not sugars, as affected by fertilizers .170
as affected by frost.:..2:-0 52-2-e-secrs 159
average per cent in 1880 and 1881 ....150:
Per CentIN ULC cowie kee 134
per cent of in leaf juice..... cet nae 143

per cent of in different sorghums. ...214

INDEX. 565

Solids, total, in corn stalk juices........ 435 } Sorghum in Iowa, acreage value of..... 420
Sorghum, advantages over maize for RUT DO1 Os Fie RS Soe a ann nt See 55
. Tile: Oe eee ee Ee ay 5 Se 444 in 1882, average analyses.............. 205
agricultural character of............. 61 introduced by M. d’Abadie .... .... 64
alcohol from.. . : Eee aa introduction into the U.S.......... 53, 64
amount worked at ‘Washington. Weesed 516 investigations of errorsin.. ......... 15
analyses graphically represented. --201 its further investigation needed... .123
analyses 1880, chart... .... *"202 JUICE ANALTSIS OL Gh 5-2... ole 251, 381
aT ySeS Ol Soap eee ee ta) 5 ees 104 BNalySis Ol ashes Sore S. <0. eetee 255
by Scovell and Weber................ 246 average analysis Of. 3... 2.20. 6. oe: 500
by stages of development. .......... 193 juice, effect on, of keeping........... 252
Held cropiols Sassen ns eas 247 GLror in! analysis: OFS! — 6 ots. csce ee: 470
pee inealy BUO WS ne Solace os. 187 BVerare Ole Otece a ae aaa en ene . 204
CBVER) Off -t sites ote Soo tee oe 406 various analy BEN OR ccs thee eS 238
and corn stalks, comparative value Sorghum, large yield of stalks...... +--+ 418
of, during working period, with leaves, analysis [tp eS er) ae: Pater ae 390
table. Steger ee tN cece 445 leaves, hay, and grass compared... .391
and maize, cultivation thesame... 19 length of time for Working. 700) 124
HiICES COULPHTGO 3 Foe - 7 nee eee 443 mainly grown for seed......... < 120
and maize, juices of, specific gravity method Of annilysis OL =.2- 2522.2. 469, ‘471
Palen eet hae pn Cee 491 National Academy of Sciences on... 61
iat iring same climate........ ..... 19 new Varieties yet to beexamined.... 18
Millet confounded............... 53 not sub-variety of sugar-cane........ 60
itl other crops compared in value..420 not understood before work of Dr.
and sugar-cane compared ............ 206 Colliers cok Saree eee ee ee ee 2
difference between... ............-..- 60 platesioi es... ee cae 83
a LREICPNIBUB coo nee fe ce tee sccae ee 63 prejudices against. 7-50.00 2 ese 16
as affected by fertilizers.............. 163 problems concerning, yet unsolved. 17
BAIDU GEE: VAIN Ol te.< 5-25 2s ence ces 405 products, marketing: OE. ooo 424
Pista LH BOM Ole ie estas a ator ao oad 547 products, value per acre..... ....... 414
average analyses of...............- .. 197 profits of the CLOUDS =f aes aes 414, 415, 426
Aa AOU EMT AOL re etl teas, 45.27 5's G35 150 questions yet unsolved........ ... 15, 18
average available sugar in........... 53 resolution of National Acad. oi
composition in 1880 ................. 194 SCI eee ee ae oe oe ee 469
Oly od pVANIOUER sons. ee Fes eee oe 5 197 TUBERS eg eee Coe ae 59
toms grown peracre ...... A255 sees 414 SACCHATAGIMN. 238 eg ee 51
Daracces: anglysis’ of 22. 4. 22s 381 seed, amount OL Crop.05-. sc. 2s. 414
bibliography of. .--.2...-.------.-...- 42 SHARIN Bot we Ne aon os) eo ane 377
IDICGIOL eo) Sie eran oe Oey wT Scie 51 and maize, same composition........ 20
botanical description of.............- 57 fOr Tatbepiney 3 5.2 ee tO Sa 379
botanical names Of. -*2:0.. A)..2.-..-. 57 for feeding and fattening). - 022 <2... 20
HOGI Y OL 4s se tases eee pets | heads of, plates. Say ta Leer 83
cane, cost delivered at mill ..415 value of, t0F fecdine.. 5.552 26/t-5.° 395
compared with other crops of U. S..419 Sorghum, selection and preparation of
comparison of foreign varieties..... 205 So1l fax; Wes no eee ies lees 108
comparison of several varieties... .243 should be encouraged by ve
comparison of upper and lower ments Bees. Ce eees ths. oe 16
HISUVGN Be eee te eerste 234 signification Gf names os 0 fe 3c ee 79
confusion of names of... ...-..-.... 73 soils udapted for growing..........- 177
cost of cultivation of. ............. 414 SpICabanies ©. He cts sof en ce eens = oe GL
rope ssa yeh te e Seg wert 395 stalks, analysis of............... .--047
Srhaustion OF BOW Dy. 2..¢ 222. -2.- so 447 BHBILYSIS GASH. fC Sv) eek ccna toes 255
crop produced per acre........:...-. 134 PEP ACTS, AMONNE OL .00-2- cam oeteee ee 75
GMI PALIT Ole es ota te wre osu ee we ne ewe 118 proximate analysis of.............. 250
detailed analyses of............ ..- 189 ALLUC TENE Gis 2 2525S os) kis see ee 258
development of sugarin ....... 185, 246 statistics of the census. ............. 416
different varieties of, described...... 98 statistics of production in U. S...... 408
effect of climate upon......... Cate Ss 145 suckered and unsuckered average
effect of drought upon..............- 149)0 08) >. amalysesss oo tia oh teen hc teeeeeee oe 135
effect of fertilizers on................ 162 COMPATGG: SL i ee 134
PHCCUGIELOSt GIlGs Us" oe toe 154 sugar, amount produced per acre... .419
equal in sugar to tropical cane...... 20 analys RUNG. (22 25. Suse oe come one 547
examination Of deseribed!.i: =... 72. 188 cane and beets compared............ 425
expense of cutting and hauling. .. 415 costof production........ es oe 21
expense of producing Ped ash 415 IN PSOS Shee eS stew es aoe ees 548
extent of area for cultivation of.-.... 504 industry, predictions. ....-..0......- 19
from various countries compared. ..101 industry, prospects of ........... vse. 49
further investigation of, demanded.. 9 in Japan, productionof ss .2 418
further investigation of, needed..... 14 in’New South Wales: i. °<25 022: re = 546
grown at Washington................ 514 made at Washington................. 521
habits of, as to suckering........ 52 2:106 produced in quantity................-. 20
history ore’. cee RS Bete ee ne Saas 50, 52 syrup, cost of manufacture.........- 20
HMolCuss: See ae 51 produced in U.S. since 1790........ 38
ify bridizatien Of.-5 s.0scss-. 25-6 18, 69 sorghums, table of comparative val-
immature, effect of frost on......... 157 M@NOE bl 05k che ered a reanee pee Uee 214
immature, no SUPER Ii. Cros. caer 217 time’ for planting: (25. 2:.....-.2..2-=: 110
Imphees, different kinds described. . 66 tops and butts compared..... ACERT 235
importance of its introduction...... 63 two crops of a year practicable..... 11
in 1882, statistics Of...............-.... 411 LE (oy bs eee ha Ser ane eS ee ae 58

in Indiana, analyses of........... 22.249 value as a forage plant............... 406

566 INDEX.
value of products per ton.... ....... 414| Steam, amount produced in vacuum
value ‘to the'countrys: ...... ake... 11 Pio) - See es ordre ERIS eg a
variation in time for maturity. ..... 117 and open pan evaporation... OA eG 2)

varieties from Africa, China, India. 76

varieties of, grown in U.S............ 73
varieties the same in sugar content..211

. varieties worked for sugar........... 312!
variety to be selected for growing. sui
TIP ALO ea ie EN Sen Saeed 6
analyses of juicesjOf..... 082.0006. see. 206
botanical description................ 60
waste products from................. 376
weight and length of................. 74
weight of grown per acre:........... 179
weight of leaves in CLOP erasers: 392
when ready for working........ ..... 122
South Carolina, prod uction of sorghum.408
production of sugar, 1879..... ee ee 27

production of sugar and molasses. . .542
value per acre of farm products i in. .421
yield of different crops in........... 453
Solubility of different sugars............. 24

Solutions of sugar compared as to den-
SL Gyre te 8 Ret ie aun) MIEN on) oes 335
Spain, sugar consumed im...) ames... -- 26
sugar production of.... ..d5...-.... 548
Specific gravity and analy sis of juices. .489
and analysis of maize (Ue CS 497
and analysis of sorghum juices...... 493
and Beaumé compared ae .. 837, 487
average of juice in 1879, ’80, SB 199
average of, of juice. ... spt y Bod

average of 35 varieties of sorghum. 197

different scales Epepared.. teats 485
Of corn stalksyimiGes: Gc. -..-s.c.ae 435
* of good JT COMME ee ere tr td Seo siete Se 2138
of juice and composition, relation of.502
of juice as affected by frost.......... 159
of juice, how determined.........-.. 472
of sugar solutions of different tem-
DOTALUTES Hee bee cok taepeces areas meer 339

sorghum juice ate different stages....210
sorghum HULCES EAN Rove 105, 134, 484
table of sorghum juices...........-. 491

Speed of rolls in sugar mills..........-.. 279
SpikkeduMilile tse. SoMa e eeieeer te setae 61
Sprangle Top sore nM, comparative
Vane. .0 sosgee Kes ome een 2
described WOM in ckarccoktes ee 69, 100
Sprengle on sor ehum We spaniels See 58
Sprouting seed before planting ees, of 118
Stable manure, effect of on sorghum. 175, 176
WERINTG) Ofiioe ohnse Uh mame et be oe ae hate ae Satan 464

St. Christopher, export of sugar from.. .543
St. Lucia, export of sugar from.
St. Vincent, export of sugar from. ee ode:
Stages of development, expianenion of..197
of maize
time to reach. ...
Stalk, different portions of compared.. .218
analyses of upper and lower halves .234
and leaves, analyses of juices. ..... 142
and leaves of maize, relative ba cas
Oke ae eee eee 443

of sorghum and corn, ‘analy sis of... .406
of sorghum, average Yield Oleinerd -.415
of sorghum, how kept in Japan..... 419
of sorghum, physical structure...... 258
per acre, amount of Rita Nersetale unas Sei 175
per acre, number. of .....-...... mabe 111
stripped, acreage yield of...........- 214
sugar ina ton GE al Rane a ae 210
weight OL GAMES OD ee cite notre eetete tne 392
Starch in juice, and its removal........ . 288
hav GloyMsMoNO aay MUI) soo. on cSsdeeordecse 251
Statistics of cultivation and products of
Sorebumiietd HAG ah acne
produce tion of sorghum in U.S..... 408
sorghim in the census.............- 416

sugar production and exports. .. ..542

Soe ae given out by, to ‘water or

Se pt nr a dg opin "402

Steck. Peni Cal., method of sugar mak-
RIT" soy oes eictaya lek cr=ne¥e yarerotetake Aiehaee eam 510
MEPoOrtOM SOK MIN pee eee 414
Sterling, Kansas, soilanalysis. ..... 179

sugar works, process employed.... .07
sucarmiade in1883.. .. 2.2.0 paneer 549
Stewart's Hybrid sorghum, analysis of. .242

Stockbridge, President, sugar in sor-
PMU reese s+ 0s Se ake eee

Btdeane of sorghum ‘after cutting, con-

AHiCtiNG OpPIMLOWS..° 521". -e ee eee F
Storing cane, loss of sugar bus cc. 127
Storms, effect on sorghum 33 Soh tAcnee eee 244
at Washington, 1880=1=0) see 147
Stout, Mr., on use of bagasse as fuel..... 398
Striking of vacuum Date 356

Stripped and unstripped cane compared, 140

stalks, acreage yield of............... 214
stalks, percent of canein......... 142
Stripping, effect of on quantity and gua
iting oyu HCG gear ine wctsmoGs4ovbeoc. 144
Method 'ofle..\ sca:. soree ee eeeee 144
MOL MECESSAMY «<5. salle sep oe ee 144
Sorshum: efiectiof. 7) -.)<.1e--aee 140
Strontia sucrate, composition of........ 371
Structure, physical, of sorghum......... 258
Stubble cane, analysis of... ......-.-.-.. 208
Stubbs’ evaporator, plate of: 2... 833
Shane Bt New Variety, detailed analyses
Be ae Ve ASE ee , 250
Subsiding tanks forjuice .............. 291
Sueccinie acid in fermentation of sor-
SUM. fede occ let Cease eee 252
Suckered and unsuckered sorghum, ay-
eragreanaly sess. o. 0c ecm a eee 135°
Compared: ass either 128, 134
Suckering, advantages of............ 186, 538
habits of varieties as to........-.... 106
Suckers a result of hilling............... 113
how pPrevembedsis-c. lee etalon 111
TOSSTO TRUS HY Die. = ic. eleeie e ecictea teens 133
Sucrates of lime and strontia............ 370
method of defecation..... eae ae 304
Swelose@sy a. i244 sates oe aye eee eines 22
analysis of explained................. 473
always preseat in juice ....... Ps sete 195
and glucose, development of......... 185
available from one ton sorghum ....500
available, when at maximum. ..... 215
average in sorghums, 1879-80-81. .... 198

average in 35 varieties of sorghum. .197
average of at different, stages” cates OF
average per cent in juice in 1880 and

BBD ae. sichiie dhisrebos meeechret eRe RO SeaneaIo es een
by analysis and polarization Soho ae 476
development of in sorghum......... 185

early appearance of in sorghum

and maize::. wee oe eee eee 195
estimated by polariscope Ree Asoece an 22
gradual increase of in plant.........490
how, determined ).cssc. eos oe selec 72
Im (COrn Stale julCes in miei olen seers 435
i) AMM ah URe CAMS recites eerie eee PAL]
in juice as affected by frost, atioebee 159
in juice, effect of fertilizers on....... 172

in juice, shown by specific gravity. et
in maize juices, average. 501
in maize juices of different densi-
tiGS oe) ce hee et toege noes 497
in sorghum, as affected by fertilizers.166

in sorghums by polariscope.......... 22
in sorghum juice, average...........499
in sorghum juices............-- Sd sfeae Ow

*

beets, sorghum, and sugar-cane com-

pared sehaci ee aepeyeee scat os spa ster sssre 423
by analysis and polarization. . Seca O18
Sugar-cane, analysis of juice Of... -2076 208
“analysis of top, middle, and butt... .236
and sorghum compared.. .. m4 200:
and sorghum, difference between... 60
and sorghum equal in sugar......... 20
as affected ny CIM AGE? oooh ccitaseane 145
average of analyses................... 208
bagasse, Anu lY SOS has a sk. doce tos 386
COPE: ac Saye, INE ee Rt a ee ae 51
East India, analyses of............... 2c¢8
GHeGTOLITOSt OMe) nae in bee 161
molasses produced in U. S. since
MO =r AMAR nee hie el oe ee 38
not a variety of sorghum Witaeenocade 60
production of, by countries.......... 542
soils, analyses OLR ee ot 182
sorghum, and sugar beets compared .423
structure OE oa deren hoe eae eee pees 258
SUPA IIN cytes thos Me ites eysiacie Weine es 185
Sugar, cause of the colorof.......... ... 327
~ chemistry (oi. yee Pee oe Ree 22
consumed in U. S. since 1790...... 30, 31

INDEX. 567
Sucrose in juices, average results, 1879. .492 | Sugar, consumption per capita.......... 26
of different densities..... .........-- 493 consumption per capita in U.S.since
inversion of in jrices.......2........ 126 NOR oa IE Sis Ss Sin Sele ete We the, 5 31
per cent of in different sorghums....214 corn, average juice Sh ian 431
loss of in manufacture of syrups... .309 corn, loss of sugar in bagasse........ 275
in leaf juice .........-.../-~.--...-.:.- 143 countries producing it................ 26
in’ juice of crop .....-...+-+.0.-+2.6-. 134 crystallization of. ©)........... 09% 24
Sugar about the same in many kinds of erystallization of, how prevented.326, 362
SOLE Wiki weet cases asics ees 211 development of, in sorghum.185, 243, 246
absolute loss of, in manufacture.. ..309 _ developmentof, in stalk of sorghum.241
getion of lime upone ssf... - 5-5 - 297 domestic, consumed in U. S. since
aggregate loss in manufacture....... 258 TOD oo aie Sone kh eeteteict =" Sei ameeee cae 31
amount consumed in U.S. in 1881... 41 domestic, produced in U. S. since
inverted in manufacture............. 532 TOONS ME Se sees Se ee Sot ee ele 31
LETE IDES ASSe eee te tiosc cc ceite 384 duties compared with other reve-
lost in bagasse of sugar-cane........ 387 NMUCS. VK yo eee ae ae eea ed 42
obtained from maize syrups.. ...... 440 effect of acidg.on....- 2-5...) 7... oe 23
present in maize juices............... 197 effects Of NMeRrOne..7 83-0. eee 24
Produced messes. <i sie - eo effect on polarized light.............. 22
DEOCUCCOMEWACERE cnc. o-)5 cem «=~ eis 419 experiments in manufacture of..... 312
and COrm fOr CANNING. » 2/0. . acne sree 440 exportation, statistics of......... ... 542
and molasses, value of imported in foreign, consumed in U. S. since
LUSH LO Oe Se OC a a RE ee 41 i ee a ee TET: Six 2 38
ripe grain from corn crop...... bad ners 442 from beets, cost at first............... 13
seed from sorghum.. Be Ley ee beets developed by Napoleon........ 13
syrup, loss of in harvesting..... .... 237 corn stalks, amount per acre......... 439
eye EU SU CC LUM OPO 2 ope ne cern rea 424 corn stalks at Washington............ 521
at different stages of development. . .210 cornistalks, history of s25......2 22s: 427
at maximum in crop, diversity of Pearl Millet at W ashingtan. Reetaene 521
opinion. . st Re er sorghum, analysis of...... ...... .. 548
available, amount in stalks...... 491 At, Washington: ores. nes eee 521
at different stages........... 194, 210, 515 cost of production B csclecerse ris Marvotee 21, 417
average for 1879-80-81.................199 GOeSSMIA0N OD. o sage - —- | eee 186
average in 35 varieties of sorghum. 197 easily Obtained; ses. ~.c- 22... ee 535
average per cent in 1880 and 1881. ..-150 in) 1883.5 2.0 ae ee - SEB RIB Erie & 548
GEV Ca), RS as 136, 217 in New South Walese-.: 2.2.2... 546
PAISCOGSIOM: Olvera = 215 not made in Ching -<.-.5..- 0. sa. 2 537
increase of by manufacture.......... 322 PLOGUCEGIPR aes eee eee cee 20
i IIE SSaNG SY TUS. sah elites eas = os 137 producedinm Japan. asa. nme nsce es 418
in juices at Washinetons 5). .2--.25: 518 DOS pectsvOh = 220s. sso eee se oer 19
ane WIGES Of SOTRMUIMNN kas. k= 13 SURUISUIGH mt eine etek kins we oe aes 408
BOG GRE UIC e emeee eee ial-e 143 SYRUP; VIClG ONS 2s sor once hae 20
AM SOREN GMS ani. dese le os ane Beech 538 yield) pemsere we... ake oie sucks 175, 414
in sorghums, 1880, 1881.............-.. 538 stalks Of Pearl Millet... ...2...-...27.. 446
in suckered and unsuckered canes. .129 ton of sorghum cane of............. 248
in syrups at Washington... ......519, 528 | Sugar grass, orshaloo.’ - ................ 51
from one ton sorghum..... ----.--..--009| Sugar house, plate of acheap home.... .505
HECULEG PEL ACLOs sea-s 522 ple once es DIA “how dried for packing..... Be eihge ee 302
COLLOMC OL SLANE Ge, Toso state See Mere saa! s 210 imports, exports, consumption in
when present in juice................ 217 Ws Sey ete, ak serad eit ood Meroe 30
yet to be investigated.......... ..... 18 in bagasse, per Benteier ok Cones 78
average in sorghums, 1879-80-81...... 198 imi¢orn/stalic juices... 2... Peel. 435
average of at different stages..... ..194 increased by removing seed heads. .241
average of in sorghums, cic eee 187 increase of, graphically shown. ....187
beet, production of by countries. .... 542 increase of, not due to Gryae up of
Plantae toc eer. eee -161, ae 218
in cut cane, inversion of... ... 533
in juice as affected Dystrosinc sae - -159
in juice proportioned to density..... 490
in maize andsorghum juices... .....196
juices, SVETASE os Neo hears atest 501
juices of different densities... 497
in sorghum as affected by fertilizers. 166
discordant OPLNIOUS, aa ee ee 2
effect of fertilizerSon....... ...::.;: 172
INGIOLCe AV. ClLASG. greene eg eee a 499
in juices of different densities. . 493
when at maximum ......... 122, 241
inversion of, incutcanes........ 131, 488
inverted: dehnedie eso. o. sae 23
its presence early in the season..... 195
loss of, by not stripping............... 142
lossiofebysuckerse-: 2s co eae 133

loss of, by not working promptly. 126, 129
loss of, in bagasse... .174, 251, 274, 277, 383
loss of, inecut canes ......... 131
loss of, in manufacture, experiments. 309
loss of, in stalks of maize. : 442
loss by present mode of manufac-
GUT Bese attr ante ane ioek a tector ees 17

568

Sugar lost in bagasse of corn and nore

CHUM Meter lease ae ees ser eis
lost in drying sorghum,....-..... ... 396
lostin) manutacture....2-.<. 6... 322, 385
Jost amvskimim gee oe)... eels hey 274
made only from ripe cane........ .. 516
making at Department of Agricul-
(UU Sate. oe Ue Ree Re AN Pare 513
making from beets, sorghum, and
GHINO Re tance ciate AL erat eyeeee ee 424
pnaueNchure: a at Washington, meth-
core
manufacture, comparison ‘of meth- _
ods.. Mlaseoe Soll
market value of sorghum ciphers 2 415
maximum results in sorghum....... 196
method of manufacture from sor-
that Go Ben ac Nici oe Oreo)
maximum found in maize............ 197
necessary loss in manufacture ...... 309
not an exhausting crop. ............. 394
not diminished by ripening of seed .241
not obtained from soil.. ............. 449
not the object of the farmer......... 521
obtained from beets in working..... 257
of juice recovered in syrup.......... 532
Con puenDUL epee, sae Mtl Ai ae et tan 24
of sugar- cane lost in manufacture. .535
of U. S., whence obtained............ 26

per cent, density, and boiling point

Of SOMGOISee iat ees eee 336
per cent in juice OLLCrOP see eee 134
per cent of in different sorghums....214
[HLSIOMKOVTL ORE CCE NE ais ees Salle martdsess 175
principle of crystallization.......... 326
pounds from gallon OMS y TU D ree ners 418

production and increasing fertility... a
DLOdUCtLOMIOLA eee ke seen eae a

Olsat; Washinetonio.. cence: aoe 5. 501
of in Louisiana De rat nator, nee eaters see 541
RUALISHICN OL cuss rane ere ween 541
quantity decreased by salts.......... 216

recovered from bagasses. 388
relative amount of, in-juice of 1880

SN GVISBIE en ease aces cette metuanle 150
relative solubility of different... 24
separation of from molasses......... 362
solutions, sp. gr. compared. 335

solutions, different density, cweight,.
37

QE ee eee oe eee
SOULCESIOL soe cee Cee ee eae 25
to molasses, proportion of...... ...- 418
total product of the world.. . 546

value of, consumed in U. '§. since
nL fel) poe ea Se ae Oe AWE eis Ate SLE 30
varieties of sorghum worked for....312

various methods of manufacture... .504
Wield PeEWaGRew ct) vee e ee vermin ees 175
yield of, per ton of sorghum 5 ARO 414

yield per acre in different countries. 27
Sullivant, Joseph, on fattening value of
corns.
Sulphate of alumina in defecation... .. .202
Sulphate of baryta, use of in defecation.301
Sulphite of lime and lime in defeca-

LANG) oe aiesehe te ea nes meric oe er Hole 308

in’ delecationy 205 24) -.ate 305, 308
Sulphur box, construction and use of .. .306
Sulphur fumes in defecation............ 306

Sulphurie acid, amount of in crop of

Roped onbinne a iokoe nsGk aa Urmo ne oLbeo da 96
Sulphurous ACIC, ACHLOMUOE. 5: (chee ele ctes =! 216
antiseptic property weeiie cb means Soetaae 307
ini deLe cations j.ce ae see cetoe ss eisiant 305
preparation (0) CARER A RAC ROCCOC Ue OOC Sti 305
properties ole. o--- acess se ee ee 305
Sumac sorghum, comparative value of. .214
dencriped ue: sus eee se woe 68
TEP ASH ONS Rareoiny oem gc om SEmOIRE BO HUarCGes 94
Summary of results at Washington... ...520

- INDEX. P
popern capes, effect of on sorghum. .163
of lime in defecation..............1. 302
Surface or film evaporators............. 339
Surinam, export of sugar from......... 543
yield’ Of Sugar per acre: 6 .20-4-cseuee 27

Sweden, Norway, and Italy, production
of beet sugar
sugar consumed i in.
Sweet corn, average analyses of juice of.431
stalks, suger in juice of LOT
stalks, sugar made from.. : 441
Swenson and Henry on loss of sugar
after cane is cut 1

process of manufacture.............. 506

sorghum analyses by. ........%.... 242

fertilizers on sorghum ............... 175

loss of sugar in cut canes............ 182

on cost of making sugar ............. 417

OM) PrOGWCHON SUSAL:: ewer selene 419

on yield of seed per acre.... 20.020... 380

Switzerland, sugar consumed in......... 26
Synoptical table of varieties of sor-

PND Aes Say a eR EBE EADS rom > - «6 98

Syria; SOrshumeiny ss: 3. hee omer 50

Syrup, amount of sugar obtained from. .418

average selling price.................. 412
character of in defecation experi-
STITIO TGS ae leone ie oie slave cb aver once eee eee 317
COSstioh manutacrures .4/-- 02s escceeiee 417
COstior production... --..---.o..seenee 412
crystallization of, how effected ..... 362
of different densities, weight of...... 337

expense of manufacturing..... ....
from sorghura, average yield per

PCR Oy Sis ee te be eine ee ee 412
from sorghum, cost of manufacture. 20
from sorghum, yield in sugar........ 20
from corn stalks, yield of sugar in..440
Cainiol by NoOWsStrippins... ee eee 142
how put up for market... ...........2. 425

made at Washington, analyses of.

made in experiments
ouly to be made by the farmer...... 521
yield of, per acre.. a edereee

marketing of.. ..
of sorghum, total ‘product of in U. 8.416
percentage of in NUE Fer pean Sc: 322
produced by freezing juice
produced in defecation experiments. 309
produced in U.S., from census...... 416

produced in U. S.-in 1860 and 1870, .. .409
selling priceolecc paper =. eae oree 414
uniformity in, desirable.. .. 425
various ‘methods of manufacture... 504
where manufactured................. 354
Table giving comparative value of sor-
CHUMIS Sees see ee ene 214
Talcott, H. L., on sorghum seed......... 379
Tanks for storing skimmings MA eA ty 3 403
Tanks, settling, for juice..........-...... 291

Pannin/inm sorghum) seed). : 5-22 -22.e es 378
Tar, coal, on seed for planting.
Teas, E. Ne, introduction of sorghum..

Temperature and density of sugar solu-

LIONS Hane keer ee eee eee Bia)
and an fall at Washington, "1882 -...151
and pressure in vacuum pan......... 342
at defecation... =. 2 2s ss. see eee 295
at Washington, D. G3 1880-1-2 147
comparison of F. and C. degrees... . bod
effect of on sorghum............-....- 145
of boiling point and pressure ....... 341

Tennessee, production of sorghum in.

408, 416
production of sugar and molasses. . Pe
value of crops per acre in............ 421
yield of different cropsin........... 453

Texas Amber sorghum, analysis OL ee 248

and Louisiana, value of sorghum to, 11

INDEX.

Texas Cane sorghum, comparative value a

horizontal mill, plate of... .......... 267
production of sugar, 1879.... ......-- 27
production of sugar ‘and molasses. . .542
production of sorghum 12 eae 408, 416

value per acre of cropsin............ 21

yield of different cropsin . ......... 453
Test cup for juices and syrups, plate.. . 486
Testing of seed, importance of .......... 117
Tests of accuracy of analysis ..... ..... 474

completion of evaporation Sacra eee 354
Thaer, on sugur from maize.......-...-.. 429
Thermometers, degrees of compared... .334

Diate Gf creer cre. shite o's cio 486
Thinning out during cultivation... ee li bs}

Thoms, John B., sugar from sorghum

Uk See -- 2. Ge SCR wet Sane 7
Thorne, C. E., ‘report on sorghum........ 415
Thorne, John, on sorghum history...... 53
Three roll mill of LeU peeeoneebed-ssac 280

BIZ MONG COSUOMME ss canes o, oa -e 269
LBUN DES; OD. SOTERA UM. —- 52.2 os aie ome 58
Time for harvesting CLO Dare es cae 122

PLATEINE SOTP MUTA | fo oe a ieyeeielge uns = 110

working maize for sugar............. 43

working sorghum, graphically

MHLW, Thee etn ee Re Nels 187

working sorghums, Tenethyr er. s.<2 214

from planting to maturity...........-. 114

from plauting to maturity of sor-

EC PPEEtr Ses sen Ree tea) GEA yo Sarcee 538

length of, for working sorghum... 124

to reach’ certain

al eiad anon ta hee oy se es Sash po eee g

to work sorghum forsugar... _..... 214
Tobacco, acreage yield of in different

States. .... 452

average acreage valve of....-
product, acreage, and value in U. §..422

Tops and leaves, per cent of in cane... 7

Top, middle, and butt of cane ecompared.218

Total solids in juices, how determined..471

development ‘of
119

Trachypogon avanaceus, or sorghum... 59
Trench culture of sorghum............ 114
Trinidad, export of sugar from ........ 543
Triple effect, economy Of......-..2.....-- 357
BVAPOLAWIIS s > soe cars = Si ctiata arate en 356
comparative values... 2.0.35 .-05-65"- 512
method Of working. :.........2....0:5- 309
EMCI TCL SP) S00 EMME 5 = Seco 'm, s aieipis 358 |
Tsung-ming, sorghum seed from........ 64

Turkey, sugar consumed in.............. 26
Turmeric paper, properties and uses... .292
Twaddle scale described.

Ukubane from Africa, plate of. ... .....
Umgatubanda from Africa, plate of..... 87
Undendebuile, plate ors... 2 22.2.2: 90
Sone MMI. Platelets eel: <5 heer 90
Unger, “Dr. F., history of sorghum Neier 50

United States Agricultural Society time
for working sorghum
United States, introduction of sorghum

AUDA Sie aralea) -tcdteig cee ace ao aoits Seeks 64

its sources of sugar Beret et ea cere ete Seay s 26

promotion of sorghum culture...... 17

Sitar GONSUMEO: Wie.) ms ee Gey 26

Unripe sorghum worthless for sugar... .516
Updegraff, Hon. J. P., on value of sor-

PERMIT oe ee Tk a oe re 12

Ures’ Dictionary of Arts, ‘on loss of sugar.385

(sortie ROreh ies) ee aa ee ea aes
Utah, production of sorghum in ...408, 416
Vacuum pan, advantages of ... .341, 351, 353
and open pan, methods compared.. 512 |
CONSEMUICLIONS OL. - 22. - ae cee oe 342
GEscripiionsOl. f5-22. 52022 es - Rage ee 349
efeckol gepenym: / oo. sat0s eee wae: 354

MeCLBOG Oh WOrkiIne., 5 2.2205 toe 355
mixer, centrifugals, and pump..... 348

569

Vacuum pan, plates rh pee Siikbeisisa ate Se)
practical working of............ +s2+-008
FeO Ole acer ae Cote a ate ae SN. ors 5 341

RG rikcinapiey ne =, eee, ieisian s latecteieers = = 356
Lriple Check, Plate. -cic6/22 see 358
water for condensation..... ......... 353

Valley broom-corn, analysis of juice of .206

Value, comparative, of varieties of
RCV Ac ap otie Onn oo eet Aeron ee a3 3 439
Value of ash in hay Pe ue ese Lee 464
of crops of U.S..... eet Senor -463
PATASSE AS TOO A Magee oh ms oss ae <= 392
for paper pulp.. %.. 400

corn and wheat crop of United States.45 D8
39:

@nsilage as TO0W.. cae nsw cise 2 280s 3
farm products per acre, average. ....420
grain crops per acre, average.. ..... 425
products per ton of sorghum ....... 414
skimmings for fattening HOPS ki. s-> 402
sorghum leaves as food.............. 392
sorghum leaves for feeding Pope ys etRS : 391
sorshum products per acre.......... 414
sorghum seed for feeding.......... .378
sorghum Seed for. toed 25) — Resse. 395

sugar and molasses imported in 1879. 41
per acre of sorghum products. . -412
relative, of sorghum and other crops. 420
Van Buren, ‘Consul ¢ General, on sorghum
in Japan aS set 18
Variation in seed in time for maturity. ALT,
Varieties, cultivated, of sorghum, num-

HER Ae een ee ee 70
of corn stalks tested for sug ar. 2 429
of Imphees described............-... 66

of sorghum, foreign, compared...... 205

trom Africa, China, ridin cz nee 76
NOME ADM ce <aall= xe acine Anns eee 73
IGENTMEE Se. ose sale tic ow eee mee 98
yetto beiexamined!=... .--.<-<cteckece 18
TO AY LGCALIIVA | oe ai eee ge eet eeuns 114
$0} CVO WDE nh nae aes nibeke oh ater 211
VaEnre ODUSORE Ices abe = bis cles edn 56
Vasey, Dr. George, on botany of sor-
ARNG bi Ra" iy AO A ha Dope Res ae 60
Velocity of rolls in sugar mills. . .279
Vermont, maple sugar r produced in 28
sugar from corn stalks in...... . 429
value of farm products per acre in. .421
yield of different crops in............ 452
Mertiesiimill’ plate se 22 5. - nese «= - 262
Victor horizontal mill, plate of.......... 266
Victor am wle late. shan ans cornet ie ciate 262
Vilmorin, introduction of sorghum..... 64

maximum sugarin sorghum........ 4

ROro hui) AnAlVSeS.-: soos e reese 240
time for working SOrenuIm.... 25.4" 58
Vimbischuapa, Vv ariety ot sorghum...51, 65
Vinegar from skimmings ane as 403

Virginia, acreage value of farm products
4

PPO I nto Ey eee A) are Me Es Sigs 21
production ‘of sorghum in....... 416, 408
yield of different crops in........... 452

Vitality of seed, how tested.............. 1G

Voeleker, Prof., on frauds in fertilizers .417
Volume of steam produced in vacuum
pan UR later e ve sas eee 343
Vulgare, sorghum. 3%
W adsworth, ‘Mr., on sorghum as forage

plant. ses f.-e eaeeoes
Wallis’ Hybrid sorghum, available sugar
ThA eS agate een) As nee a ore 126, 538
sorghum deseribeds 0s. 0. Secs 100
Washington, explanation of failure... . .520

W ashington Ter., sorghum, production

Ole ps. sy . 416
Waste products from ‘sorghum SSS SB ae 376
of sugar house, food value of 401
Water, average per cent of in sonia, .234
WwW ater-glass ROVGelECapIONs Vance <c . 803

Water, ‘hot, used in evaporation.......... 354

=
570 INDEX.
Water in bagasse, amount of............. 278 { White Liberian sorghum, analyses of,
in defecation; use of...... ...0% 2 2.. 296 | . 228, 234, 243, 250
loss of in plant, nut due to drying available sugarin.....-teese oe: = 126, 533
Oats Awe ee SEAL EG, oS 16 comparative value:.:...... 00. j--5e- 214
loss of, in later stages of plant. 161 deseribed).. 3.523. 2: copter 101
needed by VacwGm panies. 2.22. 22 353 AUB OSTON 1255, o. oc- 2 < eee artes ore Heo teint 244
Wax or cerosie on sorghum stalk..... - 259 working period for... eco sos 186
WeberandScovell, analyses of sOrg rugs: 39| White Mammoth sorghum, plate Of 4a e.ean
analyses of sorghum oder 2s geil) ANGINSESHOD.\.-5 220.0: wa .. 248, 250
analysis of Orange cane. ......... 250 available sugar ines ee 126, 538
on loss of sugar after cutting. ...127, 133 comparative y value of... ...----- Be Al!
on prompt working of cane.......... 9 @eseni beeen) o.c.c+ oc oan aioe oe 99
on sorghum soils S ae. ROA variety of ‘sorghum. Be eee 69, 68
on time for working sorghum. Ba < 8, 123| White sorghum stalks, analyses of... . 547
on value of tops and butts, se... & 236) Whiting, use of in defecation........... 801
on effect of removing seed head..... 158] Wiley, Prof., analyses of sorghums..... 249
process of manufacture 506 on southern grown seed .. 115
Webster, H. T., report on sorghum crop. 412| Williams, Dr. 8s. Wells, on sorghum.. 52
Weeds, how ayoidedn tet me ee) ne - 109} Winehester, E., ,on sugar from sorghum, 419
W eight and length of sorghums. BG Ts ie 74| Winds, destruction caused by to crop...109

of crop of sorghums per'acre.. 2... 018:
erop worked at Washington... :
gallon of sugar solutions of different

densities .... 337
sorghums from different countries. .103
sorghum grown per acre. li
stripped Stalker tt. seas eases eee 115
varieties of corn stalks. ....... 43

Weight, relative, at different stages. -194

\Vest India sorghum, available sugar in,
126, 538
West Indies, production of sugar in.
sugar, production of.. ...
West Virginia, production of sorghum
iW olge = -416, 408
value of farm produc ts per acre in. 421
yield of different crops in eae
Wheat, acreage yield of in different

SEITE acs of Woche Ack asl Fen oe Ban se 452
average acr eage Hlth {hele be dee 420
average acreage yield of U.S.. ..... 455
average yield and value per acre... 423
in Iowa, acreage value of . 420

product, acreage and value in U. S. .422

total value of crop in U.S..........- 458
total vield of U.S..... os oe Ss)
Wheel:r, Wm. P., N. Y. method of sugar
making.. ee 51
White African sorghum, available sugar
iia Wee itae ee oe eno
sorghum described. Srey Bane tei eyes 99
sorghum, DUATETOT pe ec see tere ses 96

White Imphee sorghum, available sugar

OR et eae cen: Be wae tae 126, 538
White. John D., on sorghum as forage

pinnit <i eee HeRoe An seme

Winton, Wm., report on sorghum crop. 414
Wisconsin Agricultural College, anata
OtsorenumMs sos. .2 blecce . 242

experiments with sorghum. RA li
method of manufacture .... .- 006
report on sorghum.. .. 414
Wisconsin, analyses of sorghums in. 242
production of sorghum | in. . 408, 416
sugar from sorghum in. 419
value of farm products per acre in. 421
yield of different crops in. 453
Wolf Tail sorghum, available sugar in,
126, 538
comparative value of............... 214
GeESCTIbeG . 6 2; 52% ceca hoe eee 68, 99
Wood, coal, and bagasse as ‘fuel, com-
pared 7 net eco eg
Working, length of time for! eee 214
Working period for sorghum....... . 124
graphically shown See ratbkociec ae 187
Working up crop, time fOr... see 122

Worms, wire, and cut, destroyi ing seed..118
Wray, Leonard, introduction of sor-

ODM... c Veo Lede se ees eee , 54
letter on varieties of ‘sorghum. 67
on Amabele and Imphee.. 548

Yield, acreage, of different crops in U. 8.452
of cane, as affected by lime.......... 183
cane per acre of sorghum.. . .. 414
central grain belt of U. s., falling 0 off.460

sOTshum, average... --. tees 432
sorgchum: in Kansas-a- =, --cs- eee "418
sorghum seed peracre... 380

sugar per acre in different countries. 27
Zea mais, sugar from stalks of........... 427
Zim-moo-ma-na, variety of sorghum.... 66

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| to concerns making sorghum sugar,

—————_ =

Sorghum Sugar Reviewed.

The Rural New Yorker gives an outline of a
bulletin recently issued by Prof. H. W. Wiley,
Chemist of the Department of Agriculture, in
which he gives many forcible reasons for his be-
lief that with our present knowledge, methods

and appliances the making of sorghum sugar is
not only unprofitable, but must entail a loss,
unless this is made good by national or State
bounty. He gives a thorough review of all the
chemical analysis of sorghum and of the history
of the industry from the first three small vials
of sorghum sugar made by Dr. Battey of Rome,
Ga., in 1854, to the results of last season’s work
at Fort Scott, Kansas. In 1882 the Commis-
sioner of Agriculture made an award of $12,000
The fol-
lowing parties started experiments to gain a
part of the award: The Champaign Sugar and
Glucose Manufacturing Company of Champaign,
lll.; Professor Magnus Swenson; Paul Steck,
San Francisco, Cal.; Nelson Maltby, Geneva,
Ohio; Drummond Bros., Warrensburg, Mo.; A.
J. Decker, Fond du Lac, Wis.; William Frazier,
Esopia, Vernon county, Wis.; Jefferson Sugar
Company, Jefferson, Ohio; Oak Hill Refining
Company, Edwardsville, Ill.; C. Bozareth,
Cedar Falls, Iowa. The two last made little or
nothing, and, therefore, were countedout. The
eight others made an aggregate of 116,165.5
pounds, so that the amount of premium or
bounty given was as high as nearly 9.8 cents
per pound.

The following failures to make sorghum sugar
upon a commercial scale are reported: At
Crystal Lake and Hoopeston, near Chicago,
factories were built in 1879 and 1880, but the
attempts to make sugar were total failures, and
the factories have been abandoned and dis-
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unprofitable, and the factory closed in 1882,
A large factory was built at Champaign, IIl.,
in 1§82, and several hundred thousand pounds
of white sugar were made in that and the two
following seasons, but the enterprise did not
pay and the factory was abandoned. The
factory at Hutchinson, Kan., was built in 1882.
In 1883 and 1884, in all, 450,000 pounds of
sugar were made at a loss. The factory was

; then abandoned. A sugar-mill was established

at Sterling, Kan., in 1852, but after making
270,000 pounds of sugar in 1883 and 1884 the
business was abandoned as unprofitable. A
factory established at Franklin, Tenn., was op-
erated in 1883-4 without the production of any
sugar, and, of course, abandoned. At Ottawa,
Kan., a large glucose factory was converted
into asorghum-sugar factory. Sugar was made
in considerable quantities in 1884 and 1885, and
the house was then closed, the business having
resulted in a financial loss.

The professor next gives a number of figures
showing the analysis of and the quantity of
sugar extractable from sorghum cane by the
best modern method. These appear to show
beyond any question that the failure to make
sorghum sugar profitably in this country has
not been due alone to defective machinery nor
lack of skill, but chiefly to the quality of the
cane which has been used.

__ While the worker in sugar-cane and sugar-
beets is reasonably sure of his material—that it
will remain the same during the season—the
sorghum-sugar maker has no such assurance.
The same variety of cane, in the same degree of
maturity, will show the most surprising differ-
ences in the sugar contents of itssap. The pro-

fessor is very severe on the “sorghum enthusi-
ast” and the ‘‘ sorghum crank,” who have been
glowingly portraying the glorious future of sor-
ghum, extolling it ‘‘as the one great savior of
the country, furnishing alike its bread, its
sweets, its meats, and its drinks.” The pro-

fessor thinks hope for the business is not in
new methods or new machinery; but in wise se-
lection of seed, intensive culture, and judicious
fertilization, which are the factors that can make
the sorghum sufficiently saccharifacient. The
factory at Rio Grande, N. J., had the most ex-
tensive and thoroughly equipped sorghum-sugar
house ever built in the United States. Of it
| Professor Wiley says: ‘For five successive
seasons, from 1882, it was conducted with the
highest skill. With the aid of a State bounty of
$1 per ton for the cane and one cent a pound for
the sugar, the company was able to hold to-
gether financially. With the close of 1886 the
State bounty expired and the factory has now
been closed and dismantled, since it could only
be run at aloss without the bounty. In all, near-
ly 1,500,000 pounds of sugar have been made
by this company.” At the present time there
remains only one sorghum-sugar factory on a_
large scale in the country, namely, that at Fort
Scott, Kansas. One is building at Topeka and
one at Conway Springs, Kansas. Colonel Cun-
ningham, Sugar Lands, Texas, is also preparing |
to make sorghum sugar in connection with the
sugar-cane, f

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