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PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS va
Liane Wr
FATTY OILS, AND WAXES IN THE i
v3 4
\ UNITED STATES satan
GEORGE S. JAMIESON, Bureau of Chemis
, CONTENTS
} Page | Vegetable Oils—continued: Page
4 Eistroduictiam § 40s. Sa oes, ai ras IER Aa a) | Linseed Oi} . 2... Sica eats & Clavie eather aed
a General Methods of Production ..ececece 2 China-wood or Tung Oi! . . 2 2 ee ee es 23 a
Hi Vegetable Oils: ay Candlenut or Lumbang Oil. . 2.2222 - 25
a Cottonseed Oise) eee Sea rae ed Perilla Oi] . . 2... eae tot elena! sbeiaad
é Coconut onic sGs. 2 a? a whe ol le shakin Hempseed Ono os cat saat ger er en ane
: Pala kcenel oni soy aonliges. whine cee otter 10 Poppy-seed OW. ioe ee aive wm = oer a ED
iy Pal Ou eee ee ay ee Se Se 0S Animal Fats and Ove) <2". 5) stesso eae ee
if, Colne OR cay eria aw ee sae (Oe on, ohn, AE Milk Fat. ......-- eee
oe fs COMO AW ot ga fe eesie wo ia ven, ohm eee Bard ona Ridalis fos s, tet antalvar tanner eet all ‘e
: BaaseH TMs eat aah ee, wet eles eye. LL Beck Tallow. =) coc S ce SO Re ie cal uee ti
Corn ON eee wees! is te epidive vel Re Matton Tallow 3:5, oes ak cpio peliatetenenes
Ohre On i eae er es ere seks Whale O!! ..... PEPear var sa Pecans ae fi
Peanut Oil cet a Oe RS Roxpoize Gils. isos) ao < eibenlenltas ee = tones
Soy-bean O11. 2 5 we ww ee BP en Bane Fats oct 3s e. blsta Mahe (el Some aeS
Caster Gil . 2 2. BIN pao hene ts es ort CONE Weat’s-fost Oil. oc Scuisers. circhisie> cou eraree
Sesame OW 226 4. ape ec eet ap ese te 198] Fish Oils se nw a's hel ah a ehal See
Sunflower-seed Oi] . . 2... Aver nated a 20s i eamnbiver OnE: 7 bo ke ete Valin! jorie)ioy epee teen
Fixed Oil of Mustard Ssed. . .. . atte Sh WaKes®
Rapeseed (Colza) Oil - - . 2.22 ew es 6 Were war ns. ac) x she nea, os'ale)wi nim cee eaee
CacaoButter ..-.... SW etvallin, ee het e004 20 Carnauba’ Wax. s)6ic sie oe 0 5 2 ee aoe
Shea-nut Oil or Butter 2... 2.22.52... 26 Candehilla Wax, si cise oe Ss oa le eerie
Almond Oi]. . ....... Ri tia ive | agian Montan Wax. .... ARE Ra OO
Apricot-kernel Oil. . . . - uN Sei oie tey tated Sugar-cane Wax .. 2s eee ee ee es 38
Grape-seed and Raisin-seed Oils. . 2... 21 Wool Wax (Grease). - - + 2-22 eee 33
Chinese Vegetable Tallow -..- 222-2. 21 Sperm Oil (Wax)... .--.---- Bi fe is
Japan Waxor Tallow .--- - se ee « « 22 | Production and Consumpiion Statistics ...- 34
Bayberry Tallow (Myrtle Wax). . . 2+... 22
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1927
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Washington, D. C. | February, 1927
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS, FATTY OILS, AND WAXES IN
THE UNITED STATES?
By GrorcE 8. JaMIEsoN, Chemist, in charge Oil, Fat, and Wax Investigations
Bureau of Chemistry
CONTENTS
Page Page
ERO CUNEO Mes: rite ORE Siete ee a Neely 1 | Vegetable oils—continued.
General methods of production________ 2 Lanseed oils 2t ee See ke ae 22
Vegetable oils: China-wood or tung oil___________ 23
Cocrvonseed! oils ask Va 4. Candlenut or lumbang oiJ_________ 25
COCOMUME OMS ee es ee See ee 9 Perilla On) ie ee Te ee ee 25
Palm-kernel¢oil= at Se eh) 10 Elempsecedtoih) 2:2 sis Sada lee 26
PAINS OM See OL ok AA INA 10 Poppy-secd(oile 4 eee saa 26
GO MUNG: Os ve De ee ihny Fea | ie SAnimalfatsrand Oliss 22 ses ees eae 2
CoOneEiOro Tee See ee re Sa ital Os Gx i 03 a meena th Zea ik
a DAaSSUiO Me oS SIC ere By aE E To SNe 11 BE wo Wek ae SS 2 i ee 8 ey P7(
ORO AY opLL o p Ucaee e 12 Beefiatallows 2 262 2 ee eee eee 28
Olnvero nee wert. Fe wee ee hE 13 Moreton Owe ee ee ee 28
PATI ts OU ete as we pole eed El REN ay) 14 Whale, offbes 20) bunk ye es 28
Sovebednio ites ee he oe) 16 Porpoise; Ollgs 02. 2s 2 2 en 29
CUSTOM OMe ees aees sy TERE EL ea L TLy4 Bone tata 22) £2 a eee eee 29
SSS ELIT Cs Oh] ee awree he eel doa ily EO 19 INéatissloot.oil == = 3b 82 ee ee 29
Sunflower-seed oil________-_______ POE ESAS Tt OLS Rss ear Fo eee eee ee 30
Fixed oil of mustard seed_________ LOM AHISHELIVERIOU Ss! ae eee ee ee 30
Rapeseed (colza) oiJ_______-______ 20 | Waxes:
Cacto Dutteree Sit Mos ue EA ee 20 BeeSwaxui tel 2k eee SAS 31
Shed-nut o1er butters!) 2s. See 20 Carnaubapw axe eee caesar 32
PAU TAA OTe lee metals tas nara ey Fy) NS Reed Ree 21 Candelillanwaxc so ieee eae ee 32
Apricotzkerneliils «i testar) ses: Dili Montanyiwax 2 ou fees ee ee 32
Grape-seed and raisin-seed oils____ 21 Sugarcane. wax pe whe a ee ieee ee 3
Chinese vegetable tallow________ 21 Wooltwax\(grease) 2. 24 sh aes 33
AAPA nEWzrGOx allo yeet se 22 Sperm oulGwatss) ===—s~ ne eee 33
Bayberry tallow (myrtle wax)---- 22 | Production and consumption statistics_. 34
INTRODUCTION
The life and the progress of a nation depend in no small measure
upon its supply of fats and fixed, or fatty, oils. Not only are these
substances an essential part of our diet, but they play an important
role in many industries as well. Oils. and fats are used in the manu-
facture of soap, glycerine, paints, varnishes, lubricants, and water-
proofings. Our requirements for them continually increase as the
population grows and industries expand.
17This bulletin is a revision of and supersedes Department Bulletin 769.
25059°—27 1 1
2 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Substances belonging to several distinct groups are termed oils.
Mineral oils, which include the petroleum and shale oils, are known
also as hydrocarbon oils because they are composed chiefly of mix-
tures of substances which are chemical combinations of carbon and
hydrogen. Oils of another group obtained by the destructive distil-
lation of coal tar consist chiefly of a mixture of hydrocarbons and
phenols. The so-called carbolic acid is an example of this group.
Odoriferous oils, which are obtained by distillation with steam or
by pressure from leaves, stems, flowers, seeds, roots, and bark of
plants, and from the skins of citrus fruit, are known as volatile or
essential oils. These are usually complex mixtures of substances
known to the chemist as terpenes, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols,
phenols, and esters (chemical combinations of acids with alcohols).
- Most of them are liquid, but some are semisolid or solid. The sub-
stances discussed in this bulletin are called fixed or fatty oils and
fats to distinguish them from the volatile or essential oils.
There is no distinct chemical difference between a fat and a fatty
oil. Each is composed chiefly of glycerides, substances formed by
the combination of fatty acids with glycerine. Products which are
liquid at ordinary temperatures are termed oils. Those which are
solid at ordinary temperatures are commonly called fats. Some of
the oils obtained from fruits and seeds are not liquid, but are either
solid fats or butters, like cacao butter. On the other hand, lard,
tallow, and other land-animal fats are more or less solid at ordinary
temperatures. The fats or oils from fish, whales, and almost all
other marine animals are liquid.
For convenience, the fats and oils considered in this bulletin may
be divided into three general classes: Drying, semidrying, and non-
drying. This classification is based upon the capacity for absorp-
tion of oxygen (both rate and quantity). ‘These classes are not
sharply defined, the oils of one class gradually merging into those |
of the next class. The oils which rapidly absorb oxygen and form
solid films, such as linseed, China-wood or tung, perilla, and men- ©
haden oils, are classed as drying oils. Oluls of the semidrying class
absorb oxygen less rapidly than the drying oils. This class includes
cottonseed, corn, sesame, and mustard-seed oils. The nondrying oils
absorb oxygen very slowly. To this class belong the land-animal
fats and olive, castor, peanut, coconut, and palm oils. |
In the following pages the more important edible vegetable oils ©
are treated first in the order of their importance, irrespective of the
class to which they belong. The less important edible and technical
vegetable oils come next. The vegetable drying oils, with the excep-
tion of soy-bean and sunflower-seed oils, have been grouped together.
Then follow the land-animal fats, fish and marine-animal oils, and
the waxes.
GENERAL METHODS OF PRODUCTION
The profitable production and refining of fats and oils require an
intimate knowledge of the raw materials and details of manufacture,
which can be mastered only through experience, and also a knowl-
edge of market conditions for both the raw materials and the finished
products. 7
Vegetable oils are commonly expressed from the seeds or fruit
containing them, either by hydraulic presses or by continuous work-
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS 3
ing expellers. Nowadays, particularly in Europe, large quantities
of oils are extracted by the use of volatile solvents, such as gasoline
and benzene. Olives, peanuts, and sesame seed are pressed cold, pro-
ducing what is known as virgin or cold-pressed oils. As a rule, cold-
pressed oils need only to be filtered to make them suitable for edible
purposes. Most oil seeds in the United States are heated and
pressed hot, because it is possible to obtain more oil by hot than by
cold pressing. In many instances cold pressing is followed by one
and sometimes more hot pressings. The hot-pressed and solvent-
extracted oils contain coloring and flavoring substances, which are
removed by refining before the oil is used for food or even, in many
cases, for technical purposes.
The residue from pressing, which contains 5 to 12 per cent of oil,
depending upon the character of the product pressed and the equip-
ment used, is called press or oil cake. When not poisonous, it is with
few exceptions converted into feed for livestock. Inedible or poison-
ous press cakes are used for fertilizers. When ground the press cake
is called a meal. The residue from the solvent extraction of an oil,
known as extracted meal, contains less than 2 per cent and fre-
quently not more than 1 per cent of oil. It may be used for the same
purposes as press cake. If used for feed, however, all of the solvent
must be removed.
Nearly all hot-pressed oils are refined before being used. The
most common method is to treat the warm oil with a solution of
caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), which neutralizes the free fatty
acids to form soap and precipitates much of the coloring matter.
After further agitation and heating to the proper degree the soap
separates from the oil in small soft aggregates. This stage of re- —
fining is called the break. On standing, the soap settles to the
bottom of the refining kettle to form the soap stock, which is used
by soap makers. At some plants the soap stock is acidified with |
sulphuric acid to set free the fatty acids, which, with the neutral oil
occluded in the soap stock, rise to the surface and are removed.
This is sold as acidulated soap stock.
In the larger refineries it is customary to separate the fatty acids
from the soap stock and after suitable treatment to distill them
under diminished pressure. The distilled fatty acids are used by
candle and soap makers. The residue in the still after distillation is
known as pitch. The product obtained by the distillation of cotton-
seed oil fatty acids, called cotton oil or stearin pitch, is employed,
for one thing, in the manufacture of roof paint.
The term foots, sometimes used in place of “soap stock,” is not to
be confused with the term “olive oil foots,” the name given to the
low-grade olive oil extracted by solvents from the olive pomace or
press cake. Olive oil foots is sometimes called sulphur olive oil, be-
cause it is largely extracted by carbon disulphide. The term foots
is applied also to the settlings, which are allowed to separate in the
settling tanks at crude oil mills before the oil is shipped to the
refinery.
To obtain most animal fats or oils, the tissues in which they exist
are cut in pieces and rendered or tried; that is, heated until the
melted product separates. After the separated fat has been with-
drawn, the cracklings, or cooked tissues, are usually pressed to
4 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
recover as much as possible of the fat. Instead of heating hog fat
in steam-jacketed kettles, some lard makers cook it under pressure
with live steam in closed tanks. This gives what is known in the
trade as steam lard, in contradistinction to kettle-rendered lard.
Bleached, deodorized oils are desirable for making lard substi-
tutes. The caustic soda refined oil is heated with fuller’s earth,
activated carbon, or a mixture of the two, depending upon the oil
to be bleached, and filtered through filter presses. Then it is placed
in a vacuum kettle and deodorized by superheated steam, which is
blown through until the odor or fiavor is removed.
During the last 15 or 20 years large quantities of oils have been
converted into solid products by a process known as hydrogenation.
In this hardening process specially prepared nickel powder is used
to effect the combination of hydrogen gas and the liquid glycerides.
The hydrogen unites with the olein of the oil, changing it into
stearin, which is solid at ordinary temperatures. At the end of
the process the nickel is removed by filtration while the oil is still
hot. A substance which, hke the nickel in this case, assists the
combination of one substance with another, hydrogen and olein
here, but does not itself unite with the final product, is called a
catalyst. Great quantities of hydrogenated or hardened oils are used
in the manufacture of lard substitutes, margarine, and soap. Dur-
ing hydrogenation whale and fish oils lose their fishy odor and taste.
In some countries hydrogenated whale oil is used in making mar-
arine.
: Red oil, or commercial oleic acid, is obtained by chilling mixtures
of fatty acids until the palmitic and stearic acids have crystallized.
The solid acids are separated from the red oil by filtration and
pressing. The composition of both the red oil and the solid acids
depends upon the source of the mixed fatty acids. Some red oils
are chiefly oleic acid with small quantities of dissolved palmitic
and stearic acids; others contain notable quantities of linolic acid.
With few exceptions the solid acids are sold as commercial stearic
acid and are used in the manufacture of candles and soap. Red oil
goes chiefly into textile soaps and sulphonated red oils (p. 18).
Greases, or inedible fats, obtained in meat-packing and rendering
plants are graded and sold on the basis of color and percentage of
fat present. Most of the grease produced and that recovered from -
tankage and garbage, after suitable treatment, are used in making
soap or lubricants.
Vegetable waxes are widely distributed, but with few exceptions
they occur only in very small quantities. Wax serves as a protec-
tive coating for the leaves, stems, and seeds of many plants. Un-
like the oils or fats, waxes of either animal or vegetable origin are
not composed of glycerides. They contain fatty acids in combina-
tion with what are known as higher alcohols. When separated in
a pure condition these alcohols are white solids.
VEGETABLE OILS
COTTONSEED OIL
Cottonseed oil is obtained from the seeds of the cotton plant,
which is cultivated throughout large areas of the southern United
States. Although the composition of the cottonseed depends upon
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS 5
the variety of the plant and the climatic conditions under which
it is grown, the average oil content is about 20 per cent. The pro-
duction of cottonseed oil in the United States exceeds that of any
other single vegetable oil.
PREPARATION
As it comes from the gins, cottonseed is almost always heavily
coated with short lint and mixed with broken bolls, stems, sand,
nails, and other trash. Before it can be pressed it must be cleaned
and delinted. T’o remove the trash, the seed is run through revolving
screens, which separate the larger pieces of débris, over shaking
screens and magnets and through cyclone cleaners, to remove sand,
nails, and dust. The clean seed is then fed into the delinters, which
consist of a series of fine-tooth circular saws set close together on a
rapidly revolving shaft. At the back of each delinter a long cylin-
drical brush runs so close to the saws that it catches the cut fibers
or linters and passes them to a reel on the back of the brush. The
linters collect on the: reel into a compact felt that looks like cotton
batting. This is baled for use in the manufacture of mattresses,
paper, guncotton, and artificial silk.
The seed, now nearly free from lint, is sent through the hullers
and passed over shaking screens, which separate the kernels from
the hulls. The hulls are passed through hullers and separators
once or twice more until they are practically free from the oil-bearing
kernels or meats. The separated meats or decorticated seeds are
passed through a series of three or more heavy steel rolls and
delivered above the press room.
In the United States it is customary to press cottonseed once only.
When hydraulic presses are used the seed is always heated or cooked
before being pressed. Cooking is a most important step in the ex-
pression of oil by the hot process. Experience and judgment are ~
necessary for the maximum yield of oil of the best possible grade. -
A steam-jacketed cooker, equipped with a mechanical stirrer, which
mixes the meats thoroughly and prevents uneven cooking, is used for
the cooking. Near its top the cooker is fitted with a perforated
steam pipe, through which steam may be admitted to moisten the
meats should they become too dry. A subheater, placed just below
the cooker, is often used to keep the cooked batch hot until the
presses are ready for. it.
_ PRESSING
The steel box frame hydraulic press, operating under a pressure
- of from about 3,000 to 4,000 pounds per square inch, is the type most
commonly used for the production of American cottonseed oil. It
consists of a series of horizontal steel plates, approximately 14
inches wide by 34 inches long, set one above the other, about 5 inches
apart when the press is wide open. These perforated or channeled
plates are provided with close-fitting steel sides or frames, so that
the whole machine is really a series of boxes without ends, piled
one upon the other, the lowest resting on the hydraulic piston.
Above the top frame a heavy iron plate is fastened to the hydraulic
piston cylinder by four heavy vertical rods, which serve as guides
for the sliding frames.
6 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
A measured quantity of the cooked meats is dropped upon a strip
of press cloth in the cake former—a press with a steel block con-
taining in its upper surface a shallow groove the size of a single
press box. It is so constructed that after the meal has been placed
upon the press cloth, and the two ends turned up over the charge,
pressure can be appled, and the cake, now covered with cloth
except on its two long sides, can be subjected to a preliminary squeez-
ing to make it compact. Pressure is applied to the charge in the
cake former for an instant and then released. A sheet of steel the
width of the groove is slid beneath the cake, which is removed,
cloth and all, from the cake former and placed in the lowest frame
of the press.
One after the other, all the frames or boxes are thus charged
until the press is filled. The compressed air is then turned on grad-
ually and the piston or ram forces the frames upward, each against
the one above it. The oil squeezed through the cloths flows over
the sides of the press into the gallery around the bottom frame and
out through the trough to the settling cistern or tank. So perfectly
has every detail for the operation of these large presses been planned
that they are often filled, pressed, and discharged in less than half
an hour.
The expeller, a continuous press, which is rapidly gaining favor
among American cottonseed crushers, has an interrupted screw
revolving inside a slotted steel barrel. The crushed seed or meats
enter through a hopper at one end of the barrel, are passed along
toward the other end, and are finally discharged around a cone,
which can be set in or out of the outlet to give any desired pressure.
Expellers are used for making cold-pressed and hot-pressed oil.
The term cold-pressed is not strictly applicable to oil made in this
way, because the seeds or meats, as the case may be, are tempered
or warmed to some extent in the temperer above the expeller and
are also heated by the friction in the expeller, so that the oil and
cake come out warm, sometimes actually hot. Although the crude
oil thus obtained differs from that obtained by regular hot pressing,
it becomes the same after it has been refined.
SETTLING
The crude oil, whether obtained by using the hydraulic press or ~
the expeller, contains some fine meal. It is customary to allow the
oil to stand in settling tanks so that this meal will settle. The clear
oil is then withdrawn and sent to the refinery.
REFINING
The crude oil received at the refinery is either transferred to the
storage tanks or placed directly in the weighing tanks. It next goes
to the refining kettles, tall cylindrical tanks with conical bottoms.
provided with steam heating coils that extend part way up the sides,
and a mechanical agitator. After the weighed quantity of oil to be
refined has been warmed, if necessary, to about 85° F. the agitator is
started and the proper quantity of caustic soda solution for this par-
ticular lot of oil, as determined previously by the chemist, is added.
The agitation and heating are continued until the brown particles of
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS 7
soap formed by the action of the caustic soda with the free fatty
acids clot together into spongy masses. At this stage the tempera-
ture of the oil is 110° to 120° F. The steam is shut off from the
heating coils and the agitator is stopped. The oil is allowed to stand
until the precipitated soap (soap stock) has settled and become firm.
Then the clear oil is carefully withdrawn from the soap stock and
run into a tank. If necessary, the oil is washed with warm water to
remove the last of the soap. At this stage the oil is known as summer
yellow.
Large quantities of the summer yellow oil are heated and agitated
with from 2 to 6 per cent of fuller’s earth for a short time and then
filtered through filter presses, thus becoming bleached. The bleached
oil is transferred to the high-vacuum deodorizer, where superheated
steam from perforated pipes at the bottom of the tank is blown
through until it is practically odorless and tasteless.. The deodoriza-
tion process further bleaches the oil.
WINTERING
When cooled to about the temperature of the household refrigera-
tor, cottonseed oil deposits stearin. ‘To prevent this separation,
which makes the oil undesirable for use in the home, it is held in
chilled rooms until the stearin has separated. The olein, or liquid
portion, of the oil is removed from the solid stearin by pressing or
by passing the mixture through centrifugal separators. This process
is known as wintering. A properly wintered oil remains liquid when
left in the refrigerator.
GRADES
The following well-defined grades for cottonseed oil have been
established by the Interstate Cotton Seed Crushers’ Association :?
CRUDE OIL
Choice crude cottonseed oil.Choice crude cottonseed oil must be pressed from
sound decorticated seed ; must be sweet in flavor and odor, free from water and
settlings, and must produce when refined as required by these rules, choice sum-
mer yellow oil at a loss in weight not exceeding 6 per cent.
Prime crude cottonseed oil.—Prime crude cottonseed oil must be pressed from
sound decorticated seed, must be Sweet in flavor and odor, free from water and
settlings, and must produce when refined, as required by these rules, prime sum-
mer yellow oil, with a loss in weight not exceeding 9 per cent, provided that
any oil that refines with a greater loss than 9 per cent, but still makes prime
Summer yellow oil, shall not be rejected, but shall be reduced in price by a
corresponding per cent of the contract price of the oil.
Basis prime crude cottonseed oil.—Crude cottonseed oil shall not be tenderable
on a basis prime crude contract, if when refined as required by these rules it
refines to a color darker than .35 yellow and 16 red. ;
Off crude cottonseed oil—Oil neither choice nor prime shall be called off
oil. When off oil is sold by sample, any oil tendered shall equal sample, but if
it should refine at a loss exceeding the loss of the sample by not over 5 per cent,
but otherwise equal, it is still a good tender at a reduced price in proportion
to the excess loss. The -buyer shall have the right to reject any tank of oil
outright if it tests beyond 5 per cent refining loss as compared with sale sample.
2INTPRSTATH COTTON SEED CRUSHERS’ ASSOCIATION. RULES GOVERNING TRANSACTIONS
BETWDEN MEMBERS OF THD INTERSTATH COTTON SHED CRUSHBRS’ ASSOCIATION, p. 7-10.
{n. p.] 1925.
§ BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Cold-pressed oil.—Oil produced by cold presses or expelier process is tender-
able on contracts for the four grades of oil defined above when such products
will refine within the requirements of the above rules. Sellers are required to
specify cold-pressed oil on invoices.
Extracted oil.—Cottonseed oil, crude or refined, produced by extraction
processes instead of by pressing, shall not be tenderable on contracts unless
the nature of the oil is declared at the time of sale.
REFINED OIL
Choice summer yellow cottonseed oil—Choice summer yellow cottonseed
oil must be sweet in flavor and odor, prime in color, clear and brilliant in
appearance, and free from water and settlings, and shall contain not more
than one-eighth of 1 per cent free fatty acid. ©
Prime summer yellow cottonseed oil—Prime summer yellow cottonseed oil
must be clear, Sweet in flavor and odor, free from water and settlings, and of
no deeper color than the two combined standard glasses of 35 yellow and 7.6 red
on Lovibond’s equivalent color scale, and shall not contain more than one-
fourth of 1 per cent free fatty acid.
Prime winter yellow cottonseed oil.—Prime winter yellow cottonseed oil must
be free from water and settlings, sweet in fiavor and odor, and of prime summer
yellow color as described above and must stand clear, brilliant and limpid for
five hours when tested as provided in these rules, and shall not contain more
than one-fourth of 1 per cent free fatty acid.
Good off summer yellow cottonseed oil—Good off summer yellow cottonseed
oil may be off in flavor and/or odor, but must be prime in color and free from
water and settlings, and shall not contain more than one-fourth of 1 Dee cent
of free fatty acid.
Off summer yellow cottonseed oil—Oft summer yellow cottonseed oil shall be
free from water and settlings, off in flavor or odor, but of no deeper color than
the combined standard glasses of 35 yellow and 12 red on Lovibond’s color scale,
and shall not contain more than one-half of 1 per cent of free fatty acid.
Reddish off summer yellow coticnseed oil—Reddish off summer yellow cotton-
seed oil designated as such may be of inferior flavor and cdor and of no deeper
color than the two combined standard glasses of 35 yellow and 20 red on Lovi-
bond’s equivalent color scale, shall be free from water and settlings, and shall
not contain more than three-fourths of 1 per cent of free fatty acid.
Bleachable prime summer yellow cottonseed otl—Bleachable prime summer
yellow cottonseed oil must be clear, sweet in flavor and odor, free from water
and settlings, and when bleached as provided by these rules shail be of no
deeper color than the two combined standard glasses 20 yellow and 2.5 red on
Lovibond’s equivalent color scale, and shall not contain more than one-fourth
of 1 per cent of free fatty acid.
Prime summer white cottonseed oil. —Prime summer white cottonseed oil must
be clear, free from water and settlings, sweet in flavor and odor, and shall be of
no deeper color than the two combined Standard glasses 20 yellow, 2.5 red on
Lovibond’s color scale, and shall not contain more than one-fourth of 1 per cent
of free fatty acid.
Prime winter white POL ONEeet oil.— Prime winter white cottonseed oil must
be brilliant, sweet in flavor and odor, free from water and settlings, and the
eolor of the oil shall not be darker than the combined standard glasses of 20
yellow and 2.5 red on Lovibond’s color scale, and must stand the cold test as
prescribed in these rules, and shall not contain more than one-fourth of 1 per
cent free fatty acid.
USES
Refined cottonseed oil is used chiefly in the manufacture of lard
substitutes or shortenings and oleomargarine. It is also employed ex-
tensively as a salad and cooking oil. The inedible oil and soap stock
obtained by refining the crude ‘oil are used in making soap and soap
powders. The press or oil cake is largely used as a feed for stock.
Press cake of poor quality is used as a fertilizer. The stearin which
separates when the refined cottonseed oil is wintered is used in
making vegetable shortening.
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS 9
COCONUT OIL
Coconut oil is prepared from the fruit of the coconut palm after it
has been dried to form copra. Large quantities of coconut oil and of
copra are imported annually into the United States from the tropical
countries where the coconut palm grows.
-Copra is prepared by breaking the coconut kernels and exposing
the pieces to the sun or drying them in a kili. The rotary drier,
which gives a very uniform product, has been found to give the best
results. When properly made and stored copra keeps well. Fresh
coconut meat contains from 30 to 40 per cent of oil. Copra contains
from 60 to 74 per cent, depending upon the method of manufacture.
PREPARATION
For many centuries the natives of the tropical countries where
coconuts grow have boiled the kernels with water and skimmed off
the oil as it floats to the surface. The modern method is to express
~ the oil.
Because of its high oil content copra is generally pressed twice,
neither pressing being made cold. Some mills press the copra once
in an expeller press, regrind the cake, heat it, and press it a second
time in a hydraulic press. The oils from the two pressings are com-
bined and refined by methods about the same as those used for
refining cottonseed oil (p. 6). Owing to the presence in coconut
oil of glycerides of the lower fatty acids, which are more readily
decomposed than those of the seed oils, greater care is necessary in
refining to prevent an abnormally high loss from the conversion of
neutral oil into soap.
Some coconut-oil refiners separate the portion of the oil which
melts at a low temperature from that which is solid at higher tem-
peratures. The low-melting portion is called coconut olein and the
high-meilting portion, coconut stearin.
GRADES
The following well-defined grades of coconut oil have been estab-
lished by the Interstate Cotton Seed Crushers’ Association : *
CRUDE OIL
Choice crude coconut oil—Choice crude coconut oil must be pressed and
not extracted, and shall not contain more than 3 per cent free fatty acid cal-
culated as oleic acid, shall be free from moisture and impurities, and shall
have a color not greater than 12 yellow and 2 red.
Prime crude coconut oil—Prime crude coconut oil shall be pressed and
not extracted, and shall be free from moisture and impurities, and shall not
contain more than 5 per cent of free fatty acid calculated as oleic acid, and
shall have color no deeper than 30 yellow and 5 red on Lovibond’s equivalent
color scale; provided, that any oil that tests in excess of 5 per cent free fatty
acid and less than 6 per cent free fatty acid, and has a color darker than 30
yellow, 5 red, and not darker than 30 yellow, 6 red, shall not be rejected, but
shall be reduced in price one-half of 1 per cent of the contract price for each 1
per cent excess acid. .
Off crude coconut oil.—Off crude coconut oil, neither choice nor prime, must
be pressed and not extracted, and shall be called “ off coconut oil.” When “ off
8 INTERSTATE COTTON SHED CRUSHBRS’ ASSOCIATION. Op. cit. p. 12-14.
25059 ° —27. 2
10 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
coconut oil” is sold by sample, if it should refine at a loss exceeding the loss of
the sample by not over 5 per cent, but otherwise equal, it is still a good tender
at a reduced price in proportion to the excess loss.
REFINED OIL
Refined coconut oil—Refined coconut oil shall not contain free fatty acids
in excess of one-tenth of 1 per cent, and shall be free from moisture and im-
purities, and shall not be darker than the combined standard glasses of 30
yellow and 3 red. If the oil tendered or delivered does not conform to these
requirements, it may be rejected.
Refined deodorized coconut oil—Refined deodorized coconut oil Shall be
free from moisture and impurities, sweet and neutral in flavor and odor, not
in excess of one-tenth of 1 per cent free fatty acids, and shall not be darker
than the combined standard glasses of 12 yellow and 2 red. If the oil tendered
or delivered does not conform to these requirements, it may be rejected.
USES
One of the most important uses for refined coconut oil in the
United States is in the manufacture of vegetable margarines, some
of which are called nut margarine (p. 27).
Coconut olein is used as a cooking oil, and coconut stearin is
used in making margarine, confectionery, and sweet fillings for
cookies and wafers. Large quantities of coconut oil, as well as the
soap stock from refining the edible oil, are used in soap making.
The press cake from the oil mill is a valuable stock feed.
Large quantities of coconut shells are now used for the prepara-
tion of a special product known as activated charcoal.
PALM-KERNEL OIL
Palm-kernel oil, similar both chemically and physically to coconut
oil, is obtained from the palm nut, the hard seed of the fruit of a
palm (lewis guineensis and subspecies) which grows wild in western
Africa and is cultivated in some other tropical regions.
The Africans crack the nuts with hammers and send the kernels
to the seaports for shipment to Europe or America. In the United
States the kernels, which contain from 45 to 50 per cent of oil, are
crushed and pressed in the same manner as copra (p. 9). In some
European countries they are extracted with volatile solvents.
Palm-kernel oil can be used instead of coconut oil in making.
vegetable margarine and other food products as well as soap.
PALM OIL
Palm oil is obtained chiefly from the fleshy portion of the fruit of
the palm (Zlwis guineensis and subspecies), the oil content of which
ranges from 35 to 60 per cent, depending upon the species of the tree
and the place where it grows.
Most of this oil is still made by the crude and primitive process
that has been in use for centuries. Attempts to introduce modern
methods and equipment into the African palm regions have not been
successful. However, improved methods will soon go into effect in
Java, where large plantings are beginning to bear fruit. As the hard
fruit must be softened before the kernels can be removed, the A fri-
cans put the freshly picked fruits in leaf-lined holes in the ground,
moisten them, cover them with leaves, and let them stand for two
4s,
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS 11
weeks or longer. The fleshy parts, softened by fermentation, are
then placed in a hole lined with stones and beaten with long stout
poles. The crushed fruit is transferred to another hoie, the sides of
which are lined with a mixture of palm oil and wood ashes, and left
for about a week. Some of the oil drains from the pulp to the lower
part of the hole. The kernels are removed, and a further yield of
oil is obtained by boiling the pulp with water. Another method is
to place the fermented pulp in a bag and squeeze out the oil. These
crude methods of extraction account in great measure for the large
quantity of free fatty acids present in the palm oil received in this
country.
The consistence of commercial palm oil varies from that of a soft
butter to that of tallow. Its color ranges from orange yellow to dark
red. In trade the following grades of palm oil are recognized:
Soft oils—Lagos, Calabar, Opobo, Bonny; hard oils—Congo, Niger,
Oil River, Liberia, Gold Coast; mixed oils—Gold Coast and Niger.
The hard oils contain very large quantities of free fatty acids.
Palm oil is employed principally in the soap-making and tin-plate
industries.
COHUNE OIL
Cohune oil is obtained from the nuts of a palm (Attalea cohune)
growing from the southern side of the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico,
through the coast region of British Honduras, Guatemala, and Hon-
duras. Like most varieties of palm, cohunes are found only in the
rich tropical lowlands which are well drained. The cohune fruits
are on an average about the size of a hen’s egg. The nut, which fre- |
quently contains two kernels, is inclosed in a thick fibrous husk.
The expansion of the cohune-oil industry has been retarded by the
difficulty of gathering and cracking the nuts. Few of the many ma-
chines devised for this purpose have proved satisfactory. About 10 ~
tons of the nuts are required to give 1 ton of kernels. .
The kernels contain 40 per cent or more of an oil which resembles
coconut oil and can be used for the same purposes (p. 10). The oil
of the husk of the cohune nut differs from that of the kernels. It
constitutes about 10 per cent of the husk and can be extracted with
volatile solvents. Cohune shells can be used for fuel or they can be
converted into a special charcoal (p. 10), preferably in retorts which
permit the recovery of the volatile products, such as methanol (wood
alcohol) and acetic acid. ©
COQUITO OIL
Small shipments of coquito nuts from a palm which grows on the
west coast of Mexico are occasionally received in the United States.
The shells of coquito nuts are thinner than those of the cohune and
contain only one kernel. It is reported that by boiling the coquito
nuts for about five hours in water the shells can be readily cracked.
The oil expressed from the kernels, which is similar to cohune oil,
is used for the same purposes as coconut oil (p. 10).
BABASSU OIL
Babassu oil is obtained from the kernels of the nuts borne ona palm
(Orbiginia speciosa) closely related to the cohune and growing
abundantly in some parts of Brazil. Twice a year this palm bears
12 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
three or four large bunches of fruit. Some trees yield a ton of fruit,
which contains about 270 pounds of kernels. Like the cohune, the
nuts have extremely thick and hard shells. It is said that the dried
kernels contain from 65 to 68 per cent of oil, which is expressed in
- the same way as coconut oil (p. 9). -The oil, being similar to coco-
nut oil, is used for the same purposes. —
« ?
CORN OIL
Corn oil is obtained from the small germ portion of the common
Indian corn or maize. The United States is the largest producer
of corn oil, but Canada, Argentina, and South Africa are producing
it in increasingly large quantities.
The germ of corn is about half oil, but on the basis of the whole
kernel the oil content is only from 3 to 6.5 per cent. Were it not
for the fact that in the preparation of hominy, cornstarch, and other
corn products the germ is almost completely separated from the
rest of the kernel, corn oil doubtless would be a mere curiosity in-
stead of an important commercial product. Corn may be degermi-
nated by the dry process, or by the wet process.
The wet process, employed in starch and glucose plants, is as
follows: The cleaned corn is steeped from 30 to 40 hours in water
containing about 0.2 per cent of sulphurous acid, removed from the
water, and passed through an attrition mill of a special type. The
shredded corn is mixed with a large quantity of water in floating
vats, and the mixture is slowly agitated in such a manner as to
cause most of the germs to float and pass over the lower end of the
vat. The germs, together with much starchy water, are passed
through reels with perforated sides and washed to remove the ad-
hering starch. The washed germs are passed through moisture ex-
pellers and then through steam-heated rotary driers, which reduce
the moisture content to about 5 per cent. The dried germs are passed
through a set of flaking rolls, which break the oil cells but do not
grind the material into fiour. The general practice is to extract the
oil with expellers, although hydraulic presses can be used.
The dry process is as follows: ‘Fhe cleaned corn is agitated in a
suitable container and then treated with sprays of water or steam
until it has a moisture content of about 20 per cent, after which
it is passed through the degerminating machine. The germ thus—
separated contains some bran and meal, the quantity depending on
the care practiced in operating the machine. The germ material is
dried and passed through hominy reels, which remove more of the
bran and meal. Then the germs are passed through the flaking
rolls and the oil is expressed with expellers.
As the dry-process germs are mixed with meal, the yield of oil
is only about 0.5 pound per bushel of corn. By the wet process it
is about 1.5 pounds. As would be expected, however, the o11 obtained
from the dry-process germs is of much better quality than that from
germs obtained by the wet process.
Most of the corn oil is now refined in a manner somewhat similar
to that employed for cottonseed oil (p. 6).
Corn oil is used for edible purposes, in the manufacture of some
soaps, and, along with linseed oil, in paste paints to prevent harden-
ing in the containers,
in
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS 13
OLIVE OIL
Olive trees are cultivated in the countries bordering on the Medi-
terranean and in South Africa, Australia, the United States, Mexico,
and Peru. The oil content of olives depends largely upon the variety
and upon soil and climatic conditions. Olives cultivated for oil con-
tain from 380 to 60 per cent. California olives contain from 12 to
about 80 per cent. Climatic conditions affect the quality of the oil
so greatly that the olives in a given region may one year produce
a very fine oil and the next yield one of poor quality.
California produces about 200,000 gallons of olive oil a year. The
United States annually imports from 3,000,000 to 6,000,000 gallons
from Italy, Spain, France, Greece, and Northern Africa. Italy and
Spain furnish the larger part.
PREPARATION
The methods and equipment employed, both in the extraction and
subsequent treatment of the oil, vary in different countries. In
Europe much oil is still made in a very primitive manner, but in
recent years up-to-date plants have been gradually replacing the
older mills in the large olive-crushing centers in France, Italy, and
Spain. In some of these plants centrifugals are employed for the
separation of the oil from the expressed juice.
For the production of the finest oil, the olives should be gathered
just before complete maturity. As most of the olives in California
are grown for pickling, the cull olives—those that are undersize,
bruised, or overripe—are chiefly employed in making olive oil.
These are washed, freed from leaves and other foreign substances,
and crushed, in many of the mills with fluted rollers so adjusted
that the pits are not broken.
' FIRST PRESSING
The crushed olives are placed in heavy coarsely woven cloths,
which are folded to envelop completely each layer or cake of crushed .
fruit. These cakes are piled on top of one another, with wooden
slats between, until the capacity of the press has been reached.
Hydraulic presses adapted to the pressing of olives are commonly
employed, but presses operated by screws or gears are used in some
plants. During the first pressing the pressure is gradually imereased
to 500 pounds per square inch.
CLARIFICATION
The mixture of oil and. juice from the presses is transferred to a
continuous oil washer, and the oil is rapidly separated from the juice
and larger particles of pulp. The washed oil, rising to the top of
the washing tank, is drawn off into settling tanks for separating
the water and any pulp not removed by the washing. By allowing
the oil to stand a month in the first tank and then transferring it to
a second and later to a third settling tank a perfectly clear oil may
be obtained. This method of clarifying takes three months or longer.
In some mills the oil is filtered through filter paper or cotton filters
until perfectly clear.
14 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
SECOND AND THIRD PRESSING
The press cake is ground and a second pressing is made at a
pressure much higher than that used in the first pressing. Most of
the oil is obtained in the second pressing. It is of good quality and
is usually combined with oil of the first pressing. The press cake
with the pits is ground again with a little hot water and pressed
at a still higher pressure. Oil obtained by such a third pressing is
classed as inferior to strictly cold-pressed oil.
EXTRACTION |
In Europe the oil remaining in the press cakes is extracted with
volatile solvents, such as carbon disulphide, benzene, gasoline, and
trichlorethylene. The extracted oil, from which the solvent has been
removed, is known as sulphur olive oil or extracted olive oil, and
is imported into the United States as olive oil foots.
USES
Olive oil is highly esteemed as a salad oil, and it is also widely
used medicinally. Olive oil foots are imported into the United
States principally for making soap. The press cake is utilized chiefly
for boiler fuel and for supplying humus to orchards.
PEANUT OIL
The peanut is an important crop in the United States as well as
in Africa, China, India, and Japan. Farmers’ Bulletin 1127+
describes the varieties grown in this country. The Spanish type,
which can be cultivated under a wider range of soil and climatic
conditions than the other varieties, is the one usually grown here
for the production of oil. -
The quantity of peanuts crushed for oil in the United States
varies greatly from year to year with the market demand for the
- nuts for other purposes. When the, price of peanuts is so high as to
prohibit their general use for pressing, nuts discarded by the shelling
plants are the principal sources of the oil.
PREPARATION
Department of Agriculture Bulletin 1401° discusses in detail the
preparation of peanut oil. High-grade oil is made only from sound
well-matured peanuts and by employing only careful methods of
manufacture and storage. Large quantities of low-grade nuts which
accumulate at the cleaning and shelling plants are also pressed.
Some of the oil thus obtained is refined for edible purposes.’ The
lowest-grade oil goes to the soap maker. This practice of utilizing
discarded peanuts for oil is a distinct advantage to the industry, un-
less the oil is sold for purposes to which it is not adapted.
Cottonseed-oil mills are used largely in the manufacture of peanut
oil for the reason that these mills are frequently near, if not in, the
4 BWATTIN, W. R. PHANUT GROWING FOR PROFIT. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 1127,
33 p., illus. 1920
& CLAY, H. J., and WILLIAMS, P. M. MARKETING PHANUTS, U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 1401,
99 p., illus. 1926.
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS 15
peanut-growing sections and only a small additional investment is
required for the equipment needed for cleaning and shelling the nuts.
The utilization of cottonseed-oil mills saves the expense of separate
buildings and equipment.
COLD PRESSING
To obtain a very pale cold-pressed oil, the kind preferred by
Europeans, the red skins must be removed before pressing. In the
United States it is customary to cold press the shelied nuts without
separating the red skins. An excellent oil, with a color somewhat
deeper than that of the oil expressed from decorticated kernels, is
thus obtained.
To express the oil by the hydraulic press, the kernels must be
passed through rolls to crush the oil cells as thoroughly as possible,
but leaving the product in a suitable condition for the extraction
of the oil. When the oil is to be expressed by the continuous working
oil expeller, the kernels are frequently first crushed to a coarse meal.
If the kernels have not been crushed before being passed through
the expeller, the cake is ground and pressed again for a further
recovery of the oil. In Europe, where the hydraulic press is com-
monly employed, the cake, after cold pressing, is ground, moistened,
cooked, and hot pressed.
HOT PRESSING
Most of the peanut oil produced in this country is obtained by
hot pressing. The crushed nuts are heated or “ cooked ” in a cotton-
_seed or other cooker before expressing the oil.
Formerly, unshelled nuts were crushed and pressed, but this prac-
tice yielded less oil because of the absorbent character of the shells.
REFINING
The hot-pressed oil is refined by the caustic-soda process, bleached,
and deodorized in a manner similar to the refining of cottonseed
oil (p. 6). The refining of peanut oil requires experience, which
can be obtained only at a refinery, partly because different shipments
of oil may vary in character, so that the refining procedure must be
modified to obtain satisfactory results.
GRADES
The following well-defined grades of peanut oil have been estab-
lished by the Interstate Cotton Seed Crushers’ Association : °
CRUDE OIL
Choice crude peanut oil.—Choice crude peanut oil must be pressed and not
extracted, from sound peanuts, must be sweet in flavor and odor, free from
water and settlings, and shall produce, when refined as required by these
rules, choice yellow peanut oil with a loss in weight not exceeding 3 per cent.
Prime erude peanut oil—Prime crude peanut oil must be pressed and not
extracted, from sound peanuts, must be sweet in flavor and odor, free from
water and settlings, and must produce prime yellow peanut oil when refined
6 INTERSTATE COTTON SEED CRUSHERS’ ASSOCIATION. RULES GOVERNING TRANSACTIONS
BETWEEN MEMBERS OF THE INTERSTATE COTTON SEED CRUSHERS’ ASSOCIATION. p. 10-12.
[n. p.] 1925
16 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
as required by these rules, with a loss in weight not exceeding 5 per cent;
provided, that any oil that refines. with a greater loss than 5 per cent, but still
makes prime yellow peanut oil, shall not be rejected, but shall be reduced in
price by a corresponding per cent in the contract price of the oil.
Basis prime crude peanut oil—Crude peanut oil shall not be tenderable on
a basis prime crude contract if, when refined as required by these rules, it re-
fines to a color darker than 35 yellow and 10 red.
Off crude peanut oil.—Off crude peanut oil, neither choice nor pr me, shall be
ealléd “ off” oil. When “ off” oil is sold by sample, the oil tendered shall equal
sample, but if it shall refine at a loss exceeding the loss of the sample by not
over 3 per cent, but otherwise equal it, it is still a good tender at a reduced
price in proportion to the excess loss. The buyer shall have the r ght to reject
the oil outright if it tests beyond 3 per cent refining loss as compared with the
sale sample. —
REFINED OIL
Choice peanut otl——Choice peanut oil must be sweet in flavor and odor,
prime in color, clear and brilliant in appearance, and free from water and
settlings, and shall not contain more than one-tenth of 1 per cent of free fatty
acid.
Prime yellow peanut oil—Prime yellow peanut oil must be clear, sweet in
flavor and odor, free from water and settlings, and of no deeper color than the
two combined standard. glasses 35 yellow and 5 red on Lovibond’s equivalent
eolor scale, and shall contain not more than one-fourth of 1 per cent of free
fatty acid. The color examination shall be made as prescribed in the official
methods of this association.
Good off yellow peanut oil—Good off yellow peanut oil may be off in flavor
and odor, but must be prime in color and free from water and settlings, and
shall not contain more than one-fourth of 1 per cent free fatty acid.
USES
Peanut oil, one of the most important of the world’s food oils, is
used as a salad and cooking oil and in the manufacture of margarine
and some vegetable shortenings. It is also used in the manufacture
of soap. The cold-pressed oil, commonly called virgin peanut oil,
has a mild, nutty flavor. Both the cold-pressed oil and the hot-—
pressed oil, after it has been refined, can be used for all culinary
purposes except in making pie crust, for which a semisolid fat, like
lard or vegetable shortening, is preferred.
The meal is rich in protein and is a good stock feed. A portion of
the shells is frequently ground withthe oil cake to give bulk to the
meal. Shells add little to the food value of the mixture, however.
At some mills the shells not ground with the oil cake are burned
under the boilers or sold as bedding for livestock.
The oil expressed from the germs and red skins is sent to the soap
maker.
SOY-BEAN OIL
Soy-bean oil is obtained from the seeds of a plant indigenous to
China, Manchuria, and Japan. Soy beans are now cultivated in
most of the temperate or subtropical regions of the world, including
the United States. Although more than 500 known varieties have
been grown on Government-testing farms in this country, at present
only about a dozen varieties are grown in commercial quantities.
The Mammoth (yellow), the standard late variety, is much more
extensively cultivated than any of the others. When the beans are
to be utilized for oil care should be taken to select the variety that
will yield the maximum quantity per acre. The oil content of soy
beans varies greatly in different localities, ranging from about 13. to
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OFS 17
23 per cent. Unless soy beans which contain 17 per cent or more of
oil can be grown, it is not practical to cultivate them for the expres-
sion of oil.
PREPARATION
In Europe an increasingly large quantity of. soy-bean oil is being
obtained by extracting the crushed seeds with volatile solvents,
although most of the oil is still expressed. At times large quantities
of soy beans, both domestic and imported, have been crushed for
oil in the United States. Cottonseed-oil mills can handle soy beans
with little or no change in their equipment. Some oil also is made
in mills equipped with expellers.
GRADES
The following grades of soy-bean oil have been established by the
Interstate Cotton Seed Crushers’ Association.‘
Prime crude soy-bean oil.—Prime crude soy-bean oil shall be pressed and not
extracted from soy beans, free from water and impurities, and when refined
by the association’s official methods, shall produce an oil of no deeper color
than the two combined standard glasses of 35 yellow and 9 red, with a loss not
exceeding 5 per cent; provided that any oil that refines with a greater loss than
5 per cent, but still makes prime refined oil with a color reading not exceeding
35 yellow and 9 red, shall not be rejected, but shall be reduced in price by a
corresponding per cent of the contract price of the oil.
Crude soy-bean oil—Crude soy-bean oil sold basis 7 per cent refining loss
shall be pressed and not extracted, from soy-beans, and shall be free from
water and impurities, and when refined as prescribed in the official methods
of this association, shall produce an oil of no deeper color than the two ¢com-
bined standard glasses 35 yellow and 11 red, with a loss not exceeding 7 per
cent; provided, that any oil that refines with a greater loss than 7 per cent,
but still makes refined oil with a color reading not exceeding 35 yellow and 11
red. shall not be rejected, but shall be reduced in price by a corresponding
per cent of the contract price of the oil.
USES
Belonging to the group of drying oils, soy-bean oil stands midway
in its properties between linseed oil and the semidrying cottonseed oil.
Consequently it can be used as a substitute for either of these two oils,
especially in soap making. In the manufacture of soft soap, soy-
bean oil serves as an almost complete substitute for linseed oil. In the
manufacture of hard soap it can but partially replace cottonseed oil
unless it is hydrogenated. It is extensively used as a substitute for
part of the linseed oil in certain kinds of paint, as well as in the
. manufacture of linoleum. It is perfectly wholesome and in China
and other Asiatic countries forms the staple food oil of large classes
of people. When properly refined the oil loses its characteristic btany
flavor and can be used in the manufacture of lard substitutes, in
margarine, and even as a salad oil.
CASTOR OIL
Castor oil is obtained from the seeds of the castor-oil plant
(Ricinus communis), found in most tropical and subtropical regions,
where it grows wild and is also cultivated. This plant varies greatly
7 INTERSTATE COTTON SEED CRUSHERS’ ASSOCIATION. Op. cit. p. 13.
25059 °—27 3
18 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
in size, in the color of its stems, and in the size and color markings
of its seed. The oil content of the seeds ranges from 35 to 55 per cent,
the average being about 45 per cent.
The seed and oil of commerce come chiefly from India, China, the
West Indies, and South America. India produces by far the
largest quantity. During the nineteenth century large quantities of
castor beans were produced in the United States, chiefly in Okla-
homa, Kansas, Missouri, and Illnois. In 1900, however, production
fell off until 1918, when, in response to the demand for aircraft
lubricants, a crop estimated at 5,750 tons was produced in the South-
ern States.
PREPARATION
The castor beans, freed from trash and stones, are decorticated in
machines made for this purpose and are cold pressed, usually in hy-
draulic presses. The No. 1 oil is pressed from sound seeds only. The
resulting press cake is ground, heated with steam, and pressed hot
to give the No. 3 oil. A bushel of castor beans (46 pounds) yields
about 15 pounds of No. 1 and about 4 pounds of No. 3 castor oil. In
some mills, after either the first or second pressing, the residual oil
in the press cake is extracted with a volatile solvent, such as benzine
or gasoline.
Eixpellers, sometimes used to express the castor oil, press at the
rate of 17 or 18 bushels of castor beans per hour. Expellers used for
this purpose should have three worm flights on the pressing screw
or shaft. The expeller with two worm flights has been found unsatis-
factory. |
Before the No. 1 oil is placed on the market it is customary to heat
it in a vacuum to remove the moisture and then agitate it with 2 to 4
per cent of fuller’s earth, along with 0.2 to 1 per cent of a bleaching
carbon. The treatment of the oil is finished when the bleaching
agents are removed by filtration. No bleaching has been found ef-
fective for the No. 3 oil. This is attributed in part to the fact that
with the present practice the color is fixed by overheating. Highly
colored castor oil can be refined and bleached only when it has re-
ceived the same care as is given to the preparation of other vege-
table oils to be bleached.
GRADES
The trade determines the quality of the oil by its color, clearness,
and acidity. No. 1, a cold-pressed oil, is low in acidity, brilliantly
clear, and nearly colorless. No. 3 varies in color from brownish yel-
low to dark brown or dark green. The trade does not recognize any
grade as No. 2. :
USES
The No. 1 oil is used for medicinal purposes and the No. 3 for
technical purposes. The oil which has been extracted with a volatile
solvent is sold for technical purposes after the removal of the sol-
vent. As the press cake or extracted castor-oil meal is poisonous, it
is used only as a fertilizer. 3
A large quantity of castor oil is converted into the sulphonated |
castor oil of commerce, known for many years as Turkey red oil
because of its use in dyeing cotton fabrics with alizarine. The pro-
O
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS 19
duction of sulphonated oil requires both skill and experience. Sul-
phonated castor oil is used in the dyeing of fabrics to give clearer and
brighter colors, and as an aid in the finishing of cotton, linen, silk,
and leather. Castor oil is important also as a lubricant and enters
into the manufacture of some soaps and imitation leathers.
SESAME OIL
Sesame oil, also known as gingili, teel, and benne, is made from
the seeds of an herbaceous annual, 2 to 4 feet high, of the Sesamum
genus. Sesame plants have been cultivated in India and elsewhere
in the East from time immemorial, and are now grown in most
countries with a tropical or subtropical climate, China and India
being the largest producers. In the United States sesame seed has
not been grown for oil because it is necessary to pick by hand the
seeds as they ripen. Otherwise the pods quickly explode and scatter
the small seeds over the ground.
Sesame seeds range in color from almost white to black. The
so-called white seeds yield the finest oil and the black seeds the poorest.
The importations of both seed and oil into the United States have
increased during the last few years.
The oil may be expressed from the seed by hydraulic presses or
expellers. As the seed contains more than 50 per cent of oil, however,
special experience is necessary to satisfactorily extract the oil and
produce a press cake of low o1l content.
Sesame oil is one of the important food oils. Both the cold-drawn
and the refined hot-pressed oil-are used in salads, in cookery, and in
the manufacture of margarine. The lower grades are employed in
soap making. The press cake is an excellent cattle food.
SUNFLOWER-SEED OIL
Sunflower-seed oil is obtained from the seeds of the large cultivated
sunflower, which usually contain from 20 to 25 per cent of oil.
Russia and China are the chief producers of this oil.
The sunfiower seed produced in the United States, which for some
time has amounted to several million pounds per year, is used chiefly
in the preparation of poultry feeds. The important sunflower-seed
producing areas are southeastern Missouri, southern Illinois, and the
San Joaquin Valley in California. Only small quantities of the oil
have been expressed in this country.
In Russia the cold-pressed oil is used for edible purposes and the
hot-pressed oil is employed chiefly in making soap and varnish. ‘The
oil is utilized to some extent in the United States for food and
technical purposes.
FIXED OIL OF MUSTARD SEED
Mustard-seed oils are obtained from several varieties of mustard,
the seeds of which vary in color from nearly white to dark brown
and usually contain from 25 to 35 per cent of fixed oil. Mustard
seed is grown in Asia, Europe, and other countries.
In the grain elevators of the Northwest hundreds of tons of wild
oil-bearing seeds, chiefly brown mustard and charlock, are separated.
The seeds are pressed and the oil is sold to soap makers. The
mustard-seed oils, which resemble rapeseed oil in many respects,
20 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
are used chiefly for technical purposes. In India and some other
countries mustard-seed oil is used for edible purposes.
In the United States and Europe large quantities of the oil are
obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of mustard flour and
prepared mustards.
: RAPESEED (COLZA) OIL
Rapeseed oil is obtained from the seeds of several varieties of the
rape plant growing in India, Japan, and many European countries.
The oil content of the seed ranges from 30 to 45 per cent.
Rapeseed oil is obtained both by expression and extraction with
volatile solvents. It can be refined with sulphuric acid or with
caustic soda in the same manner as linseed oil (p. 23). To increase
its viscosity, air is frequently blown through the heated oil.
The cold-pressed oil is used for edible purposes in India and also
in some European countries. The hot-pressed and solvent-extracted
oil serves various technical purposes. The chief use of the oil, both
here and abroad, is as a lubricant, particularly after it has been
blown (p. 238). ‘Some is used in soap making and for quenching
or tempering steel plates. If free from mustard seed, the press
cake or extracted meal is used as a cattle food in Europe. Other-
wise it is used as a fertilizer.
CACAO BUTTER
Theobroma cacao plants, from which chocolate, cocoa, and cacao
butter are obtained, grow in the tropical parts of South America,
the West Indies, Africa, India, and other regions. Cacao beans,
as the seeds of these plants are called, contain from 50 to 57 per
cent of oil.
Cacao butter is usually a by-product from the manufacture of
beverage cocoa, which is made by pressing decorticated roasted and
crushed cacao beans. The press ‘cake when ground and bolted con-
stitutes cocoa; the expressed fat is cacao butter. Cacao butter can
also be made by pressing ground unroasted beans. Some cacao
butter is obtained by extracting the press cake or cocoa with a vola-
tile solvent. When freshly extracted, cacao butter has a pale yel-
lowish color, which becomes white after the product has stood for
a few days.
Although the chief use of cacao butter is in the manufacture of
confectionery, it is also an important ingredient of several pharma-
ceutical preparations.
SHEA-NUT OIL OR BUTTER.
Shea-nut oil or butter, also called bambuk butter, karite oil, and
Galam butter, is a semisolid oil obtained from the nut of a tree
belonging to the Sapotaceze, which grows abundantly on the west
coast of Africa in the Enelish and Fr ench Sudan. In size and shape
the nuts resemble an ordinary plum. The oil content of the kernels
ranges from 40 to 55 per cent.
In tropical Africa the natives extract the oil from the crushed
nuts with boiling water. Comparatively little is extracted for ex-
port. Practically all that is used in the United States is obtained
from imported nuts. Im Africa the oil is used for edible purposes.
That expressed in the United States goes to the soap makers.
4)
<
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS 21
ALMOND OIL
Most almond oil is obtained from bitter almonds, although some is
expressed from sweet almonds. No difference between the oils from
the two kinds of almond can be detected by chemical means. The
fixed oil of almonds is placed on the market under the name of sweet
almond oil, thus distinguishing the fatty oil from the essential or
volatile oil of the bitter almond, which is obtained from the bitter-
almond cake. Prior to 1914 the imports of this oil into the United
States frequently exceeded 100,000 pounds, but in recent years they
have fallen to about 2,000 or 3,000 pounds, owing in’ part to the
increased production of the oil in California.
Almond oil belongs to the nondrying class and has good keeping
qualities. It is used chiefiy in the manufacture of pharmaceutical
preparations.
APRICOT-KERNEL OIL
Apricot-kernel oil is obtained by expressing the kernels from
apricot pits. When first expressed this oil is nearly colorless, but
on standing it gradually becomes yellow. All the color, however, can
readily be removed by bleaching. In most respects apricot-kernel
oil is similar to almond oil.
Apricot kernels contain from 40 to 45 per cent of oil. At one time
large quantities of the pits from the dried-fruit industry of Cali-
fornia were sent abroad, where the oil from the kernels was expressed
and frequently shipped back to the United States. In recent years,
however, the oil has been made in California.
Apricot-kernel oil is used as a salad oil and for pharmaceutical
preparations.
GRAPE-SEED AND RAISIN-SEED OILS
Grape-seed oil is obtained from the seeds which are a by-product
of the grape juice and wine industries. Raisin-seed oil is obtained
from the seeds which are a by-product of the seeded-raisin industry.
Grape-seed oil is made chiefly in Europe; raisin-seed oil is made in
California.
Raisin seeds contain only about 14 per cent of oil. ‘These seeds are
treated with hot water to free them from the pulp, preferably decor-
ticated, and then pressed. In Europe grape seeds are extracted by
volatile solvents. Depending upon the variety of grape, the yield of
oil ranges from 12 to 20 per cent.
Some grape-seed oil compares favorably with second-quality olive
oil and is used for edible purposes. Large quantities of raisin seeds
are now ground for feed. ‘The expressed oil from raisin seed is
used in the manufacture of soap. Like soy-bean and sunflower-seed
oils, grape-seed and raisin-seed oils have drying properties. In
Spain the oil, alone or with linseed oil, is employed in making paint.
CHINESE VEGETABLE TALLOW
Chinese vegetable tallow is the hard fat which coats the three
oval seeds contained in the fruit oi the Chinese tallow tree (S7d-
lingia sebifera). China produces up to 10,000 tons of this fat a
year. Much of it is sent to Europe and some is imported into the
United States.
22 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
The tallow is obtained by steaming the seeds in perforated cylin-
ders or by scraping them with special equipment. The seeds when
crushed and expressed give an oil which is entirely different in
character from the tallow. Sometimes the oil and tallow are
expressed together.
-Chinese vegetable tallow is used chiefly in the candle and soap
industries. |
JAPAN WAX OR TALLOW
Japan wax or tallow, which is not a wax but a vegetable fat, is
obtained from sumac berries in China, India, and Japan. It is a
by-product of the lacquer industry and is extracted in quantity
only in China and India. Most of it is exported to Europe, but
as much as 1,500,000 pounds has been imported into the United
States in some years. |
The sumac berries yield 15 to 25 per cent of a coarse, greenish,
tallowlike fat. This substance is refined by remelting and filtering
through cloth bags, which allow the melted fat to drop into cold
water. The thin flakes are bleached by exposure to the sun after
frequent turning and sprinkling with water. Finally, the tallow is\
melted and cast into slabs.
It is used largely in manufacturing polishes. Buyers state that
the commercial product is frequently adulterated with various oils,
especially hazelnut oil, and at times with as much as 30 per cent
of water. It has the property of readily forming emulsions.
BAYBERRY TALLOW (MYRTLE WAX)
Bayberry tallow coats the outside of the berries of certain species
of Myrica growing in North America, South America, and South
Africa. The berries are boiled in water to obtain the tallow. The
fat may be removed by skimming as it rises to the surface or it
may be removed after it has solidified. The crude product is re-
melted in clean water to further purify it. Like Japan wax, it is
a true fat and not a wax. This fat constitutes from 20 to 25 per
cent of the materials used to make bayberry Christmas candles.
LINSEED OIL
Linseed oil is extracted from flaxseed, which is grown most ex-
tensively in Argentina, Canada, India, the United States, and Russia.
Flaxseed contains from 32 to 42 per cent of oil, the fully matured
seeds containing the most. Large quantities of the cold-pressed oil
are made in Russia, Hungary, Germany, and India. The United
States produces and uses more hot-pressed linseed oil than it does of
all other purely technical oils combined.
PREPARATION
Most of the linseed oil made in the United States is expressed by
means of open-plate hydraulic presses, although some is made in ex-
peller mills. Abroad the oil is obtained both by expression and by
extraction with volatile solvents. If a high-grade oil is to be made,
the weed seeds must first be separated from the flaxseed. The aver-
age American yield is about 16 pounds of oil and 36 pounds of cake
(3
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS 23
per. bushel of seed. The press cake usually contains 6 to 8 per cent
of oil.
The hot-pressed oil contains some mucilaginous matter extracted
from the seed, which must be removed from oil designed for certain
technical purposes. When the oil is stored for a long time, the
mucilaginous substances separate and gradually settle. A more
rapid method, which has been in use for many years, consists in treat-
ing the oil with 1 or 2 per cent of sulphuric acid. This chars the
impurities and causes them to separate from the oil. As linseed oil is
easily damaged by using too highly concentrated acid, this method
requires care and experience. Increasingly large quantities of the
oil are being refined by the caustic-soda process in a manner similar
to that employed for treating crude cottonseed oil (p. 6). This
yields a product of great purity.
Linseed oil can be bleached by exposure to the sun, by treatment
with benzoyl peroxide, dichromates, hydrochloric acid, ozonized air,
and fuller’s earth, and by blowing air through the heated oil. Re-
fining by the sulphuric-acid and caustic-soda methods also removes
a large part of the coloring matter present in the crude oil.
Boiled linseed oil is now generally prepared by heating the oil in
steam-heated kettles with organic or inorganic compounds of lead,
manganese, or cobalt, known as driers. The cost of producing this
boiled oil is smaller than that of boiling over a direct fire, as was
formerly done. To produce the light-colored oils air is passed
through the heated oil. Boiled oil is sold as double-boiled, single-
boiled, pale-boiled, extra pale, and bleached-boiled oil, and by various
other trade names indicating differences in color, consistency, and
drying properties.
Blown linseed oil is prepared by passing air through the heated
oil until the desired viscosity is reached. In this process it is
important to keep the oil at about 250° F., as a higher temperature
impairs the color. Driers like cobalt linoleate should be added to
the oil after it has cooled below 150° F. Blown oil of a light color
is necessary for use in making special paints, varnishes, and enamels.
Stand linseed oil is made by heating thoroughly settled or re-
fined oil in varnish kettles to about 550° F. and keeping it at this
temperature until the desired viscosity is obtained. Aluminum
kettles give the lightest-colored product.
USES
In Russia, Hungary, Germany, and India large quantities of
cold-pressed linseed oil are used for edible purposes. Hot-pressed
oil is employed for technical purposes only, chiefly in the manufac-
ture of paints, varnishes, enamels, linoleums, printing ink, and soft
soap. Stand linseed oil is used in the manufacture of air-drying and
baking enamels, and also as a lithographic oil for copper-plate
printing.
i CHINA-WOOD OR TUNG OIL
China-wood or tung oil is obtained from two species of Aleurites,
a small genus belonging to the Spurge family. About 90 per cent of
the oil produced in China comes from the seeds or nuts of the
Aleurites fordit, which, being more hardy than the other species
94 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
(Aleurites montana), is much more widely distributed and grows in
central and western China. A. montana is found in southeastern
China from Fukien southward to Tonkin. In China A. fordd is
known as the tung-oil tree, and A. montana as the wood-oi! tree. The
trade makes no distinction between the oils from these species, how-
eyer, and the oil exported is frequently a mixture of the two. As
the two oils are practically identical in composition and properties,
nothing would be gained by keeping each by itself.
The use of tung oil is constantly increasing both here and in
Europe. To meet the demand for the highest-grade oil in the United
States large tracts of land in the vicinity of Gainesville, Fla., have
been cleared and thousands of young trees (A. fordii) have been
planted. Many of these trees were raised from seeds produced at the
Florida experiment station. In 1905 the Department of Agriculture
imported and distributed seeds from which small plantings were
made in Florida, Georgia, and California. Some of these trees are
still living.
The fruits from which China-wood oil is obtained somewhat re-
semble large hickory nuts (entire with husks). Each fruit contains
three or more seeds. The oil content of the decorticated seeds ranges
from 83 to 50 per cent. In China it is customary to gather this
fruit just before it is fully mature.
PREPARATION
The fruits are either heated in large iron pans over a fire until the
husks open, or they are collected in heaps and allowed to ferment
ander a covering of straw or grass until the seeds can be readily
separated from the husks.
At the small oil mills the shelled seeds are crushed in a circular
trough with a heavy stone roller. The pulverized mass is then par-
tially roasted in shallow pans, after which it is subjected to a steam-
ing process in wooden vats fitted with wicker bottoms. The heated
meal is mixed with straw and made into cakes, which are placed in
a crude wooden press consisting ef a hollow log of strong wood.
Pressure is exerted on the cakes by means of wooden wedges, usually
driven in by a lige battering ram. The oil runs from the press inte
a vat below. Next, the oil is heated slightly and filtered through
coarse grass cloth to remove particles of meal and dirt. After being
strained, it is placed in covered bamboo baskets lined with layers vi
paper waterproofed with tung oil and transported to warehouses at
the seaports. Here it is crudely separated into different grades, the
highest being the lightest in color, and tested for purity. When
prices are high tung oil is subject to adulteration with other oils,
such as tea-seed, sesame, and peanut oils.
In recent years modern expeller mills have been established in
China. In America it has been found that by coarsely crushing
the seeds and drying them so that the moisture content is reduced to
7 or 8 per cent, it is possible to express the oil with expellers, thus
producing a press cake which does not contain more than 5 per cent
of oil. When sound nuts or seeds are expressed cold in the expeller.
a very pale oil is obtained. Hot pressing yields a somewhat darker
product.
i.
¢}
9)
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS 29
USES f
Tung oil has a strong laxative action, which makes it unfit for
edible purposes. Being a drying oil, it is used chiefly in making
varnishes, enamels, and floor and wall paints. In China it is also
employed for waterproofing paper and fabrics. ‘The so-called spar
varnishes, which are not discolored when wet, consist largely of tung
oil and rosin glyceride (ester gum). |
The press cake, being unfit for cattle food, is used as a fertilizer
or for fuel. |
CANDLENUT OR LUMBANG OIL
Candlenut oil is obtained from the kernels of the nuts of a large
tree (Aleurites moluccana) growing in the Philippines, Polynesia,
the Malayan region, the Hawaiian Islands, and other tropical coun-
tries. These kernels contain from 50 to more than 60 per cent of oil.
The Hawaiians formerly strung the nuts on slender bamboos and
used them for hghting their huts. This gave rise to the name “ can-
dlenut.” Some candlenut oil is imported from the Philippines into
the United States.
The nuts have very hard shells which are difficult to crack. It is
difficult also to separate the kernels from the shells. The procedure
which yields the better grades of oil is to crack the dried nuts by
hand and pick out the kernels with a pointed instrument, a slow and
tedious operation. The kernels are crushed and pressed hot, for the
most part in primitive mills. Cold pressing yields a much lighter-
colored oil.
In some localities large quantities of the nuts are collected in shal-
low pits and covered with straw, which is set on fire. The hot nuts
are sprinkled with cold water, thus causing the shells to crack. In
other places the nuts are boiled for several hours with water, which
effects the separation of the kernels from the shells, and then cracked
by hand. During this treatment the color of the kernels changes from
white to brown, so that only a dark oil can be obtained from them.
In the Philippines the oil is used for the manufacture of paint,
varnish, and soap. Candlenut oil, unlike tung oil, does not solidify
when heated to 482° F. Extensive experiments in the Philippines
have indicated that the oil can be used for any purpose for which
linseed oil is now employed. As the press cake is poisonous, its only
use is as a fertilizer.
PERILLA OIL
Perilla oil is obtained from the seeds of plants of several species, in-
eluding Perilla nankinensis and ocymoides L., which grow in China,
- Japan, Manchuria, and eastern and northern India. The commercial
oil seems to be obtained chiefly from P. ocymoides, the seeds of which
are about as large as mustard seeds and average 35 per cent in oil.
It is reported that a yield of 20 bushels of seed per acre is obtained in
Japan. The variety P. nankinensis appears to have been employed
in all the experiments on the culture of perilla conducted in the
United States. As perilla seeds have not been produced in commer-
cial quantities in the United States, all the perilla oil used here is
imported from the Orient.
26 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Perilla oil resembles linseed oil in odor and taste and has the prop-
erty of absorbing more iodine than any other vegetable oil. The
crude oil generally is dark yellow or greenish. For a long time it was
considered to have drying properties inferior to those of linseed oil,
because on drying it separated into drops when spread on a surface.
With lead and manganese driers the oil dried unevenly in drops and
streaks. Further study of the oil has shown several treatments which
will make it dry evenly. When heated to about 482° F. for a short
time or when blown with air at a temperature of about 257° F. for
several hours, the oil no longer dries in droplets. Cobalt driers used
with perilla oil in making paint or varnish make them dry quickly
without any indication of streaks or unevenness. Furthermore,
paints and varnishes made with perilla oil are said to have as much
or more endurance than those made with linseed oil. Perilla oil,
refined with sulphuric acid or caustic soda, is employed in the manu-
facture of light-colored varnishes.
The countries which produce perilla oil use it as a food and also
for technical purposes, mainly in the manufacture of paints, var-
nishes, printers’ inks, and linoleum. It has been employed for many
years in waterproofing paper and in making the cheaper grades of
lacquers. In America and Europe it is used only for technical
urposes.
peek HEMPSEED OIL
Hempseed oil is obtained from a plant (Cannabis sativa) which
is cultivated for fiber and oil and as a drug. ‘The plant is grown
for fiber in India, Manchuria, and Kurope and, on a comparatively
small scale, in the United States. It is grown for the production of
oil in China, Japan, Manchuria, and at times in Italy, France, and
Russia. Large quantities of hempseed are imported into this coun-
try from the Orient for use as birdseed and poultry feed. The
domestic seed is used primarily for planting, because the imported
seed is not satisfactory for this purpose. 3
Hempseed contains about 380 per cent of oil, which when ex-
pressed or extracted by solvents has a greenish color.
Hempseed oil is employed chiefly as a paint oil, but in some coun-
tries it is used as a lamp oil or converted into a dark-green soft soap.
Its drying power is not so pronounced as that of linseed oil.
POPPY-SEED OIL
Poppy seed, which contains usually from 45 to 50 per cent of oil,
‘is grown in Europe, Asia Minor, Persia, India, and Egypt. It may
be white, gray, blue, or red. The poppy seed imported into the
United States is used chiefty for culinary purposes. The importa-
tion of poppy-seed oil is very erratic, ranging from a few gallons up
to more than 18,000 gallons per year.
The pale cold-pressed oil, known on the market as white poppy-
seed oil, has good keeping qualities. That expressed hot, commonly
after the cold expression of the seed, is known as red poppy-seed
oil. The white oil is used chiefly for edible purposes, although some
is employed in the preparation of artists’ paints. The lower grades
are used for soap making. In most countries the press or oil cake
is used as a cattle food; in India it is used as food for the poorer
classes,
(}
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS OT.
ANIMAL FATS AND OILS
The composition of any animal fat or oil is influenced by the
inherent variations of animal fats and also by the food eaten by
the animal, so that they vary more widely in composition than do
the vegetable oils. Like the nondrying vegetable oils, most land-
animal fats do not easily absorb oxygen, but, like the drying vege-
table oils, most marine-animal oils readily absorb oxygen.
MILK FAT
Milk fat is the most universally and extensively produced fat.
In the United States the yearly production of this fat, in the form
of butter, cheese, ice cream, and butter substitutes, amounts to about
8,000,000,000 pounds. |
Butter is an emulsion of milk fat and water containing small
quantities of casein, milk sugar, and inorganic salts. The legal
requirement is that it shall contain at least 80 per cent of milk fat.
The butter substitutes now on the American market are of two
classes—true oleomargarine, which contains oleo oil and neutral lard,
and vegetable or nut margarines, which contain no animal fats other
than that in the ripened milk used. Margarines of both types show
a wide variation in composition. Not only are the formulas the
secret of each manufacturer, but the ingredients in a given brand
may vary with the season and with the fluctuations in the market
price of the fats and oils used. All are made according to the same
general procedure.
LARD
In making kettle-rendered lard the leaf fat is pulled from the
warm carcasses of hogs and immediately chilled. When thoroughly
cooled, the fat is hashed and heated in steam-jacketed kettles until
the oil separates from the tissues. It is then salted and allowed to
stand in a melted condition until the fine particles of membrane
settle. After the lard has been freed from all particles, it is packed
in shipping packages and placed in cold storage. The cracklings, or
residue left after rendering, are either pressed to obtain the residual
lard or placed in the steam lard tanks. This rendering of lard in
steam-jacketed kettles is merely a modification adapted to plant
production of the old. home procedure of making lard by cooking
the hog fat in a large pan or kettle over an open fire or on a stove.
Neutral lard, or neutral, as the packers call it, is made by cooking
the first grade of leaf fat in much the same manner as the kettle-
rendered lard, but at.a lower temperature (126° to 128° F.), so that
it retains practically no hog flavor. It is used in the manufacture
of oleomargarine.
Steam lard is rendered by live steam. The chopped fat is charged
into steel tanks. After the covers have been fastened down, live
steam is admitted through the bottoms of the tanks until the lard
has separated from the tissues or fat membranes. The water and
solids are then allowed to settle, after which the lard is drawn off
from the water and solid residue. As some darkening of the lard
occurs during the cooking and its flavor is frequently strong, it is
customary to bleach and deodorize it in a manner similar to the
treatment of cottonseed oil (p. 7).
28 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Lard oil is made by chilling melted lard until the stearin has
separated. The stearin, which is removed from the liquid portion
or olein by pressing, is often added to whole lard to make it firmer
in summer and some is also employed in making lard compound.
The olein constitutes the lard oil, which is used in signal lights
and miners’ lamps and also as a lubricant.
BEEF TALLOW
The handling and rendering of beef fat in the packing house are
similar to those employed in making lard. A larger proportion of
lard than of tallow is made in open kettles, however. Practically
the entire output of tallow from the smaller packing houses is either
sold as such or is mixed with cottonseed or other vegetable oil to
make “ compound,” a product used for shortening.
The larger meat packers separate the edible tallow into oleo oil
and stearin by the graining process. This consists in placing the
melted tallow in truck tanks, which are then wheeled into the grain-
ing room, where they remain at the crystallizing temperature of
the stearin for a day or longer. Then the semisolid mass is pressed
in hydraulic or lever presses, kept at the same temperature as the
tallow being grained. The solid cakes of stearin are removed from
the presses, melted, and stored in barrels until used for making
lard substitutes. The barreled oleo oil is either exported or made
into oleomargarine.
Tallow of the inedible grades is used in making candles, soap,
leather dressings, and lubricating greases.
MUTTON TALLOW
Mutton tallow is obtained by rendering the fat of sheep and
lambs. It closely resembles beef tallow, except that as a rule it is
somewhat harder. When melted with beef tallow, it is sold as
“mixed tallow.” Because of its pronounced flavor and odor it is
not employed in the manufacture of oleomargarine or even in high- ©
class toilet soap. Also it has a greater tendency to become rancid
than beef tallow.
WHALE OIL
Whale oil is obtained chiefly trom the blubber of the whales of
the genus Balena, which includes the right or Greenland whale.
Formerly the blubber was tried on board the whaling vessels by
being heated in kettles placed over a fire. The oil thus produced
was frequently of low quality, and much was lost because the fatty
tissue residues were not pressed. Whenever possible, the whaling |
ships now bring the catch to trying stations on the coasts.
In the most modern plants the blubber is stripped clean from the
flesh as soon as the whale is delivered. The blubber is minced
and rendered in the same manner as tallow and other animal fats,
except that the process is frequently conducted in several stages,
using a higher temperature at each successive step. The oil ob-
tained at the lower temperatures is of the better grade. Finally
the flesh and the bones are heated in pressure digesters to obtain
the low-grade oil. The quality of the oil varies not only with the
methods of extraction but also with the condition of the whale.
)
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS 29
Norwegian whalers have recently made another advance in the
industry by sending out mother ships with the whaling fleets. The
mother ships are floating trying stations, furnished with modern
equipment adequate to handle the whale while it is still fresh. The
oil thus obtained is of fine quality. :
In Norway large quantities of this oil, when hydrogenated, are used
to make margarine. In the United States a great deal is employed in
making various kinds of soap, including a textile soap. Formerly
the oil was so poor in quality and so inefficiently refined that it could
not be used in making the better grades of soap. Now that the oil
can be refined, bleached, deodorized, and hydrogenated, however, it is
used successfully in making a white odorless soap. In some coun-
tries it is still used as a burning oil, as a batching oil for jute, and for
tempering steel.
PORPOISE OILS
There are two porpoise oils—one obtained from the head and the
other from the blubber of the porpoise. A quantity of head oil is
prepared in America for lubricating watches, clocks, and other deli-
cate instruments. The blubber yields an oil which is inferior to head
oil for lubricating purposes, but which after suitable treatment may
be used as a lubricant.
BONE FAT
Bone fat is a by-product in the manufacture of animal charcoal
and the production of glue and gelatin. The degreasing of the bones
is the first step in these processes. The fat is either separated from
the bones by heating with steam, preferably under pressure, or by
solvent extraction, in which case a larger yield of fat is obtained.
When fresh bones are used the recovered fat has a white to a light-
yellow color and a faint odor and taste. It is sold as butter-stock
tallow. ;
Bone fat is grained, in the same manner as tallow, for the prepara-
tion of bone oil. This is used as a lubricant and for other purposes
for which neat’s-foot oil is employed. Bone fat of suitable quality is
also used in soap making.
NEAT’S-FOOT OIL
Most of the neat’s-foot oil produced is a by-product from the large
beef-packing establishments.
The feet from the slaughtered animals are cleaned and left in hot
water for 10 or 15 minutes. The hoofs are separated by a special
machine called the hoof puller, and the feet are then boiled with
water. The oil which rises to the surface is removed by skimmers,
filtered, and separated as completely as possle from the water.
The residual moisture is removed by heating the oil in a tank provided
with steam coils. This treatment causes the coagulation and pre-
cipitation of organic matter, which is removed by filtration. The
finished oil is pale yellow and has a bland taste.
Oil of the better grades is used for lubricating clocks and other
delicate machinery. Neat’s-foot oil is used extensively in the leather
industry as “fat liquoring” in the production of the lhghtweight
grades of leather. ,
Neat’s-foot oil is frequently adulterated with oil from the feet of
other animals and also with other oils.
30 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
FISH OILS
Menhaden oil is obtained from menhaden caught off the Atlantic
coast of the United States from about May until November. The
fish are delivered by automatic conveyors in a comparatively fresh
condition from the steamers to the plant, where they are weighed,
transferred to tanks, and cooked with steam. After cooking the fish
scrap is allowed to settle and the oil to rise. The oil is separated
from the water and clarified. The scrap is removed from the settling
tank, pressed to further extract the oil, and dried. This oil is of a
lower grade than that first obtained and is kept by itself. Oil from
fresh fish is hght colored. The longer the fish are kept before
extracting the oil the darker the oil will be. The better grades of
oil are wintered (p. 7) to separate the stearin, and some is bleached
with fuller’s earth to produce what is known in the trade as bleached
winter white oil. Menhaden oil is used for currying leather, in the
preparation of chamois skins, for tempering steel, for making soap,
and for manufacturing paints, printing inks, and insecticide emul-
sions. Sulphonated menhaden and other fish oils are employed
chiefly by the textile and leather industries. The dried scrap is sold
as a feed or as a fertilizer. |
Salmon oil, a by-product from the north Pacific canning industry,
is exported in large quantities from British Columbia to England.
The entire fish contains about 20 per cent of oil. The oil is obtained
from the parts of the fish not suitable for canning. Like other fish
oils, it is used principally by the soap and leather industries,
Herring oil, made in Great Britain, Japan, and Norway, has poor
drying properties. It is used largely by the leather industry.
FISH-LIVER OILS
For centuries cod-liver oil has been prepared from cod livers on
the coasts of Japan and the Scandinavian Peninsula. A great deal
is now made in Newfoundland.
By the old method the livers, collected in barrels or vats, were
allowed to rot while they were exposed to the air until the oil floated
to the top. It could then be removed. Another process, which was
used later, consisted in trying out the oil in pans over open fires.
The oil made by either process was very unpalatable. About 1850
the steaming method had come into use in Newfoundland and Nor- —
way. The oil first separated from fresh livers by modern equipment
in clean establishments is of fine quality, both in color and flavor.
This oil varies from a very light to a golden-yellow color.
The electrolytic process recently developed for extracting cod-liver
and other oils consists in passing the minced fresh livers, suspended
in brine heated to about 155° F., through a series of cells, composed
of pipes containing carbon rods. The electric current, passing be-
tween the carbon electrodes and the pipes, through the brine solution
containing the livers, breaks the oil cells and liberates the oil. The
oil is separated from the brine and solids by centrifuges. Three
minutes after the livers have entered the cells the oil is obtained from
the separators.
For the production of medicinal cod-liver oil, the crude oil is
clarified by filtration and sometimes bleached. Itisthen put through
a wintering process (p. 7) to separate the stearin. |
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS ol
The genera’ use of cod-liver oil in the treatment of malnutrition
and associated diseases is comparatively recent, although cod livers
and the oil from them have been used for centuries as a medicine.
At one time the low-grade, dark oil was believed to be more valu-
able than the light-colored oil obtained from fresh livers. The light-
colored oil is now considered better. .
Low-quality cod-liver oils are employed chiefly by the leather
industry.
The oil extracted from the livers of various species of dogfish,
sharks, and rays is used chiefly for technical purposes. The extrac-
tion of shark-liver oil, practiced for a long time in the Orient, par-
ticularly on the coasts of Japan, has recently become an established
industry at several places on the Atlantic seaboard of the United
States. :
WAXES
BEESWAX
The worker bees secret beeswax, which constitutes the honeycomb.
ee color of the crude beeswax ranges from light yellow to orange
red.
Most of the methods for rendering the wax are based on melting
it and either allowing the impurities to settle or removing them by
filtration. Large producers grade the combs before they render the
wax, separating those of better quality from the older and discolored
combs. The modern commercial method consists of melting the
comb freed from honey, removing the larger impurities, and press-
ing the molten wax in a warm press. The residue is heated and
pressed once or twice more in order to obtain as much of the wax
as possible. Small producers boil the wax with water and allow the
mixture to stand until the impurities have settled and the wax has
risen to the surface. The wax may be skimmed off at once or allowed
to solidify, in which state it can be more completely removed. When
necessary the treatment with boiling water is repeated once or several
times to further purify the wax. The wax obtained by any of these
methods constitutes the yellow beeswax of commerce.
Crude beeswax varies in character and composition with the race
of the bees, the variety of pollen which they consume, and the care
used in preparation. The lghter-colored waxes, which may be
readily bleached, are more valuable than darker-colored waxes.
Crude beeswax of good quality has a sweet characteristic odor, is
brittle when cold, and exhibits on fracture a coarse granular struc-
ture. Bleached wax is more brittle than the unbleached and shows a
smooth, nongranular fracture. ere
Beeswax is bleached either by exposing it in the form of thin rib-
bons to moisture and sunlight or by treating it with ozone, hydrogen
peroxide, or other chemical bleaching agent. The satisfactory chemi-
cal bleaching of the wax requires suitable equipment and much expe-
rience. Beeswax from some sources can never be more than partially
bleached. Bleached wax of good quality is either white or very light
vellow.
: Beeswax is used chiefly in making polishes, modeling wax, and
candles. Smaller quantities are used in pharmaceutical preparations,
for treating leathers, and for waterproofing.
32 BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
CARNAUBA WAX
Carnauba wax is exuded by the leaves of the carnauba palm
(Copernicia cerifera), which grows in the hot dry sections of north-
eastern Brazil. Brazil produces about 5,000 tons of the wax a year.
The leaves are dried by exposure to the sun for several days. ‘Then
the wax is brushed and scraped from them. About 70 leaves yield a
pound of wax. The separated wax is placed in boiling water, and in
a short time it collects at thé surface in the form of a doughlike mass,
which, after cooling, is removed. The crude wax is refined b
remelting in water. Some of it is bleached by treatment with fuller’s
earth or other bleaching agent. To facilitate bleaching, it is cus-
tomary to mix the wax with 2 to 5 per cent of paraffin wax. Con-
sequently the finished product melts at a somewhat lower temperature
than the unbleached wax. —
Carnauba wax is graded according to its quality and color, the
chalky wax being the lowest and cheapest grade. It is used in mak-
ing candles, polishes, and phonograph records, and for waterproofing.
CANDELILLA WAX
Candelilla wax is obtained from a plant belonging to the Kuphor-
biacez family and growing in the semiarid regions of northern
Mexico and southern Texas. The plant consists of a bundle of
slender, leafless stalks, 2 to 4 feet high, which are coated with a
grayish-green wax. It contains from 2 to 5 per cent of wax.
Several boiling or steaming methods and one based on the extrac-
tion of this wax with volatile solvents have been patented. The
customary procedure for obtaining the wax is to boil the dried plants,
one or two weeks after they have been gathered, for 5 or 10 minutes
with water acidified with sulphuric acid, which facilitates the separa-
tion of the wax from the stalks. The wax, which rises to the sur-
face, is removed by skimming. Sometimes the skimmed wax is
placed in steam-heated vats until most of the water is removed. The
wax is then drawn into large pans and allowed to harden. The dirt
and plant débris, which settle to the bottom of the cakes of wax, are
cut off and returned to a small refining vat for the recovery of more
wax. The yield of wax by this method ranges from 1.5 to 2.5 per -
cent.
Candelilla wax, which is hard and light brown in color, is used in
making polishes, leather dressings, and candles and as an insulating
material.
: MONTAN WAX
Montan wax, produced chiefly in Saxony and Bohemia, is obtained
by extracting dried lignite by volatile solvents under pressure. The
crude wax varies in color, but the refined wax is pale yellow. The
wax is hard and brittle and breaks with a conchoidal fracture. Its
melting point varies from 168.8° F. to about 194° F. The wax is
used in manufacturing shoe and other polishes, cable insulations,
and phonograph records, and for treating leather.
Chlorinated montan wax made by a patented process is employed
for insulation purposes and as a substitute for beeswax in Great
Britain.
()
‘3
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS 30
SUGAR-CANE WAX
Sugar-cane wax, which is on the outside of the sugar canes, is
a by-product from the manufacture of sugar. Java and Natal are
the principal producers. Sometimes this wax is.imported into the
United States, but the bulk of the production is used in Europe.
By one of the several methods of preparation which have been
patented the canes are propelled through a tank of hot water and
the wax which rises to the surface of the water is made to float over
the top of the tank into a vat, where it is recovered. By another
process the wax is extracted from the filter-press residues obtained
from liming the juice. The crude wax is usually dark brown or
dark green and is very difficult to bleach.
Sugar-cane wax is used in making polishes and for insulation.
For some purposes it can be used in place of carnauba and montan
Waxes. :
WOOL WAX (GREASE)
Wool grease is composed of wax, cholesterol, free fatty acids, and
the potassium salts of fatty acids (soaps).
During the preparation of raw wool for spinning the grease and
dirt are removed, usually by washing with solutions of soap and
sodium carbonate, although in some plants extraction by volatile
solvents is employed. When the extraction method is used, it is 1m-
portant not to extract all of the grease. Complete extraction causes
injury to the fiber by the solvent. In the washing process it is now
common to pass the wash water through specially designed centrifu-
gals to separate the wax, using the soapy water for further washing.
This practice saves soap by increasing the quantity of potassium
soaps obtained from the repeated treatment of fresh lots of raw
wool. Sometimes these wash waters are utilized for the production
of potassium carbonate and other potassium salts. The crude wool
wax is purified either by repeated treatment with hot water or by
pressing in a hydraulic press after any adhering soluble soap has
been removed. The refined product is on the market in two forms,
the hydrated form being known as lanolin.
Owing to its property of forming an emulsion with water and to
the ease with which it is absorbed by the skin, the refined wax is
used as a basis for ointments, salves, and cosmetics. The crude prod-
uct, known in commerce as wool grease, is used in stuffing leather, in
cordage manufacture, and in the preparation of lithograph inks.
SPERM OIL (WAX)
Sperm oil is obtained from the head cavities and blubber of the
sperm whale or cachalot. After being received at the refinery the oil
is subjected to a graining process (p. 28). Crude sperm oil yields
10 to 11 per cent of spermaceti. The liquid portion or oil is used for
lubrication purposes. The solid residue is crude spermaceti, which,
after being refined, is used chiefly in making candles and cosmetics.
Sperm oil is a liquid wax and the commercial product contains
only very small quantities of glycerides. The oil from the smaller
bottlenose whale, known as Arctic sperm oil, is similar to that from
the sperm whale. On account of its more pronounced tendency to
34
2
BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICYLTURE
gum when used for lubrication purposes, however, it brings a lower
price.
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION STATISTICS
Table 1 shows the quantities of fats and oils produced and con-
sumed in the United States from 1921 to 1925, inclusive.
shows the quantities of oil-producing seeds imported into the United
States during the same period, and Table 3 shows the quantities of
raw materials used in the production of oils in this country from
1921 to 1925, inclusive. All the figures given are taken from the re-
ports issued by the Bureau of the Census of the United States De-
partment of Commerce.
Table 2
TABLE 1.—Production, consumption, and importation of fats and oils in the
United States, 1921-1925
Product
Cottonseed oil:
Cruden Bes AEE Es Be
Foots or sulphur oil___--|_-
Palm-kerne! oil:
Rapeseed oil... 224-2222 2s
WUINSCCG Oe Ao ee Se ae
China-wood or tung oil____--
CWastorvonesss wwe Gs wee news
Palm sGsen eas weregs bb alee
Chinese vegetable tallow __-_-_-
Fish oils:
All other (including
marine animal)___.__--
Animal fats:
Neat’s-foot oil_....-..._-
Greases (partia!)—
Wool grease_____.---
White tbe tc aces eh
Production
1925 1924 1923
Pounds Pounds Pounds
1, 510, 802, 294
1, 345, 461, 442
15, 156, 315
8, 331, 570
207, 604, 172
197, 118, 259
104, 153, 260
79, 624, 310
2, 519, 938
513, 610
1, 070, 790
46, 618, 856
8, 071, 110
41, 741, 242
1, 090, 099
2, 571, 408
46, 628, 612
1, 506, 892, 385
50, 215,381
378, 471, 536
9, 247, 315
4, 474, 673
73, 097, 022
64, 457, 211
40, 589, 623
24, 476, 482
1, 154, 433, 880
1, 056, 673, 231
6, 691, 244
6, 109, 531
191, 357, 413
178, 719, 921
117, 064, 953
93, 921, 515
950, 437
1, 797, 085
1, 509, 412
632, 216
30, 000
705, 585, 985
798, 112
29, 429, 280
8, 562, 712
27, 470, 347
758, 557
2, 065, 702
68, 323, 719
1, 934, 545, 302
51, 675, 829
388, 295, 393
8, 505, 673
4, 333, 878
93, 630, 359
71, 200, 443
43, 776, 688
26, 761, 712
973, 753, 164
857, 979, 352
5, 358, 647
5, 956, 409
235, 918, 724
172, 381, 589
111, 343, 267
82, 887, 570
1, 404; 035
2, 567, 769
573, 867
707, 955
55, 960, 238
10, 097, 670
14, 337, 532
1, 578, 555
2, 621, 558
60, 960, 546
| 1, 944, 862, 331
52, 923, 030
384, 045, 626
8, 397, 530
7, 313, 876
97, 500, 001
67, 356, 983
56, 253, 331
27, 992, 177
1922
Pounds
934, 627, 442
827, 204, 553
22, 644, 253
23, 472, 252
185, 526, 073
135, 242, 528
111, 508, 447
85, 569, 288
751, 108
3, 217, 796
584, 883
800, 294
58, 125
456, 514, 418
_ 536, 542
58, 270, 078
13, 972, 612
6, 594, 152
2, 880, 975
1, 761, 722
49, 431, 962
1, 575, 639, 547
49, 108, 268
362, 817, 541
8, 806, 999
4, 114, 600
82, 305, 027
56, 929, 003
43, 373, 507
27, 324, 784
Pounds
1, 277, 300, 130
1, 185, 909, 960
1921
33, 233, 378
34, 200, 050
113, 194, 282
122, 675, 416
87, 480, 934
61, 426, 528
5, 656, 166
974, 425,
1, 327, 382
978, 965
127, 905
482, 917, 742
373, 920
49, 953, 565
2, 657, 790
2, 128, 612
1, 265, 468.
2, 285, 325
63, 110, 364
1, 454, 854, 775
41, 237, 809
326, 905, 156
6, 953, 795
6, 076, 080
65, 526, 980
45,914, 431
33, 685, 444
26, 775, 547
¢ >
)
dy
PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS
35°
TaBLeE 1.—Production, consumption, and importation of fats and oils in the
United States, 1921—1925—Continued
——————
Consumption
Product
1925 1924 1923 1922 1921
Cottonseed oil: Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
Wider ita Wee wl ee 1, 475, 322, 331 | 1, 163, 820, 744 | 934, 994, 608 | 895, 161, 564 | 1, 295, 740, 304
Ricrune de eee 09 age ale 1, 161, 115, 204 779, 858, 005 | 675, 245, 550 | 734, 068, 771 895, 032, 630
Peanut oil:
Cri dears Bes YS eRe 10; 323, 544 8, 650, 913 7, 504, 233 28, 372, 261 42, 542, 807
Refined elem e ee Sa ee 8, 800, 662 5, 683, 564 7, 548, 428 28, 907, 302 34, 686, 139
Coconut oil:
Cride We se en 2 eee 385, 454, 710 363, 770, 156 | 360, 002, 327 | 305, 330, 218 235, 090, 359
G Hetined oie oe hc oe Vo eS 205, 776, 941 210, 900, 864 | 211, 940,058 | 165, 080, 442 139, 417, 771
orn oil:
Cruden tress ers a ee 102, 189, 998 114, 161, 763 | 103, 068, 067 | 106, 097, 173 71, 898, 447
Jaen tia (Xo eee a a ae i 10, 403, 096 13, 987,412 | 18,596,367 | 28, 287, 639 7, 766, 123
Soy-bean oil:
Wri de Se Paes LE Woke 11, 328, 771 10, 749,346 | 19,341,400 | 17,570, 440 28, 822, 307
TRYE9 0G 0(2(0 Pare y gels elena ine eee 6, 501, 481 5, 882, 260 6, 762, 002 4, 601, 115 10, 526, 957
Olive oil:
HEY Ifo Le ee cycteuee elt it face ae 2, 345, 817 2, 862, 295 2, 157, 778 3, 678, 416 2, 515, 468
Foots or sulphur oil________-_ . 28, 963, 212 22, 197,514 | 24,831,718 | 22,190, 152 11, 546, 001
Palm-kernel oil:
(OlDTG Fs ese RE ea ND Shanon et 50, 990, 646 5, 361, 849 4, 529, 899 1, 922, 941 2, 657, 821
EUG fim Gee eee yar esac 4, 416, 658 206, 198 398, 354 194, 372 1, 838, 730
Rapeseed olson Saye a ay 11, 478, 552 12, 200, 129 11, 439, 298 10, 159, 389 7, 445, 428
anseeayorles Noe see eee 413, 942, 837 381, 407, 503 | 381, 245,301 | 344, 362, 688 242, 721, 325
China-wood or tung oil__________ 87, 881, 315 70, 529,915 | 72,333,664 | 62, 855, 998 35, 965, 800
CWastoroilte.- ta ase eye ne oun se Ee 16, 304, 612 14, 813, 229 16, 733, 979 12, 075, 138 6, 442, 055
Ralmyolbec esas ie Oe eae 109, 824, 921 78, 656,193 | 114,385,473 | 48, 961, 819 22, 826, 725
eines vegetable tallow________ 8, 328, 592 6, 630, 522 5, 562, 327 4, 086, 666 2, 876, 501
sh oils:
Wou-livers cose 12, 281, 149 11, 585, 447 11, 736, 936 15, 273, 866 8, 347, 417
Menhadent ase ee 48, 473, 310 34, 288,576 | 55,373,236 | 36,135, 978 60, 693, 254
RV eee aia ad | 52, 661, 795 40, 454, 865 38, 302, 824 51, 141, 796 5, 621, 410
Herring (including sardine) .) 31, 859, 086 26, 228, 0386 | 11, 098, 945 4, 775, 585 951, 887
| 3(59 4 0 CRE Ai Reo 2 ae aes wa 1, 573, 918 1, 128, 341 1, 150, 223 |. 1,.467,.247 1, 820, 025
All other (including marine |
AMT) EL eeet eas ee B 7, 474, 665 2, 581, 104 1, 088, 235 | 1, 257, 627 2, 526, 783
Animal fats:
Lard—
Nieutralliunes cas eo ie 26, 096, 239 29, 770,088 | 31, 230,340 ; 29,344, 859 29, 490, 281
Other/edible.2s 2585 2 8 14, 548, 792 21, 226, 673 25, 353, 148 28, 837, 168 110, 037, 581
ow:
Midible tums tea Shas Fae 38, 850, 912 33, 684, 686 34, 765, 963 26, 418, 921 23, 587, 483
Imediblevee sete soo ese 478, 960, 645 516, 440, 781 | 465, 868, 998 | 463, 925, 337 398, 670, 773
INGat?s-f00b ollie 5, 877, 586 6, 321, 808 6, 743, 461 5 i 3, 509, 222.
Greases (partial)—
FOOMETeASG Se Wo eae Ss 4, 254, 402 4, 603, 045 3, 630, 245 2, 753, 121 1, 544, 301
WaT Ger: Pater ee 24, 858, 880 45, 217, 261 59, 727, 341 51, 469, 261 38, 947, 944
DEL OW LiGES ee er EG 78, 401, 045 60, 040, 415 57, 083, 050 56, 380, 038 36, 423, 957°
1 SV HON 0 puta Sag Ne Lie ee 27, 345, 821 29, 029, 523 39, 683, 343 36, 254, 652 31, 820, 237
BONG eee ses se eed 748, 466 1, 880, 772 1, 773, 618 3, 273, 242 3, 214, 920
Imports
Product
1925 1924 1923 1922 1921
Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds .
Cotbtonscedtoli(crude) i225 = oa 2 eS ea sh Wee 25, 044 20, 77 668, 551
Peanwu oll (crude). 2-2 2222 le 3, 026, 950 15, 394, 836 8, 008, 622 | 2, 469, 938 3, 020, 505
Coconut oil (crude) ____-.--_--_-- 233, 174,452 | 222,793,441 | 181,882,149 | 227,320, 096 189, 716, 814
Soy-bean oil (crude) ______.____-_- 19, 492, 900 9, 125, 158 41, 679, 110 17, 325, 496 17, 282, 967
Olive oil:
TBO Hp (Ses ee 90, 426, 346 76, 186, 446 77, 190, 457 61, 186, 645 49, 710, 742
Foots or sulphur oil__-_____- 40, 822, 557 24, 678, 006 40, 604, 535 26, 787, 795 19, 028, 222
Palm-kernel oil (crude) _________- 52, 624, 334 4 CAP DOT | ee eS 1, 714, 880 2, 383, 483
RAD eSeeGrOlle soak 12, 735, 195 17, 362, 080 15, 932, 475 10, 860, 765 7, 151, 917
erm SCeGudtlesn = ey ohare e eS 138, 607, 141 13, 247, 190 43, 096, 714 144, 136, 792 60, 090, 712:
China-wood or tung oil_____-____- 101, 553, 519 81, 587, 854 87, 291, 675 79, 089, 292 27, 248, 888
IBalergo ieee er Ta 139, 178, 587 | 101,779,802 | 128, 494, 679 57, 516, 079 23, 155, 230
Chinese vegetable tallow_-_--___. 6, 423, 896 5, 196, 904 SNORT OE ooe tess Ree Ae ee Ree
ish oils: ;
COGRIV eT ea ei atte en. 28 22, 316, 678 21, 349, 410 17, 374, 237 | 18, 571, 085 16, 567, 732
Vig Set ee Cae ad eee 55, 495, 290 38, 057, 032 ph) WASPS Wel ME SURGE Ran ER ME
Herring (including sardine) _- 6, 194, 962 5, 635, 305 OE STO NOZD eee Ss Fe a SU Sa eae nn
Animal fats:
Tallow (inedible)_..--._----- 2, 723, 804 38, 417, 936 11, 373, 792 1, 831, 527 1, 868, 412
Waoolerease 2-223 2-253. 10, 068, 425 IOS GRSOS nee ee ae To a ee
36 . BULLETIN 1475, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
TABLE 2.—Oil-producing seeds imported into the United States, 1921—1925*
Quantity imported
Product
1925 1924 1923 1922 1921
Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
CASTOT DEATS 42 28 eae eee me oe 107, 231, 669 84, 977, 470 88, 539, 306 81, 673, 345 33, 639, 800
GODT AY GA ENA Beet ie e SNoL e 364, 079, 144 | 291, 064, 369 332, 984, 498 | 268, 956, 000 189, 320, 000
WoOpLOnsSee OG. aeoe eae ee ee 63, 831, 982 95, 052, 650 68, 761, 608 68, 762, 000 82, 598, 000
faxsee Ge 2. Saree eee 924, 542,416 | 928, 980, 640 | 1, 362, 608,128 | 835, 138, 000 690, 269, 664
Infempseed sui ae ees ee 4, 018, 144 4, 523, 195 2, 558, 245 4, 180, 000 1, 142, 000
Palm nuts and kernels_____---_- 56, 856 16,529 742, 401 188, 000 230, 000
Perilla and sesame_______-----_- 3, 900, 958 13, 865, 986 13, 650, 480 366, 000 242, 000
TELO) G) ON PALES 0 MM eee Se Na) Dec 3, 914, 660 4, 968, 263 6, 291, 437 5, 256, 000 4, 828, 000
Rane seed 22.4: Sane eo eee 7, 457, 645 4, 843, 236 8, 385, 007 6, 336, 000 5, 114, 000
SOyIDedNSek Swe ee eek ees 3, 811, 897 4, 184, 120 3, 648, 243 3, 536, 000 3, 946, 000
Sunflower seed_.__--.-=.-_---.- 430, 591 1, 089, 092 5, 677, 525 12, 000 None.
@thercolseedS: 2 tse ee: 160,177 278, 987 2A7, 131 4, 614, 000 13, 554, 000
|
1 These seeds were not used exclusively for oil production.
TABLE 3.—Raw materials used in production of oils in the United States,
1921-1925
Quantity used
Product
1925 1924 1923 1922 1921
Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
Cottonseed) Sais, ee 10, 159, 512, 000 | 7, 717, 584, G00 | 6, 403, 446, 000 | 6, 085, 866, 000 | 8, 060, 298, 000
Peanuts:
Shelied= 22 2a Sak ey a 39, 062, 000 17, 998, 000 16, 000, 000 20, 648, 000 21, 990, 000
Tse] ese ee ee 9, 208, 060 2, 746, 000 9, 622, 000 57, 016, 000 91, 718, 000
CPopratss amb ee eae 321, 412, 000 296, 530, 000 369, 962, 000 287, 044, 000 172, 200, 000
Coconuts and skins__________ 5, 206, 000 4, 088, 000 4, 632, 000 5, 232, 000 5, 758, 900
Cornigerms2.) see BO. wel 38 392, 256, 000 425, 668, 000 321, 144, 000 306, 306, 900 246, 640, 000
Gastombeansee === ee 99, 842, 000 84, 948, 000 88, 820, 000 72, 140, 000 46, 228, 000
Flaxseed_____------_-._-_____] 2,310, 768, 000 | 2, 182, 962,000 | 1,913, 736, 000 | 1, 357, 118, 000 | 1, 457, 458, 000
Olives: sites Se AG Sab as, 3, 858, 000 11, 568, 000 4, 396, 000 4, 020, 000 6, 582, 000
Mustard seed 22. Ato. _- 3, 592, 000 2, 596, 000 4, 080, 000 3, 600, 600 6, 144, 000
Palmkermels cs 22 oe a a | Ne a | as ee 1, 942, 000
Rapeisecd Js 2= = ios. SACs Bis od Ie EY a ee ee 598, 000
SoyWeans. 222 fie Dae a 20, 338, 000 7, 448, 000 9, 050, 000 5, 956,000": nek = eee
Othersecds-2- Sots sae ee 1, 360, 090 25, 160, 000 12, 272, 000 9, 816, 000 742, 000
rrr
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